APPLICATION OF BIOLOGICALLY DERIVED PRODUCTS AS FUELS OR ADDITIVES IN COMBUSTION ENGINES

Directorate-General XII Science, Research and Development 1994 EUR 15647 EN

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Contents Contributors General Introduction 1. Technical applications of existing biofuels

ii ix

x
1

1.1 .1. Introduction 1.1.2. Production of Vegetable Oils Plant oils obtained by compression and extraction Plant oils obtained by pyrolysis 1.1.3. Application in Combustion Engines 1.1.4. Mass and Energy Balance Energy inputs Energy output Balances of mass energy Conclusions Bibliography

2 4
5

8
9 11 11

14 15 17 18

1.2.1. Bioethanol Introduction Possible uses. Byproducts and coproducts Alcohol byproducts Alcohol coproducts Industrial transformation processes

22 22
25

26
28

29

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Mass and energy balance Application in combustion engines 1.2.2. Methanol Introduction. Different informations and data relevant to methanol production Application in combustion engines 1.2.3. Oxygenated components in fuel blends Concl usions R&D needs

33 40 44 44

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46 48 49 50

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Bibliography

1.3.1. Introduction 1.3.2. Production Production of biogas Production of producer gas 1.3.3. Properties of biogas and producer gas 1.3.4. Mass and energy balance Mass and energy balance for biogas Mass and energy balance for producer gas 1.3.5. Application of gaseous biofuels to internal combustion engines Application of biogas to internal combustion engines Application of producer gas to internal combustion engines Conclusions Bibliography

52 52 52
53 54

55
55
56

57
58 62
65

66

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2. Potential benefits of using Biological as Energy sources

Commodities 69

2.2.1. Improvement in agricultural resource utilization and related extensification measures

81 83

2.2.2. Increase in farm incomes and market diversification 2.2.3. Reduction of agricultural commodity surpluses and derived Support Payments 2.2.4. Revitalization of retarded rural economies: employment generation 2.2.5. Enhancement of international competitiveness: international trade

84

85 87

Conclusions R&D needs

88 90 90

Bibliography

3. Environmental

Effects

of Biofuels

93

3.1.1 . The Policy Framework for Assessment 3.1.2. Scope of assessment

94
98

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3.2. Environmental impacts caused by fossil.fuel operated vehicles

3.2.1. Impacts on air pollution at the local level 3.2.2. Impacts on air pollution at the global level 3.2.3. Forecasts of air pollution from motor vehicles
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99 99
100 102

3.3. The case of biofuels as a source of fuel for motor. vehicles,

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3.3.1. Types of biofuels for use in the motor vehicle 3.3.2. Environmental effects of biofuels Local impacts of production Agricultural impacts Local impact of transport Employment impacts 3.3.3. Biofuels versus Fossil fuels: A comparative analysis
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104 104 105 108 110 110 113

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3.4. Some conclusions and proposals for furt:her ,research:'

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3.4.1. Proposals for further research 3.4.2. General conclusions Annex I Annex II Bibliography

123 125 127 128 131

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4. Biofuel

Market analysis fundamentals

135 136 137 137 140 140 142 143 143

4.1. Some Economic 4.2. Fuel market

and Energv Prospects

4.2.1. Situation and prospects of energy 4.2.2. Fossil Fuel market: an overview Oil barrel price predictions Relationship between the oil barrel and its by-products Consumption forecasts of different fuels 4.3. Cost analysis of biofuels

4.3.1. Agricultural raw materials 4.3.2. Coproducts and/or byproducts 4.3.3. Cost structure of different liquid biofuels Ethanol from wheat Ethanol from sugar beet Ethanol and methanol from biomass Biodiesel fuels 4.4. Economic aspects as fuel additives of oxygenated components

144
145 148 148 150 151 155

158 160 path. 164 167

4.5. Detaxation

and budget impacts technoeconomic

4.6. Biofuels as an alternative Some conclusions Conclusions Costs Policies

167 168

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Market

168 169

R&D
Bibliography

170

Conclusions and Research and Development Needs 1. Technical applications of existing biofuels, oils and methylesters

173 174,
174

R&D
Alcohols

175 175
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R&D
~ Potential benefits of using biological commodities 2. as energy sources
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R&D
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3. Environmental effects of biofuels

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181

R&D
4. Economic analysis of biofuels
Costs Policies Market

181
182 182

R&D
List of S"mbols

184

CONTRIBUTORS
AND

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

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T RIB

U TOR

CONTRIBUTORS

SECTION Prof.

1:

J. Ortiz-Cafiavate (Chapters 1.1 and 1.3)

and Prof. M. Camps (Chapter 1.2) Dept. Rural Engineering, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid (SPAIN) Dipl.-Ing. M. Graef Institut fUr Biosystemtechnik (GERMANY) FAL, Braunschweig-Volkenrode

SECTIONS Prof. A. Cadenas S. Cabezudo

2 AND

4:

Faculty of Economies, Universidad Aut6noma de Madrid (SPAIN)

SECTION

3:

Prof. E.J. Calder6n G. Alvarez-Villamil M.T. Gonzalez Dept. Urban. Regional and Environmental Universidad Politecnica de Madrid (SPAIN) Development

COORDINATOR Prof. M. Ruiz-Altisent

AND

EDITOR:

Dept. Rural Engineering, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid (SPAIN)

Madrid, January 1993

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GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

TO

THE

STUDY review of the current state of the art and

The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive

today's market situation with regard to the production and use of biofuels from a European and a world perspective and to establish potential needs in RTD and technology transfer for the EC. This study sets itself into the Third Framework Industry (AAIR) (1990-1994), area IV.2. of which deals with non-food products.The identification of new non-food products with Research Programme, in Agriculture and Agro-

a specific market potential lies within the main goals of such programme. The specific objectives of this Area IV.2 "Non-food" include • • • to determine needs and possible market for new products of agricultural origin, to identify the most promising areas for application of biomass for energy and to establish scientific and technological bases for establishing Community and

international standards fo the application and use of these new products. Biofuels, being a biomass-based energy, have been identified as having a promising potential to

comply with the needs and future market mentioned further up. The present study covers the following main aspects:

1. Technical applications

ot existing

ntotuets

plant oils and their methylesters;

alcohols: ethanol and methanol and gaseous biofuels: biogas

and producer gas. Also included are the production of these biofuels, their energy balances and their application in combustion engines. Only in this Section are gaseous biofuels considered. Their application is feasible for stationary

engines but not for vehicles, where liquid biofuels are exclusive.

2. Potential

benefits
as energy sources. Three main categories of potential benefits of biofuels as

of using biological commodities have been developed alternative transportation fuels.

in the study. The first concerns the potential contribution

The second group discusses their possible impact on EC Agriculture. Agricultural interests seem to acknowledge that the introduction of biofuels will result in positive and effective gains. The study deals with five distinct issues supporting the mentioned positive assessment. The last cathegory of potential benefits has to do with a number of issues touched upon in the third and fourth sections effects. of this study, which deal with environmental and overall economic

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3. Environmental

effects

Environmental impacts are covered in this Section: Negative (pollution, wastes, land use changes, etc.) as well as positive ones (use of by-products, new land uses, etc.). By way of introduction, the Community Agricultural Policy is established as framework for assessment. Impacts generated by fossil fuels in internal combustion engines are presented as reference. Finally, all impacts stemming from production and use of biofuels are analyzed. The overall assessment of biologically derived products as fuels or additives requires a framework of goals and objectives at Community level allowing the assessors to decide to what an extent a strategy geared to encourage farmers to produce such energy-related crops conforms to other Community policies. Thus, it seems sensible to use as general framework for the goals of this study those Community policies closely linked to production and use of biofuels, namely, the Common Agricultural Policy, the Environmental Policy, recently approved, and the Regional Policy as reflected in the current provisions of the Structural Funds, and notably, the EAGGF.

