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VECTOR ANALYSIS 1
Appendix D
Vector Analysis
The following conventions are used in this appendix and throughout the book:
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 2
Dot product:
A · B = 0 implies A = 0 or B = 0, or A ⊥ B (D.8)
A · B = B · A, commutative dot product (D.9)
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C, distributive dot product (D.10)
(f A) · (gB) = f g(A · B), associative scalar, dot product (D.11)
Cross product:
Scalar relations:
Vector relations:
A = Ak (B/B) + A⊥ = Ak b̂ + A⊥ (D.23)
b̂ ≡ B/B, unit vector in B direction (D.24)
Ak ≡ B · A/B = b̂ · A, component of A along B (D.25)
A⊥ ≡ −B×(B×A)/B 2 , component of A perpendicular to B
= −b̂×(b̂×A) (D.26)
I : AB ≡ (I · A) · B = A · B (D.27)
AB : CD ≡ A · (B · C)D = (B · C)(A · D)
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 3
dotÃproduct crossÃproduct
B {
{
A A
dot-crossÃproduct
{ B
Figure D.1: Schematic illustration of dot, cross and dot-cross products of vec-
tors.
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 4
= D · AB · C = B · CD · A (D.28)
I : T = tr(T), T : T ≡ |T|2 (D.29)
T : AB = (T · A) · B = B · T · A (D.30)
AB : T = A · (B · T) = B · T · A (D.31)
B×T : W = −(T · W)T : B×I (D.32)
Vector relations:
Tensor relations:
D.3 Derivatives
Temporal derivatives:
dA
is a vector tangent to the curve defined byA(t) (D.52)
dt
d df dA
(f A) = A + f (D.53)
dt dt dt
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 5
d dA dB
(A + B) = + (D.54)
dt dt dt
d dA dB
(A · B) = ·B+A· (D.55)
dt dt dt
d dA dB
(A×B) = ×B + A× (D.56)
dt dt dt
Definitions of partial derivatives in space (∇ ≡ ∂/∂x = del or nabla is the
differential vector operator):
∂f
∇f ≡ , gradient of scalar function f , a vector — vector in direction
∂x
of and measure of the greatest rate of spatial change of f (D.57)
∂
∇·A ≡ · A, divergence of vector function A, a scalar —
∂x
divergence (∇ · A > 0) or convergence (∇ · A < 0) of A lines (D.58)
∂
∇×A ≡ ×A, curl (or rotation) of vector function A, a vector1 —
∂x
vorticity of A lines (D.59)
p
For the general vector coordinate x ≡ xêx + yêy + zêz and |x| ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 :
vectors because they are anti-symmetric contractions of second rank tensors — see tensor
references at end of this appendix.
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 6
∇(f + g) = ∇f + ∇g (D.68)
∇(f g) = (∇f )g + f ∇g = ∇(gf ) (D.69)
∇(f A) = (∇f )A + f ∇A (D.70)
∇ · f A = ∇f · A + f ∇ · A (D.71)
∇×f A = ∇f ×A + f ∇×A (D.72)
∇ · f T = ∇f · T + f ∇ · T (D.73)
∇×f T = ∇f ×T + f ∇×T (D.74)
∇ · (A + B) = ∇ · A + ∇ · B (D.75)
∇ · (A×B) = B · ∇×A − A · ∇×B (D.76)
(B · ∇)(A · C) = C · (B · ∇)A + A · (B · ∇)C
≡ CB : ∇A + AB : ∇C (D.77)
A · ∇B · C − C · ∇B · A ≡ (CA − AC) : ∇B = (A×C) · ∇×B (D.78)
2A · ∇B · C ≡ 2CA : ∇B = A · ∇(B · C) + C · ∇(B · A)
− B · ∇(A · C) + (B×C) · (∇×A)
+ (B×A) · (∇×C) + (A×C) · (∇×B) (D.79)
I : ∇B = ∇ · B (D.80)
A×I : ∇B = A · ∇×B (D.81)
A · ∇ · T = ∇ · (A · T) − ∇A : T = ∇ · (A · T) − T : ∇A (D.82)
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 7
I · ∇B = ∇B, ∇B · I = ∇B (D.95)
∇×AB = (∇×A)B − A×∇B (D.96)
∇(A×B) = ∇A×B − ∇B×A (D.97)
A×∇B + ∇B×A
= I×[(∇ · B)A − (∇B) · A] + [A · (∇×B)]I − A(∇×B)
= I×[(∇ · B)A − A · (∇B)] + [A · (∇×B)]I − (∇×B)A (D.98)
∇B×A + (A×∇B)T = [A · (∇×B)]I − A(∇×B) (D.99)
A×∇B + (∇B×A)T = [A · (∇×B)]I − (∇×B)A (D.100)
A×∇B − (A×∇B)T = I×[(∇ · B)A − (∇B) · A] (D.101)
∇B×A − (∇B×A)T = [(∇ · B)A − A · (∇B)]×I (D.102)
∇ · ∇f ≡ ∇2 f (D.103)
∇×∇f = 0 (D.104)
∇ · ∇f ×∇g = 0 (D.105)
∇ · ∇A ≡ ∇2 A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇×(∇×A) (D.106)