4. Economic analysis
The economic analysis section of this study refers mainly to market aspects. The introductory chapter starts with some fundamentals on economic evaluation. In a second chapter the overall economic and market issues related to energy and fossil fuels are described, setting out the background for the study ot costs and prices of biotuels. In addition, the economic aspects of oxigenated fuel additives are also analysed. Issues concerning fuel taxation are also introduced in this fourth section of the study. Lastly, some conclusions are drawn on the feasibility of biotuels as a technological option for the future. Research and development needs are proposed as a result of a careful evaluation of the conclusions and of all aspects included in this study.

TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS OF EXISTING BIOFUELS

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1.1

PLANT

OILS

AND

METHYLESTERS

1.1.1

Introduction
The oil crisis of the 70's revealed the dependence of the industrial world on a potentially unstable source of petroleum fuels. There exists the necessity to diversify the origin of the energy used and one possibility is the development of renewable fuel sources. Biofuels present a big potential for the future needs of energy. An efficient agriculture is potentially able to provide the mankind world with raw materials for food, fiber and also energy. In Europe, the present situation of surplus for most of the agricultural commodities: milk, grain, meat, sugar, oils for human consumption, and others, leads to two options: • The set-aside of land for cultivation, dedicating the surplus land for forestry, hunting and recreation. • To dedicate the surplus land for new crops such as crops for industrial raw materials and fiber or energy crops. In this report crops for producing biomass, ethanol, plant oils, methylesters and other gaseous biofuels such as biogas and producer gas will be investigated. The last option, -that seems to be most favourable from the point of view of social and environmental benefits: farmers can stay in their farms, the land is used for agricultural purposes and there are more different commodities to produce that can be interchanged with rapidity according to market conditions,- has as counterpart the low cost of fossil fuels: at a price of approximately $ 20.00 the barrel of oil, biofuels can not be competitive considering only the point of view of the cost of fuel energy. In this respect, it is necessary to consider that in the use of fossil fuels only the price of exploitation of fossil resources and refining of the crude oil are considered, and in the case of biofuels it is necessary to add the cost of agricultural production of the oil itself. In some aspects, growing crops to produce energy for the farm is not new: in the farms some decades ago it was necessary to dedicate around 30% of the total rural area for feeding animals for work ( horses, mules, cows) and now the area needed would be 10-20% to produce ethanol or oil to move tractors and farm machines. The use of vegetable oils as fuel for internal combustion engines is not new. Rudolph Diesel, the inventor of the diesel engine, used peanut oil to fuel one of his engines at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 and he wrote in 1912: ''The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today. But such oils may become in the course of time as important as petroleum and the coal tar products of the present time" (Nitske and Wilson, 1965).

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There are today many reasons for considering the prophecy of R. Diesel reasonable:

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The foreseeable

increase of price in the near future of the fossil oil, due to the world's

reserves limitations that can be depleted in approx. 80 - 100 years. • The interest in the European Community for diversifying agricultural production including energy crops. • Environmental protection: 1. vegetable oil combustion maintains the equilibrium of CO2 oils have lower sulphur content and are safer to

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in the atmosphere; with 772C for diesel).

manipulate and store than fossil oils (e.g. sunflower oil's flashpoint is 21S!!C compared

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The European Community has established to keep the same level of CO2 for the emissions in the year 2000 as it was in 1990, in order to control the global greenhouse effect. The eco-friendly features of vegetable oils and their methylesters significant reduction of major polluting gas emissions typical are given by the elimination or of traditional diesel fuels. The In

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absence of sulphur in the raw materials makes exhaust gases totally free of S02 emissions. addition, tests for micro pollutants have shown a significant reduction

in many other polluting

emissions, particularly those relative to aromatic compounds, whose toxicity is all too well known. In the Western diesel-powered. countries practically all trucks, tractors and selt-propelled farm machines are

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Diesel engines last longer, are better adapted to hard conditions and are more

reliable than spark-ignited engines. Diesel fuel is also safer to store than gasoline. Nowadays a big effort in conducting for internal combustion research in this topic of application of vegetable oils as fuel in the world like Austria, Australia,

engines is done in many countries

Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, USA, etc. In this document we are not going to describe the principles of the diesel engine, but we want to mention the two types of diesel engines that exist in the market: • • direct-injected, indirect-injected, in which the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber; in which the fuel is injected and combustion begins in a pre-

combustion chamber. In these engines the use of semi-refined vegetable oil, as such or. blended with diesel fuel, seems to be possible. There exists a recently developed new type of diesel engine that is called "Elsbett-engine"; this

engine is able to run directly with vegetable (Elsbett, 1991).

oils. It works on the principle of the "duothermic

combustion system" with a special combustion chamber that works with the principle of turbulence

"Deutz" has also developed an engine that works with the principle of turbulence combined with indirect-injection, that can use purified vegetable oil without problems. Its consumption is around 6% higher than other diesel engines but it has proved to be a robust and reliable engine. Other

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sources (Lohner, 1963; v. Basshuysen, 1989) indicate that the consumption level of indirectinjection diesel engines with swirl chamber is 10-20% higher in relation to comparable diesel engines with direct injection. Another engine, still in development, is the John Deere 'Wankelmotor" that works with multi-type fuels, including vegetable oils. Pure plant oils, particularly when refined and deslimed, can be used in pre-chamber (indirectinjected, like the Deutz engine) and swirl-chamber (Elsbett) diesel engines, as a pure plant oil or in a mixture with diesel (Schrottmaier et al. 1988). Pure plant oil cannot be used in direct injection diesel engines, which are used in standard tractors, because engine coking occurs after some hours of operation. The addition of a small proportion of plant oils to diesel fuel is possible in all engine types, but also will lead to increasing deposits in the engines at a long term.

1.1.2

Production

of vegetable

oils

A vegetable oil production is possible from more than 300 different plant species. In most cases oil is contained in the seeds or fruits. A distinction between field and tree crops should be made: the highest oil yields can be found in tree crops (palm-oil, olive-oil,...), however the harvesting operation is much more difficult than with field crops. Climatic- and soil-conditions, yields, oil content and the necessity to mechanize the production will limit the potential use of vegetable oils to a few crops. Oil produced at field levels, as rapeseed and sunflower, can be obtained at different levels: • On-farm processing: This model seems to be not very suitable because of the high costs of the expeller-press and the need to refine the produced crude oil for fuel use. Additionally, the rather low oil yield of small size screw presses, limitations in the ability to process certain crops and limitations in feed-stuff quality by the residual oil must be considered as further inconveniences. • Cooperative processing: By a better use of the capacity of the expeller-press, the processing costs can be lowered significantly. This can also be assumed for the necessary refining. A higher oil yield of larger presses and in consequence a better feed-stuff quality of the meal are of big importance. A processing capacity of some thousands tons of oilseeds per year would be an appropriate size. • Large scale industrial processing: Usually these industrial plants are equipped with an additional extraction stage. Therefore the best results concerning fuel quality, feed-stuffquality and oil yield can be achieved. Capacities of some hundred-thousands tons per year are the usual size.