∇ · ∇×A = 0 (D.107)
∇ · (B · ∇)A = (B · ∇)(∇ · A) − (∇×A) · (∇×B) (D.108)
∇×[(A · ∇)A]
= (A · ∇)(∇×A) + (∇ · A)(∇×A) − [(∇×A) · ∇]A (D.109)
D.4 Integrals
For a volume V enclosed by a closed, continuous surface S with differential
volume element d3x and differential surface element dS ≡ n̂ dS where n̂ is the
unit normal outward from the volume V , for well-behaved functions f, g, A, B
and T:
Z ZZ
d3x ∇f = ° dS f, (D.114)
V S
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 8
Z ZZ
d x ∇ · A = ° dS · A,
3
divergence or Gauss’ theorem, (D.115)
ZV ZZ S
d3x ∇ · T = ° dS · T, (D.116)
ZV ZZS
d x ∇×A = ° dS×A,
3
(D.117)
ZV Z S ZZ
d x f∇ g =
3 2
d x ∇f · ∇g + ° dS · f ∇g,
3
V V S
Green’s first identity, (D.118)
Z ZZ
d3x (f ∇2 g − g∇2 f ) = ° dS · (f ∇g − g∇f ),
V S
Green’s second identity, (D.119)
Z
d3x [A · ∇×(∇×B) − B · ∇×(∇×A)]
V
ZZ
= ° dS · [B×(∇×A) − A×(∇×B)],
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 9
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 10
In this representation α and β are stream functions that are constant along the
vector field B since B · ∇α = 0 and B · ∇β = 0.
d2 x db̂
κ≡ 2
= = (b̂ · ∇)b̂ = − b̂×(∇×b̂), curvature vector (D.141)
d` d`
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 11
in which (D.85) has been used in the obtaining the last expression. The unit
vector in the curvature vector direction is defined by
The local radius of curvature vector RC is in the opposite direction from the
curvature vector κ and is defined by
RC ≡ − κ/|κ|2 , κ = − RC /RC
2
, radius of curvature. (D.143)
in which B̂ is the binormal unit vector, the third orthogonal unit vector. The
component of a vector C in the direction of the vector field B is called the
parallel component: Ck ≡ T̂ · C = b̂ · C. The component in the N̂ direction is
called the normal component: CN ≡ N̂ · C. The component in the B̂ direction,
which is perpendicular to the T̂×N̂ plane, is called the binormal component:
CB ≡ B̂ · C = T̂×N̂ · C.
Consider for example the components of the curvature vector κ. Since
b̂ · κ = 0, the curvature vector has no parallel component (κk = 0) — the
curvature vector for the vector field B(x) is perpendicular to it at the point
x. The components of the curvature vector κ relative to a surface ψ(x) = con-
stant in which the vector field lies (i.e., B · ∇ψ = 0) can be specified as follows.
Define the normal to be in the direction of the gradient of ψ: N̂ ≡ ∇ψ/|∇ψ|.
Then, the components of the curvature vector perpendicular to (normal) and
lying within (geodesic) the ψ surface are given by
dB̂
τ ≡− = − (b̂ · ∇)(b̂×N̂), torsion vector. (D.147)
d`
The binormal component of the torsion vector vanishes (τB ≡ B̂ · τ = 0). The
normal component of the torsion vector locally defines the scale length Lτ along
the vector B over which the vector field B(x) twists through an angle of one
radian:
dB̂
Lτ ≡ 1/|τN |, τN ≡ − N̂ · = − N̂ · (b̂ · ∇)(b̂×N̂), torsion length. (D.148)
d`
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 12
curvature torsion
Rc B
shear
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 13
The shear length LS is defined as the scale length over which the vector field
B(x) shears through an angle of one radian. The parallel component of the
total curl or rotation of a vector field B is given by a combination of its torsion
and shear, and N̂ · ∇×N̂:
(b̂×∇ψ) · ∇×(b̂×∇ψ) 1
ς= ≡ , local shear with N̂ ≡ ∇ψ/|∇ψ|,
|b̂×∇ψ|2 LS
(D.151)
and
σ ≡ b̂ · ∇×b̂ = ς + 2τN . (D.152)
In the absence of shear (ς = 0), this last relation yields τN = (1/2)b̂ · ∇×b̂ —
the torsion for “rigid body rotation” is just half the parallel component of the
rotation in the vector field B.