We consider two types of plant oils according to the way of obtaining them: 1. by compression and extraction, and 2. by pyrolisis.

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Plant

oils

obtained

by compression

and

extraction

When processing oil seeds for fuel purposes the usual procedures for raw oil production can be used. The further processing of the crude oil permits, however, a simplified refining procedure.

A. Production of raw oil: The production of crude oil from the plant seeds can be performed by
two completely different procedures. In larger oil processing plants these are usually used in combination. The steps considered are following:

- Pre-pressing: The oil is pressed mechanically. Nowadays screw presses (expellers)

are used. Depending the feed-stuffs. production on the size of the press and preheating without heating allows of the oil seed, the oil can be pressed out down to a residual oil content of 5 % in Pressing a very simple from high oil-content oil seeds (e.g. sunflower, rapeseed).

However for a better oil yield, preheating pretreatment.

of the seed is a necessary

- Extraction:

Here the oil will be removed from the seed nearly 100 % by the action of a solvent. content intensive Only extraction is used for oil production Extraction from low oilwith preoil seeds (e.g. soybean). than pressing, is much more energy

it is therefore

used in combination

pressing to remove only the residual oil from the expeller feed-stuff.

- Byproducts of raw oil production: Expeller and extraction meals are very valuable
protein feedstuffs for animal feeding. They contribute to cover the processing costs. • B. Refining of crude oil: Fuel utilization of vegetable oils requires a refining of the raw oil. After some industrial treatments, the so-called "semi-refined-oil" steps (like deodorisation application. is available. Further processing and bleaching) common in oil refining are not necessary for fuel

C. Transesterification: As early as 1938 a need for chemical modification of vegetable oils

was indicated by Walton (1938), who noted that... ''to get the utmost value from vegetable oils as fuels it is necessary to split off the glycerides which are likely to cause an excess of carbon in comparison". During World War II Chinese scientists developed a batch-cracking procedure for refining Uveg-gasoline" and "veg-diesel" from plant oil feedstocks, and rapeseed oils in particular kept moving this way. The most wide-spread idea is that fuel must be adapted to the nowadays diesel engines of diesel of vegetable oils into vegetabJe oil esters. the large, branched using tung (Chang and Wang, 1947). Some military equipment was

and not viceversa. A simple method of adapting plant oils to the requirements engines is transesterification Transesterification

is a potentially Jess-expensive way of transforming

molecular structure of the blo-oils into smaller, straight-chain components of diesel fuel:

molecules, similar in size to

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1 Aequous

sodium hydroxide

or potassium

hydroxide

can be used as catalyst.

Starting from rape seed, if we consider a production for 1 hectare of 3000 kg of rape seed, it would be apprqximately indistinctly), rape seed. The economy of the process has to be considered as a whole, that is to say that the endproduct is not only oil or RME, but also a valuable protein-rich feed-stuff for animals (rape cake) and glycerine, that can constitute a problem if there appears to be important amounts of it in the world market. Some attempts to solve this difficult problem are made using glycerine for the synthesis of polyglicerols, hydrophile centres of emulsifiers, in order to replace the ethoxylates still uncertain. The transesterification process was extensively patented in the 1940s as widening uses esters as fuels. He demonstrated, and in non-ionic detergents and also for the synthesis of halogen derivatives for use as specific surfactants, but its use in important amounts in the future is 1000 kg of RME (biodiesel: this name or other similar names RME and for the sunflower methyl-esther SME, are used for the rape oil methyl-ester

1900 kg of feed-stuff and 110 kg of glycerine. The exact amounts depend on

the installation, the process procedure and the type of seed as shown in chapter 1.1.4 for

were found for esters. The first report of engine tests on esters is given by Meurier (1952) who conducted exhaustive studies of vegetable-oil others have since verified following advantages: Vegetable oil-esters have a good potential and are well suited for mixture with or

replacement of diesel fuel.

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Methyl- and ethyl-esters are effective in eliminating injector problems in direct-injected diesel engines. Viscosities of methyl-, ethyl- and butyl-esters are similar to diesel fuel, significantly lower than the vegetable oils from which they were derived. Methyl-esters are more stable than ethyl-esters and require less steps in production (Duplessis and De Villiers, 1983; Quick and Woodmore, 1984).

But unfortunately, there are also problems with the use of esters. Brazilian and German researchers have cautioned of serious lubricating oil deterioration when using ester fuels specially methylesters of soybean oil (Pischinger et al 1983; Blackburn et al 1983) and of rapeseed oil (Vellguth,1985). Therefore some manufacturers give warranty on tractors and engines using RME as fuel only, when the lubricating oil change intervals are shorter than with diesel fuel. The establishment and maintenance of standard ester fuel specifications is a major chaJlenge,and would be essential before a more widespread use would be advisable. Crystal formation in cooler weather was cited as problematic with ester-fuels in USA (Kaufman and Ziejewski, 1983); fuel chemists could likely produce suitable additives to solve this particular problem.
• D. Cracking: nother procedure to modify the triglyceride molecule of the oil is the cracking A procedure (Pernkopf, 1984). However, the cracking products are very irregular and more suitable for gasoline substitution. The procedure has to be made at a big scale, costs are considerable and conversion losses are also important; these negative aspects together with the much lower efficiency of gasoline engines make the cracking procedure of minor interest.

There is also another procedure to change the triglyceride molecule with the Vebaprocess. During the refinery process for mineral oil to form the different conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, propane, butane, etc.) up to 20% rapeseed oil is added to the vacuum destillate. The molecules are cracked and the mixture is treated with hydrogene. The generated fuel molecules are not different from the conventional fuel molecules. Advantages of the Veba-process are that no glycerine is produced as a by-product and that the generated fuel is not different from the standardized fuels, so that a special distribution system and handling is not necessary. But there are disadvantages: high consumption of valuable hydrogene and losses in biodegradability. (Vellguth, 1991).

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Table 1
Fuel properties of vegetable oils and their Methylesters in comparison with Diesel Fuel

Fuel property Specific gravity (kg/dm3}

Viscosity (cSt} ,

Diesel Fuel
0.835

Sunflower oil
0.924

Sunflower Methylester
O.BB

Linseed oil
0.932

Linseed oil Methylester

0.896

Rape oil
0.916

Rape oil Methylester

0.B8

a120° C at 50° C Heat 01 Combustion Gross (MJ/I) Net (MJ/I) CetaneNumber Carbonresidue % SulfUr %
c '.

5.1
2.6 3B.4

65.B 34.9 36.5 4.22 35.3

50.5 36.9

8.4 35.6

77.B 25.7 37.2

7.5 3.B

35.4 >45 0.15 0.29

34.1 33 0.42 0.01

33.0 45-51 0.05 0.01 0.35 0.22 0.24

34.3 44-51 0.25 0.0001

33.1 52-56 0.02 0.002

Source: GUibet 1988, Pernkopf 1988 and Schafer and Heinrich, 1990, modified

E. Properties and characteristics of diHerent oilluels

There are many tables of properties and characteristics Methylesters in comparison with those of Diesel Fuel. of several vegetable oils and their

In Table 1 a summary of these properties are put together.

Pla_nt

oils

obtained

by pyrolysis

The type of oils obtained by pyrolysis of biomass are similar to heavy fuel oils apt to be burned in an oven, but not to be used as such in internal combustion have to be upgraded to gasoline - and diesel-fuel. We are not able to give any detailed mass or energy balance of this process at the moment engines. In this case these bio-oils

because it is now at research level with small facilities in laboratories or at most in pilot plants. In a pyrolysis pilot plant in Riano (Italy) running with dry wood (around 500 kg/h), 25 % WI of char and 20 % WI of bio-oil is obtained. In another small laboratory plant at the Federal Research Center for Forestry in Hamburg (FRG), the material balance reveals that 36 parts of net product oil can be obtained from 100 parts of dry wood. With respect to the energy balance around 59 % of the input energy is stored in the net product oil.

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Density of pyrolysis oil is always over 1000 kg/m3, water content in the oil is around 10- 14 % and for each kg oil burned around 100 - 140 g water is evaporated value is around 25 MJ/kg much lower than the fuel-oil (= 40 MJ/kg). It is foreseen that the application of these heavy oils will be more in turbines for producing and for that reason its heating

electricity than in internal combustion engines.

1.1.3

Application

in combustion engines

There are two possibilities for the application of vegetable oils to internal combustion engines: • • Adaptation of the engines to the fuel (vegetable oil engines) . Adaptation of the fuel to the motor (transesterification process). diesel engines is coke deposition

The major problem when using pure plant oils in direct-injected at the injector and at the combustion in short- or long-term use. The amount

chamber, piston, valves, ... that impedes the engine running of time before power loss and engine deterioration oil in direct-

becomes obvious varies with engine time, loading and condition, and the type of vegetable oil. It may be as brief as 10 hours for linseed oil or more than 100 hours for sunflower injected engines. Problems with buildup of deposits around injector tips are caused by much higher viscosity and carbon content of vegetable oils in comparison with diesel fuel

or oil

esters.

As it can be seen in Table 1, pure vegetable oils are ten times as viscous as their esters or diesel oil. Higher viscosity means that fuel flow and the spray pattern from regular injector nozzles are significantly injector altered from standard, and this affects fuel combustion. prevent injection. Carbon buildup around Furthermore, the greatly holes interferes with and can eventually

reduced flow in the injector duct due to the higher viscosity oil could reduce nozzle cooling and lubrication. The use of oil fuels with high viscosity without suitable injector modification seating and possibly aggravates post-injection dribble from the nozzle. Coking leads to power reduction, smoke increase and misfiring in multi-cylinder can be piston ring stickiness and lubricant deterioration All these considerations transformation engines. Unburnt interferes with needle

fuel washes down cylinder walls leading to ring gumming and diluted oil in the sump. The results leading to the engine breakdown. oils can not be used without any

lead to the fact that vegetable

in direct-diesel engines. They can nevertheless be used in indirect-injected Elsbett engine).

(Deutz)

or in special plant oil engines (like the swirl-chamber

On the other hand, vegetable oil esters have very similar characteristics used in the same conditions

to diesel fuel and can be as demonstrated by

as this fuel in all types of diesel engines

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Vellguth, 1982 in multiple practical tests. Schrottmeier the sunflower methyl-esther at the Agricultural agricultural

et ai, 1988 have made several tests with RME and for fleet test with

bio-diesel (this name or other similar names are used for the rape oil methyl-ester Engineering Center in Wieselburg (Austria) and a large-scale

SME, indistinctly) that involves endurance runs on the engine test rig

tractors. After one year of tests they state that bio-diesel doesn't increase coking or

wear in the diesel engine, compared with diesel fuel, that is fully suitable for tractor engines and that can be used on a large scale. However, there are some problems when using bio-diesel in tractor engines, the most important being: • Engine oil dilution: This is the greatest problem associated with the use of bio-diesel.

Rape oil methylester passes beyond the piston rings into the engine oil. Problems can then arise with inadequate lubrication and gumming of the top piston surface, piston ring and inlet valve. Length of use, engine type, in particular combustion injection pattern and injection chamber design, In general, timing appear to affect engine oil dilution.

shorter oil-change intervals offer a reasonable solution: an interval of 150 hours instead of 250 appears to provide sufficient protection to prevent damage to the engine. • Material compatibility: methylester. Although could constitute recommended Paints used on bodywork of tractors can be dissolved by rape oil paint damage should not constitute a serious problem. but it it is by the use of suitable

grounds for complaint and must be prevented

paints. Rape oil methylester

also dissolves asphalt and makes it soft. Therefore

to handle it with care when refuelling the vehicle. Rubber components,

such as pipes and seals, may also be affected. On the contrary there is not indication of corrosion of metallic components. • Winter performance: Below

aoc

problems occur with the supply of bio-diesel from the

tank to the engine (e.g. in the fuel filter) and with cold starting. However the suitability of bio-diesel for winter use can easily be improved and the simplest method is to increase the residual methanol content, that remains in the transesterification allowed for safety reasons. operation safe at temperatures Of environmental • concern are: The use of additives down to -10°C. process around 1% can make the to 2%. But this method can bring the flash point of the fuel below 55°C and that is not like flow enhancers

Fuel transfer from tank to engine: Similar to the former problem of winter performance, there can be clogging of the filter and pipes by glycerine and other bio-diesel residues. Clogging can be prevented transesterification, whilst retaining the normal filter change unpressurised interval and by can achieving high-quality high-quality transesterification and very pure bio-diesel. As an alternative to RME filtering after transesterification

be also a good solution to this problem. • Exhaust gases: There is each time more concern about the emissions, particularly to cancerogenic substances in exhaust gases. Carbon monoxide. hydrocarbons and nitrogen monoxide recur in the same amount approximately as in diesel fuel. There is no sulphur dioxide in the exhaust gases of bio-diesel powered engines and there is less

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visible soot than in diesel fuel, but the particle level is higher. It must be painted out that the particle mass composition carcinogenic of fossil diesel soot. • Storage: Bio-diesel is less toxic to humans or animals than fossil diesel fuel and is very environmentally various problems benign. However storage of bio-diesel in filling stations can lead to and glycerine). For if it is not pure enough (presence of methanol is not mainly influenced by the carcinogenic soot. So, the and mutagenic potential of biodiesel soot is less harmful than the potential

safety reasons flash point of bio-diesel has to be over 55~C. Pure RME has a flash paint of 167°C, but at 0.5 % residual methanol it falls to 35°C and at 1 % of methanol to 25°C. This problem needs still a future solution. Another application of rape oil is lubrication or hydraulic oil. There is now application of vegetable oils for the saw-machines. In general it is possible to substitute mineral oils for vegetable oils, with the necessary additives, without much problem. The biggest advantage of vegetable oils is that they degrade very quickly in contact with the soil, so that they are environmental friendly.

1.1.4

Mass and energy balance

When producing do it: • Calculating the relationship between output and input energies and • Obtaining the difference between output and input energies, that is called "net energy gain". In Table 2, Pernkopf(1984) presents the average values obtained for sunflower and rapeseed oils fuels by energy cropping the knowledge of the necessary inputs and the

produced energy output is very important to achieve a good result. There are usually two ways to

compared to ethanol obtained from sugar beet, maize and wheat for Austrian conditions. The overall energy balance for the vegetable production and conversion 3:1, considerably higher than for alcohol. oils and their methylesters including agricultural by oils from

is a very positive one, with a final energy ratio ranging between 2:1 to This ratio proves that energy supplied

vegetable origin is higher than the sum of the energies used for its production during agricultural processing, seed crushing, vegetable oil refining and its transesterification.