In most applied mathematics books the normal N̂ is taken to be in the curva-
ture vector direction (i.e., N̂ ≡ κ̂) instead of the ∇ψ direction. Then, the parallel
component of the torsion vector also vanishes [τk ≡ b̂ · τ = b̂×κ̂ · (b̂ · ∇)b̂ =
b̂×κ̂ · κ = 0] and
τ ≡ τN N̂, for N̂ ≡ κ̂. (D.153)
For this case the interrelationships between the triad of unit vectors T̂, N̂, B̂ are
given by the Frenet-Serret formulas:
dT̂
= κN N̂, T̂ ≡ B/B ≡ b̂,
d`
dN̂
= −κN T̂ + τN B̂, N̂ ≡ κ̂ = (b̂ · ∇)b̂ / |(b̂ · ∇)b̂|, (D.154)
d`
dB̂
= −τN N̂, B̂ ≡ T̂×N̂ = b̂×κ̂.
d`
The local shear ς and total rotation σ in the vector field B for this case are as
given above in (D.149) and (D.150), respectively, for a general unit normal N̂.
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 14
ei · ej = δji , (D.155)
where ½
1, i = j,
δji ≡ Kronecker delta. (D.156)
0, i 6= j,
The reciprocal base vectors can be written in terms of the original base vectors:
ej ×ek
ei = ²ijk , i, j, k = permutations of 1, 2, 3 (D.158)
e1 · (e2 ×e3 )
in which
+1 when i, j, k is an even permutation of 1, 2, 3
²ijk = −1 when i, j, k is an odd permutation of 1, 2, 3
0 when any two indices are equal Levi-Civita symbol.
(D.159)
The reciprocal Levi–Civita symbol ²ijk is the same, i.e., ²ijk =²ijk . These for-
mulas are also valid if the subscripts and subscripts are reversed. Thus, the
“original” base vectors could be the reciprocal base vectors ei and the “recip-
rocal” base vectors could be the original base vectors ei since both sets of base
vectors are linearly independent. Either set can be used as a basis for repre-
senting three-dimensional vectors.
The identity tensor can be written in terms of the base or reciprocal vectors
as follows:
P i
I ≡ 1 2 3
i e ei = e e1 + e e2 + e e3
P identity tensor (D.160)
≡ i 1 2 3
i ei e = e1 e + e2 e + e3 e .
This definition can be used to write any vector or operator in terms of either
its base or reciprocal vector components:
X
A = A · I = (A · e1 )e1 + (A · e2 )e2 + (A · e3 )e3 = Ai ei , Ai ≡ A · ei ,
X
i
= (A · e1 )e1 + (A · e2 )e2 + (A · e3 )e3 = Aj ej , Aj ≡ A · ej ,
j
(D.161)
∇ ≡ I · ∇ = e1 (e1 · ∇) + e2 (e2 · ∇) + e3 (e3 · ∇)
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 15
The dot product between two vectors A and B is given in terms of their
base and reciprocal vector components by
X X X X
A·B = Ai Bi = Ai B i = (ei · ej )Ai B j = (ei · ej )Ai Bj . (D.163)
i i ij ij
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 16
These so-called contravariant (superscript index) base vectors point in the direc-
tion of the gradient of the curvilinear coordinates ui , and hence in the directions
perpendicular to the ui (x) = ci surfaces. The set of reciprocal base vectors ei
is given by
ej ×ek ²ijk
ei = ²ijk = −1 ∇uj ×∇uk , covariant base vectors, (D.172)
e1 · e2 ×e3 J
in which
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 17
identity if and only if ∇ui · (∂x/∂uj ) = δji . Since this last relation is the same
as the defining relation for reciprocal base vectors (ei · ej = δji ), it follows that
∂x
ei = , i = 1, 2, 3 covariant base vectors. (D.174)
∂ui
The so-called covariant (subscript index) base vectors point in the direction
of the local tangent to the ui variable coordinate curve (from the ∂x/∂ui def-
inition), i.e., parallel to the ui coordinate curve. Alternatively, the covariant
base vectors can be thought of as pointing in the direction of the cross product
of contravariant base vectors for the two coordinate surfaces other than the ui
coordinate being considered (from the ∇uj ×∇uk definition). That these two
directional definitions coincide follows from the properties of curvilinear sur-
faces and curves. The contravariant base vectors ei can also be defined as the
reciprocal base vectors of covariant base vectors ei :
ej ×ek ²ijk ∂x ∂x
ei = ²ijk = × ; i, j, k = permutations of 1, 2, 3
e1 · e2 ×e2 J ∂uj ∂uk
contravariant base vectors
(D.175)
in which
∂x ∂x ∂x
J= · × = e1 · e2 ×e3 Jacobian (D.176)
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
is the Jacobian of the transformation from the Cartesian coordinate system to
the curvilinear coordinate system specified by the functions ui .