Energy
Besides, (energy calculation Table 3.

inputs
in the evaluation equivalents) procedure of the potential production of vegetable oil, the production of energy. inputs a

have to be subtracted of Heyland and Solansky

from the gross output

Adapting

(1979), energy equivalents

for the production

of rape seed were calculated.

Up to date values for the surface of 1 ha have been listed in

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Table 2 Energy balance for some crops under Austrian conditions

Crop product
-

Yield primary product (kg/ha)

2600 2700

Energy ratio Output: Input

2.8 2.8

Net energy gain Output: Input (GJ/ha)

43.3 43.4

Sunllower oil Rapeseed oil EthanoIlro m: Sugar beet Maize Wheat

60000 7700 4400

1.3 1.3 1.1

39.2 lB.4 5.2

Source: Pernkopl, 1984 modified

Table 3 Energy Equivalents of the Inputs in Rape Seed Production

Fertilizer N

Amount
(Kg/ha)
140 60 120 300

Energy equivalents
(GJ/ha)
B.40 0.84 0.72 0.45 10.41

P20S K20
CaD +MgO

Seed Plant protection 3 treatments each with 1 kg/ha active ingredients; Energy for tractor and sprayer included Fuel consumption seed bed preparation. harvesting, handling. drying, slubble cleaning, primary tillage Machinery, equipment, buildings Total amount 01 energy for technical means equivalent to 495 I/ha Diesel-Iuel

10

0.24

0.79

4.00 2.00

17.44

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Table 4
Composition and specific energy of rape seed and rape straw

Rape seed

Mass percentage
(%) 42.2 20.6 5.8 19.0

Specific energy
(MJ/kg) 37.21 22.44 18.71 16.06

Product mass percentage x specific energy

15.703 4.623 1.085 3.051 24.462 MJ/kg

Fat Crude protein Fiber Nitrogen·free substances Spec. energy 01rape seed Rape Straw Fat Crude protein Fiber Nilrogen·lree substances Spec. energy 01rape seed Iotal energy in the crop yield lrom 1 ha 3.181 rape seed equivalent to 2210 I/ha DieseHuel 5.47 t rape slraw equivalent to 2221 IIha DieseHuel TOTAL equivalent to 4431 I/ha Diesel-fuel

1.2 2.5 37.8 38.7

37.21 22.44 18.71 16.06

0.447 0.561 7.072 6.215 14.295 MJ/kg 77.79 GJ/ha 78.19 GJ/ha 155.98 GJ/ha

Table 5
Recommended values for the refinement of rape seed oil

Refinement step Oegumming Deacidification Bleaching Deodourization

Phosphatides (leciti n). etc. Free fatty acids
-

Fat crudities Component part Amount (%)

1 1 0.1 0.1

Fal losses %
1

_._--

Energy demand related to mass of oil (GJ/t)

0.4 1 1 0.2 1.3

I

colouring matter Odour and flavour substances

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Table 3 demonstrates that in rape seed production a great amount of energy in needed for plant nutrients, especially for nitrogenous fertilizer. The energy equivalent tor the fertilizer makes up 2/3 of the total energy input. The other inputs are comparatively small, particularly the energy equivalent of the seed. Energy output

The energy equivalent of the rape crop can be derived from the calorific value of the substances contained in it. According to average values of rape seed and rape straw composition, Table 4 gives the calorific value per kg of substance and per hectare. Data of Table 4 are net calorific values of waterfree substances. With an average yield of 3.18 t/ha of rape seed and 5.47 t/ha of rape straw, the energy contents of both components are of the same order of magnitude. But the energy of rape straw can only be used in combustion processes, for which until now appropriate equipment is infrequent, therefore rape straw generally remains unused in the field. Energy balance in agricultural production of rape seed results from comparison of data in Table 3 and Table 4. With regard to the total crop, an output of 156.0 GJ/ha is produced by an input of 17.44 GJlha, so the resulting output/input relation is 156.0/17.44 8.95. Up to now, rape straw is rarely used, and the output/input relation is to be calculated from rape seed only, leading to an outputlinput relation of 77.8/17.44 4.46. This turns out that agricultural production of rape seed has a considerable net output of energy. In comparison with the average yield of wheat grain (5.42 t/ha, equivalent to 78.9 GJ/ha) the energy output of rape seed is nearly of the same magnitude.

Oil mills separate the oil from the oil seed by mechanical and extraction processes. From rape seed, about half of the oil is gained by mechanical means in the milling process. The following extraction process reducts the oil content of the cake to about 0.5 %. The extraction process consists of the hexane/oil solution, and the recovery of hexane. Energy demand for the separation at rape seed into oil and cake, including an energy equivalent for the plant, is about 0.75-1.25 GJ/t of rape seed. The purification of the rape oil implies the separation of the free fatty acids and phosphatides and a bleaching and deodorization process. In total, this process can be characterized by a mass reduction of about 5.0 % and an energy input of 1.7 GJ/t of raw oil. As bleaching and deodorization in the purification process are the most energy consuming parts (1.3 GJ/t oil), Table 5, the proposal was to use partly refined rape seed oil for fuelling diesel-engines. Finally it should be investigated whether the substances separated by these means are harmful compounds, so that rape oil is able to be used as a fuel for diesel engines without problems also in long time tests.

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Balances

of Mass

and Energy
production and processing of rape seed result in the mass

Mass and energy flow in agricultural hectare.

flow diagram, Fig. 1, and the energy flow diagram, Fig. 2, calculated for the crop obtained in 1

Figure 1 demostrates that 8650 kg of crop have to be handled in the field to get 1279 kg of refined rape oil. The larger part of the total crop mass (5470 kg) remains unused in the field. Also in oil millings the greater part of mass is separated, but the oil cake on account of its high protein From the total crop content is used as a high value protein feed in animal production. In the refining process only up to 5.0 % of mass is separated and transferred to other production processes. mass 14.8% is gained as refined oil. By transesterification (see Chapter 1.1.2), adding 139 kg of methanol the rape seed oil can be more similar to Diesel-fuel and 133 kg

transformed to 1285 kg methyl ester with fuel characteristics glycerine as a by-product.

From the energy flow diagram, Fig. 2, it can be seen that nearly 50 % of crop energy (78.2 GJlha out of 156.0 GJ/ha) is plowed down into the field. The refined rape oil has a net calorific value of 48.1 GJ/ha, i.e. 30.8% of total crop energy. For the separation of rape seed (77.8 GJ/ha) into rape oil (49.6 GJ/ha) and rape cake (28.2

GJlha) energy equivalents of (0.3 GJlha) for the oil mill plant and 4.2 GJ/ha for process energy have been calculated. As rape cake, as well as rape oil, are useful products, the total energy input can be divided according to the energy content of these two components. The total production 48.1/22.7 process of refined rape oil is characterized invested It follows from this, for relation of is the production of raw rape oil and rape cake an energetic output/input relation of 76.3/22.7 = 3.36. by an output/input = 2.12. If the high value of energy by technical means (17.7 GJ/ha)

subtracted from the energy of refined oil (48.1 GJ/ha), then a net energy of 30.4 GJlha is yielded, i.e. the equivalent of 8641/ha of diesel fuel. In this calculation it is assumed that the processing energy (4.2 GJ/ha) can be taken from another source of energy; on the other hand, the energy of rape cake (28.2 GJlha) has not been considered. In comparison to other processes for fuel from renewable agricultural sources, rape oil production gives a good outputlinput relation and a considerable net output of fuel energy, but does not give high amounts of energy related to area. In the case of rape oil methylester common diesel-engines, transesterification glycerine considering (RME), a biofuel better adapted the extended energy to the characteristics of

Fig. 3 shows

flow diagram.

For the final

process step, methanol of 2.7 GJlha energy equivalent must be added to gain (RME) with 47.8 GJ/ha energy output and 2.2 GJ/ha energy content in the The energetic output/input ratios obtained are: 78.2126.2 = 2.98

rape oil methylester

as a by-product.

the energy in the RME, glycerine and rape cake and 47.8/26.2

1.82 for the RME

alone. Compared with the output for partly refined rape oil (Fig. 2) the amount of energy in the fuel is a little bit lower, but the additional process step leads to a fully adapted diesel fuel substitute for common diesel engines. Similar results are obtained for sunflower oil.

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Figure 1
Massflow diagram for the production of rape seed oil and -methylester (RME)

FAL
Biosystemtechnik

Mass flow diagram for the prod uction of rape seed oil and methylester (RME) from 1 ha

D 8099
(a

Stand 15.10.1992

Figure 2
Energy flow diagram for the production of partly refined rape seed oil

rape seed oil raw 49.6 GJ/ha

FAL
Biosystemtechnik

Energy flow diagram of partly refined rape seed oil

D 8098

(a

Stand 15.10.1992

---------------------------------------------------------------------------~-------------I
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Figure 3
Energy flow diagram [or the production oj rape oil methylester (RME)

FAL Biosystemtechnik

Energy flow diagram of rape oil methylester (RME)

08097

(a

Stano 15.10.1992

CONCLUSIONS

In comparison to other processes for production of fuel from renewable agricultural resources, rape oil and also sunflower oil production gives a good outputfinput relation of energy and a considerable net output of fuel energy. Results of engine tests have shown that rape and sunflower oils and their methylesters are energetically satisfactory as fuels in diesel engines. The behaviour of diesel engines in long time operation with rape or sunflower oils and their methylesters alone or in blends under varying and hard field conditions must be the object of further investigation.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonym. 1991. Arriva il bio-trattore ad olio di colza. MACCHINE & MOTORI AGRICOU - IMA N. 9, VOL. 49, PP. 10 - 10. Bacon, D.M.; Brear, F.; Moncrieff, 1.0.; Walker, K.L. 1981. The use of vegetable oils in straight and modified form as Diesel engine fuels 3rd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENERGY USE MANAGEMENT, BERLIN WEST (D), OCTOBER 20 - 30,1981. Baldwin, J.D.C. 1983. Pertormance of a "Diesol" fueled engine. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE N. 4, VOL. 26, PP. 962965. Batel, W.; Graf, M.; Mejer, G.J.; Moller,R.; Schoedder,F. 1980. Pflanzen61e fOr Kraftstoff und Energieversorgung. GRUNDLAGEN DER LANDTECHNIK N.2 VOL. 30, PP. 40 - 5 t. Blackburn, J.H.; Pinchin, R.; Nobre, J.L.; Chrichton, B.A. and Cruse, H.W. 1983. 'Pertormance 01 lubricating oils in vegetable oiVester fuelled diesel engines" Proc. Vegetable Oil as Diesel Fuel (VODF) III: 169 Peoria, III. Oct. 1983. Bruwer, J.J.; Hugo, F.J.C.; Hawkins, C.S.; Van der Walt, AN. 19B1. The utilization of sunflower seed oil as a renewable fuel for Diesel engines. AGRICULTURAL ENERGY, VOL. 2, BIOMASS ENERGY/CROP PRODUCTION. Buckingham, F. 1981. Oilseed luels: their future. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING N. 4, VOL. 62. Carillon, R. 1980. Utilisation de la biomasse agricole (forets non comprises) pour la production d'energie directe. LES TRAVAUX ET LES AVIS DU C.N.E.E.MA SUR LA VALORISATION ENERGETtQUE DE LA BIOMASSE. ETUDES DU C.N.E.E.M.A. N. 460, PP. 57 - 70. Chang, C. and Wang, S. 1947. "China's motor fuels from tung oil" Ind. and Eng. Chem 3 (12): 1534-1548. Darcey, C.l.; Lepori, W.A.; Yarbrough, C.M.; Engler, C. R. 1983. Lubricating oil contamination from plant oil fuels. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 6, VOL. 26, PP. 1626 -1632. Duplessis, L.M. and De Villiers, J.B. 1983. 'Stability studies on methyl and ethyl fatty esters of sunflower seed oil", Proc. Vegetable Oil as Diesel Fuel (VODF) Ill: 57. Peoria, 111. Oct. 1983. Elsbett, K. 1991. "Die Elsbett-Motortechnologie". Symposium Biokraftstoffe fOr Dieselmotoren. Esslingen. Faletti, J.J.; Sorenson, S.C.; Goering, C.E. 1984. Energy release rates from hybrid fuels. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 2, VOL. 27, PP. 322 - 325. Fuls, J.; Hawkins, C.S.; Hugo, F.J.C. 1984. Tractor engine performance on sunflower oil fuel. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH N. 1, VOL. 30, PP. 29 - 35. Geyer, S.M.; Jacobus, M.J.; Lestz, S.S. 1984. Comparison of Diesel performance and emissions from neat and transesterified vegetable oils. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 2, VOL 27, PP. 375 - 381. Goering, C.E.; Daugherty, M.J. 1982. Energy accounting for eleven vegetable oil fuels. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE N.5, VOL. 25 PP. 1209 - 1215. Goering, C.E.; Schwab, A.W.; Campion, A.M.; Pryde, E.H. 1983. Soyoil-ethanol microemulsions as Diesel fuel. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 6, VOL. 26, PP. 1602 -1604.' Goodrum, 1377.

s.«.

1984. Fuel properties of penaut oil blends. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 5, VOL. 27, PP. 1375 -

Heyland, K.U. and Solansky, S. 1979 "Energieeinsatz und Energieumsetzung im Bereich der Pflanzenproduktion" Paul Parey Berichte Ober Landwirtschaft 195. Sondemeft: 15-30. Ishii, Y.; Takeuchi, R. 1987. Transesterified eurcas oil blends for farm Diesel engines. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 1, VOL 30, PP. 2 - 6. ' Kaufman, K.R.; German, T.J.; Pratt, G.l.; Derry, J. 1986. Field evalutation of sunflower oil/Diesel fuel blends in Diesel engines. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 1, VOL. 29, PP. 2 - 9 Kaufman, K.R. and Ziejewski, M. 1983. "Laboratory Endurance Test of Sunflower Methyl Esters for Direct Injected Diesel Engine Fuel" ASAE-Paper 83-3557. Winler Meeting. Chicago, III. Dec. 1983. Kaufman. K.R.; Ziejewski, M. 1984. Sunflower methyl esters tor direct injected Diesel engines. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 6, VOl. 27, PP. 1626 -1633.

TECHNICAL

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Krahl,

J. 1993. Bestimmung

der Schadstoffemissionen Dissertation

von landwirtschaftlichen TU Braunschweig.

Schleppern

beim

Betrieb

mit

Rapsotmethylester

in Vergleich zu Oieselkraftstoff.

Lohner, K. 1963. Die Brennkraftmaschine. Mazed, M.A.; Summers, J.D.; Batchelder, TRANSATIONS Mazed, M.A.;

VDI Venag. Dusseldorf. D.G. 1985. Engine endurance test with peanutm soybean and cottonseed fuels.