The geometrical properties of a nonorthogonal curvilinear coordinate system
are characterized by the dot products of the base vectors:
∂x ∂x
gij ≡ ei · ej = · covariant metric elements,
∂ui ∂uj (D.177)
g ij
≡ e · e = ∇u · ∇u
i j i j
contravariant metric elements.
These symmetric tensor metric elements can be used to write the covariant
components of a vector in terms of its contravariant components and vice versa:
X X
Ai ≡ A · ei = A · I · ei = (A · ej )(ej · ei ) = gij Aj
j j
X X (D.178)
A ≡ A·e = A·I·e =
i i i
(A · ej )(e · e ) =
j i
g ij Ai .
j j
Similarly, they can also be used to write the covariant base vectors in terms of
the contravariant base vectors and vice versa:
X X
ei = gij ej , ei = g ij ei . (D.179)
j j
From the dot product between these relations and their respective reciprocal
base vectors it can be shown that
X X
gij g jk = g kj gji = δik . (D.180)
j j
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 18
The various partial derivatives in space can be worked out in terms of covari-
ant derivatives (∂/∂ui ) using the properties of the covariant and contravariant
base vectors for a general, nonorthogonal curvilinear coordinate system as fol-
lows:
X ∂f X ∂f
∇f = ∇ui i
= ei i gradient,
i
∂u i
∂u
(D.184)
X√ei X ei √
∇ · A = ∇ · (A · I) = ∇ · g (A · ei ) √ = √ · ∇( gAi )
i
g i
g
X 1 ∂ √ X1 ∂
= √ i
( g A · ei ) = i
(J A · ∇ui ) divergence,
i
g ∂u i
J ∂u
X X (D.185)
∇×A = ∇×(A · I) = ∇× (A · ej )ej = ∇Aj ×∇uj
j j
X ∂Aj X ²ijk ∂(A · ej )
= i
∇ui ×∇uj = √
ij
∂u g ∂ui
ijk
° °
° e1 e2 e3 °
1 ° °
=√ ° ° ∂u
∂
1
∂
∂u 2
∂
∂u
°
3 ° curl,
g°
A1 A2 A3 °
(D.186)
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 19
X 1 ∂ √ X ∂f
∇2 f ≡ ∇ · ∇f = √ i
( g ei · ej j )
i
g ∂u j
∂u
X 1 ∂ √ ∂f X1 ∂ ∂f
= √ i
( g g ij j ) = i
(J ∇ui · ∇uj j ) Laplacian.
ij
g ∂u ∂u ij
J ∂u ∂u
(D.187)
Differential line, surface and volume elements can be written in terms of
differentials of the coordinates ui of a general, nonorthogonal curvilinear coor-
dinate system as follows. Total vector differential and line elements are:
X ∂x X
dx = i
dxi = ei dxi
∂u
i i
qP (D.188)
√
|d`| ≡ dx · dx = i
ij gij du du
j metric of coordinates.
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 20
For the simplest orthogonal coordinate system, the Cartesian coordinate system,
ê1 = ∇x = x̂, ê2 = ∇y = ŷ, ê3 = ∇z = ẑ.
Because of the normalization and assumed orthogonality of these unit vec-
tors, ½
1, for i = j,
êi · êj = δij ≡ Kronecker delta. (D.193)
0, for i 6= j,
The cross products of unit vectors are governed by the right-hand rule which is
embodied in the mathematical relation
êi ×êj = ²ijk êk (D.194)
in which the Levi-Civita symbol ²ijk is defined by
+1, for i, j, k = 1, 2, 3 or 2, 3, 1 or 3, 1, 2 (even permutations)
²ijk ≡ −1, for i, j, k = 2, 1, 3 or 1, 3, 2 or 3, 2, 1 (odd permutations)
0, for any two indices the same.