OF THE ASAE N. 5, VOL. 28, PP. 1371 - 1374. Summers, J.D.; Batchelder, D.G.

1985.

Peanut,

soybean

and cottonseed

oil as Diesel

fuels.

TRANSATIONS

OF THE ASAE N. 5, VOL. 28, PP. 1375 -1377. oil atomization in a 01 Diesel engine. TRANSATIONS OF

Msipa, C.K.M.; Goering, C.E.; Karcher, T.D. 1983. Vegetable THE ASAE N. 6, VOL. 26, PP. 1669 -1772. Meurier, 1952. Oleagineaux

7(2): 69-74. 1986. CracKed soybean oil as a luellor

Univ. of Oklahoma a Diesel engine.

Niehaus, R.A.; Geering, C.E.; Savage, L.D. JR.; Sorenson,S.C. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 3, VOL. 29, PP. 683 - 689.

Nitske, W.R. and Wilson C.M. 1965. "Rudolf Diesel, Pioneer of the Age of Power". Olson, J.e.; Backer, L.F. 1983. Filtration test of sunflower

Press.

oil for fuel. TRANSATIONS

OF THE ASAE N. 6, VOL. 26, PP.

1610 - 1613.
Pemkopf, J. 1984. "The commercial SW. JOURNAL and practical aspects of utilizing vegetable oils as diesel fuel substitute". Bio-Energy 84 W.Conf. Gothenburg, Peterson,

C.L.; Auld, D.L.; Korus, R.A. 1983. Winter rape oil fuel for Diesel engines: recovery and utilization. OIL CHEMIST SOCIETY N. 8, VOL. 60, PP. 1579 - 1587. J.C. 1983. Experiments with vegetable oil expression. TRANSATIONS

OF THE AMERICAN Peterson,

C.L.; Auld, D.L.; Thompson,

OF THE

ASAE N. 5, VOL. 26, PP. 1298 - 1302. Peterson, C.L.; Wagner, G.L.; Auld, D.L. 1983. Vegetable oil substitutes for Diesel engine. TRANSATIONS OF THE

ASAE N. 2, VOL. 26, PP. 322 - 327, 332 - 332. Peterson, C.L. 1986. Vegetable VOL. 29, PP. 1413 - 1422. Peterson, C.L.; Korus, R.A.; Mara, P.G.; Madsen, J.P. 1987. Fumigation with propane and transesterification effects on oil as a Diesel fuel: status and research prloritles. TRANSATIONS OF THE ASAE N. 5,

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Soybean

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KIVA. TRANSATIONS

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326 - 330.
Vellguth, G. 1982. Eignung von Pflanzen61en und Pflanzen61derivaten N. 5, VOL. 32, PP. 177 - 186. Methylester von RapsoJ als Kraftstoff fOr Schlepper lrn Praxiseinsatz. GRUNDLAGEN DER als Kraftstoff fOr Dieselmotoren. GRUNDLAGEN DER LANDTECHNIK VeJiguth, G. 1985.

LANDTECHN1K Vellguth,

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LANDTECHNIK

N. 35, VOL. 5 PP. 137 - 141. Nutzung von Rapsol und Raps6lmethylester. Dokumentation Nachwachsende Rohstoffe.

Vellgulh, G. 1991. Energetische

Walton, J. 1938. "The fuel possibjlities of vegetable oils". W6rgetter, M. 1982. Contribution (F), OCTOBER 25 - 28, 1982. for: "Biomass

Gas and Oil Power 33: 167,168. SYMPOSIUM: BIOMASS FOR ENERGY, PARIS

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Zubik, J.; Sorenson.

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Diesel engine combUstion of sunflower

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OF THE

A8AE N. 5, VOL. 27, PP. 1252 - 1256.

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1.2

ALCOHOLS:

ETHANOL

AND

METHANOL

1.2.1

Bioethanol
Introduction Fuel related problems range from general dependence on oil producing countries to environmental difficulties. Fuel production based on renewable sources might mean a partial solution to those two problems and also allow the reduction of some other disadvantages related to the utilization of fossil fuels. Among these renewable sources, one of the main possibilities appears to be alcohol, because of the feasability of obtention inside the European Community (EC) and also the progress made by other countries who have performed research in this field and still keep on doing it. This may mean that conclusions considered as positive have been obtained. The obtention of alcohol implies mass production of sugar-rich vegetables and its subsequent fermentation. This production could incidentally solve some aspects of soil preservation, which is so alarming nowadays, as well as overproduction problems that affect the rural medium. Using alcohol in internal-combustion engines could help to solve the problem of atmospheric pollution, which is so compelling in all of the EC countries, and has been raised as such by most of the political parties. The production and usage of this kind of fuel would at last end the legendary dependance on those countries with which, in fact, we have almost no relation but oil. Since the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) members, in order to attend their own industrial needs that grow from year to year and due that they have limited oil supplies, will eventually raise the crude prices, this dependance can be at the end catastrophic to the other countries. At the begining it was thought that ethylic alcohol produced from the soil through crops would only be used as an additive and not as a fuel itself, in view of the modifications that its use as a pure fuel would cause in internal combustion engines. Thus, in the U.S.A., it was decided that an acceptable proportion would be 10% of alcohol. In some South-American countries, mixtures of alcohol and gasoline can get as high as 20% or more, since pure ethanol can also be used as a fuel. Ethylic alcohol may also be obtained from cellulose containing materials as wood and vegetable remnants, though the production in these cases is much more difficult. Ethanol is a fuel similar to gasoline, being its basic origin material starch (obtained from wheat, sugar beet and other products). For many years now, many people think that it would be possible to replace gasoline or part of it by ethanol, and by this way lower the cost of energy in the European Community. Bioethanol, as all biotuels which have an agricultural origin, have evident environmental advantages over ethanol or any other fossil fuel, above all in the CO2 balance. Theoretically, the CO2 cicle is neutral for biofuels.

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It must be emphasized

that there is no chemical

difference

between ethanol derived

from biomass and fossil origin ethanol. The term bioethanol merely indicates that the ethanol is derived from biomass. Another known advantage of ethanol is that, whatever its origin, it can lower the production of

aromatic products, which are found in high-octane gasolines. • In any case, the technical advantages of bioethanol are not very important and it is in the economics where the main questions arise. Concerning sensitivity, which is one of the most important characteristics of petrol (reformats and catcracking), for premium unleaded gasoline. However, the remaining components Table 6 shows the technical caracteristics To produce distillation a liter of ethanol of the fuels, both types that is 10 points

tend to exceed their required specification, of the main components of gasoline. to use 2.8 kg of cereal,

are found under this level.

00

it is necessary into account,

reaching,

after taking

and some valuations

a price of about $ 0.6 per liter. This is very origin ethanol, which is at a price

expensive, being approximately of about $ 0.3 per liter. Table 6

double the price of petroliferous

Blending octane rating of individual gasoline components compared with ethanol

RON
(unleaded} Premium unleaded gasoline Reformate Catcracking gaso line light naphta Isomerate Alkvlale Butanes Ethanol
95 91-105 89-93 67-71 82·90 93-97 94-97 130

MON
(unleaded)
85 83-89 78-82 66-70 81-88 91-95 90-93 106

Sensitivity (RON-MaN)
10 12 11 1 2 2 4 24
Source: EC 1992

At the sight of these results, the implementation

of a large-scale bioethanol programme

cannot be justified nowadays only by economical reasons. However, the Brazilian experience shows a completely different picture. It has been shown that

the points which would tilt the balance in favour of ethanol are the following: • The application environmental • of taxation policy to reduce the emissions of CO2 and support other benefits for producing and using biofuels. alcohol is bound to decrease every year,

The energy utilization to produce agricultural

while the energy input is likely to increase in the petroleum case; precisely, the crops tend to increase their yields, while the search of petroleum tends to be more expensive every year.