(D.195)
A vector A can be represented in terms of its components in the orthogonal
directions (parallel to ∇ui ) of the unit vectors êi :
X
A= Ai êi = A1 ê1 + A2 ê2 + A3 ê3 , Ai ≡ A · êi (D.196)
i
Here and below the sum over i is over the three components 1,2,3.
Using the relations for the dot and cross products of the unit vectors êi given
in (D.193) and (D.194) the dot, cross and dot-cross products of vectors become
X
A·B = Ai Bi = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3 , (D.199)
i ° °
° ê1 ê2 ê3 °
X X ° °
A×B = Ai Bj êi ×êj = ²ijk Ai Bj êk = °
° A1 A2 A3 °
°
ij ijk ° B1 B2 B3 °
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 21
Thus, the differential surface vector for the ui = ci surface, which is defined by
dS(i) = d`(j)×d`(k), becomes
Since the differential volume element is d3x = d`(i) · dS(i) = d`(1) · d`(2)×d`(3)
and the Jacobian of the transformation is given by J = 1/(∇u1 · ∇u2 ×∇u3 )
= h 1 h2 h 3 ,
d3x = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3 , differential volume. (D.204)
For orthogonal coordinate systems the various partial derivatives in space
are
X êi ∂f X
∇f = i
= êi (êi · ∇) f, (D.205)
i
hi ∂u i
X 1 ∂ µJ ¶ X
1 ∂
µ
h 1 h2 h 3
¶
∇·A = A · êi = A · êi , (D.206)
i
J ∂ui hi i
h1 h2 h3 ∂ui hi
X ²ijk hk êk ∂ X ²ijk hk êk ∂
∇×A = i
(hj A · êj ) = (hj A · êj ), (D.207)
J ∂u h1 h2 h3 ∂ui
ijk ijk
X1 ∂ µ ¶ X µ ¶
J ∂f 1 ∂ h1 h2 h3 ∂f
∇ f=
2
= . (D.208)
i
J ∂ui h2i ∂ui i
h1 h2 h3 ∂ui h2i ∂ui
The three most common orthogonal coordinate systems are the Cartesian,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems. Their coordinate surfaces and
unit vectors are shown in Fig. D.3. They will be defined in this book by
Cartesian : ui = (x, y, z)
hx = 1, hy = 1, hz = 1 =⇒ J = 1; (D.209)
cylindrical : ui = (r, θ, z)
p
r ≡ x2 + y 2 , θ ≡ arctan(y/x), z ≡ z,
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z,
hr = 1, hθ = r, hz = 1 =⇒ J = r; (D.210)
spherical : ui = (r, ϑ, ϕ)
p p
r ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 , ϑ ≡ arctan( x2 + y 2 /r), ϕ ≡ arctan(y/x),
x = r sin ϑ cos ϕ, y = r sin ϑ sin ϕ, z = r cos ϑ,
hr = 1, hθ = r, hϕ = r sin ϑ =⇒ J = r2 sin ϑ. (D.211)
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 22
Cartesian cylindrical
y y
zÃ=Ãc3 ϕ zÃ=Ãc3
xÃ=Ãc1 rÃ=Ãc1 r
x ϕÃ=Ãc2
x
yÃ=Ãc2 x
z
z z
spherical
r
Ã=Ãc
y
ϕ
ϕÃ=Ãc3 x
rÃ=Ãc1
Figure D.3: Orthogonal unit vectors and constant coordinate surfaces for the
three most common orthogonal coordinate systems.
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APPENDIX D. VECTOR ANALYSIS 23
Note that with these definitions the cylindrical angle θ is the same as the az-
imuthal (longitudinal) spherical angle ϕ, but that the radial coordinate r is
different in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems. The spherical an-
gle ϑ is a latitude angle — see Fig. D.3. Explicit forms for the various partial
derivatives in space, (D.205) – (D.208), are given in Appendix Z.
REFERENCES
Intermediate level discussions of vector analysis are provided in
Greenberg, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Chapters 13-16 (1998) [?]
Kusse and Westwig, Mathematical Physics (1998) [?]
Danielson, Vectors and Tensors in Engineering and Physics, 2nd Ed. (1997) [?]
DRAFT 11:26
October 11, 2002 °J.D
c Callen, Fundamentals of Plasma Physics