TSCHN!C~L

APPLICATIONS

oj

• The social balance is favourable to the agricultural ethanol. Gasoline demand in the EC (12) is projected to increase from 94.5 million tonnes in 1986 to 95.8 at the end of the century. Based on that demand, the estimate of a potential target market for ethanol, after making allowance for sea-borne gasoline imports and remote market sectors, is up to 2.5 million tonnes; this is equivalent to about 31.4 million hectolitres of ethanol. The production of sugar exceeds human consumption, which is about 11 million tonnes for the European Community. The average yields in the European producing countries are 5.9 tonneslha for wheat and 49.9 tonnes/ha for sugar beet. • Taking into account the continued increases in yields and the state of internal and external markets (global surpluses in most bio-alcohol relevant crops), secure supplies are available to the Community for a possible bioethanol programme. Changes in cultivation methods, the efficient use of fertilizers, the application of plant protection techniques, and genetic selection have made it possible to record sizeable increases in yield. These, average from 2 to 3 % per year for cereals and 1 % for sugar beet. By the year 2000, if the trends noted over the past few years continue, average yields will be of the order of 7.8 tonnes/ha for wheat and 57.8 tonnes/ha for sugar beet. If the application of biotechnologies results in a new quantitative and qualitative leap, these yields could reach 10 to 12 tonnes/ha for wheat and 75 to 87 tonnes/ha for sugar beet. The results obtained at present in field trials show encouraging prospects, with yields in fermentation sugars attaining 9 tonneslha for Jerusalem artichokes in Spain, and 5-6 tonnes/ha for sweet sorghum in Italy. Sweet sorghum is superior to sugarcane and corn in terms of production of food energy calories produced per unit of cultural energy invested. Sorghum has a lower water requirement and can be grown in low rainfall areas unsuitable for sugarcane and corn. Sorghum has a lower nitrogen requirement. Cultural costs for sorghum are lower than those for sugarcane or maize. One hundred kilograms of sorghum grain produces approximately 43 liters of alcohol. The grain resulting from alcohol production contains approximately 3 % protein when dried. Standard cane harvesting and processing equipment can be used in handling the sorghum crop. Sweet sorghum can be used to extend the production season of the sugarcane industry from 2 to 3 months. Alcohol extraction from sweet sorghum can be carried out by two different procedures: • pressing, • diffusing, and also by a combination of the two: • we have to set up in series a lot of continuous pressers in a quantity that allows us to obtain the desired yields. Between one pressing and the next one we have to insert a

T&CaNtcAL

APPLICATIONS

OF

EXISTING

BIOFUELs

diffuser to allow the unloaded product to absorb water again in order to be repressed. The juice obtained from the first pressing has about a 41.5 % of alcohol content. • the diffusion of the product for the extraction of natural sugars therein present can be done in two different ways: - by immersion - by percolation

Possible
Ethanol,

Uses.
no matter

By p ro d u c t s and
its origin,

c o p r o d u c ts
to very different uses: the basic ones are

can be devoted

nourishment and energy and, included in the last one, it can be burned directly or used in internal combustion engines. In the USA, about 3000 million liters of anhydrous with gasoline, fuel ethanol were burned in 1986, which

00

represents about 0.7 % of the gasoline sold. In relatively low concentrations ethanol works out well in today's American reported from Brazil. Other possible uses of bioethanol can be: • •

(10 %) in mixtures
has been

cars. Similar information

as a raw material in the chemical industry, as it is possible to turn it into ethylene. byproducts: equivalent partial substitution of animal feed ingredients, oilcake, being possible to save the ECU in every year

of 2.2 million tonnes

i.e. nearly 385 million

importation at the EC level. Different ways of using today's alcohol surpluses following: • • • to use it for blending into gasoline; combustion when it is used as a fuel in industry; direct internal combustion use as oxygenate in engines. derived from wine are known. They are the

Under EC regulations concerning the use of oxygenates in petrol, the use of ethanol is limited to a maximum of 5 to 10 % of gasoline on a volume basis. Table 7 shows average figures for alcohol production from different crops. Ethanol is used in numerous conversion industries. Lacquers, varnishes, processes undertaken in the food, drug and cosmetic deodorants, parfumes

inks, hydraulic fluids, soaps/detergents,

and antiseptics. In France and Italy, cosmetic manufacturers from biomass.

are required to use ethanol produced

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Table 7 Yields of alcohol from different Crops

Crop Sugarcane Cassava Sweel sorghum Corn grai n (9600 IIha) Yield (t/ha) Wheat S. Beet Sorghum Jer. Artichoke
5,42 87,7 70 70

Alcohol yield
(1/ha) 5150 4450 2800 2800

Ethanol
(1/ha) 2081 4755 3680 5600

F. Conv.
0.38 0.054 0.053 0.08
Source: Average values of several authors

Currently, the bulk of ethanol used as a feedstock in the EC chemicals industry for the production of ethylamines, ethyl esters, ethylvinyl ether and glycol ethers are made from ethylene.

Ethanol has been used as a feedstock for the chemicals industry in Brazil, where 13 % of current ethylene

production capacity

is based on ethanol.

Table 8 shows the foreseen evolution

of

ethylene's price related to ethanol's value.

These observations show that the only feasible market of a sufficient scale to absorb this increased production is the use of bioethanol as a replacement for gasoline itself.
Table 9 demonstrates Community that all the proposed alternatives would represent a higher cost to the margin. a positive net

andlor Member States than the current cost of support for cereals, and that support

required for bioethanol represents the highest financial cost by a considerable • These tables show that most of the published calculations claim a negative energy balance. This fact questions the increase of bioethanol production. examples

demonstrate

output of energy from the production of bioethanol. However, a number of the published

ALCOHOL BYPRDDUCTS
Bagasses are the solid refuse of grapes after pressing. By burning them, thermic energy is obtained, which can be turned into fuel, or they can be dedicated into animal food, or also to produce cellulose. Vinasses are the effluent result of wine distillation in alcohol production. They are not

allowed to be emmitted into watersheds

but they can be incorporated

into the soil, thus

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improving its fertility and keeping the ground and superficial water quality, when applied in quantities lower than 300 m3/ha.year. This product improves the ground chemical characteristics. interchangeable It increases the pH, decreases the potential acidity, reduces the quantity of aluminium, increases the available phosphorus, the sum of the basis and

the saturation percentage of those. The potassium quantity is higher. The organic matter added to the soil through the vinasses is very small, even after some years of repeated application. Ammonia turns up in superficial waters in concentrations close to the maximum value allowed (0.5 mglI), and it surpasses this value only during the application time of the vinasses: March until July. Filtering cake can be used as a base of organic material and certain minerals. Oleo fusel: to produce acetates, inks and varnishes.

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Dry yeasts: Source of proteins, substituting soya flour in animal food. Table 8
Ethylene price projection related to ethanol value

Year

Ethvlene price (ECU/tonne *) 382

410 422 477

Ethanol value (ECU/hl)

15.2 16.4 17.0 19.5

1987 1990 1995

2000
• 1986

Table 9
Comparison of financial support for alternative land uses

Land Use

Source: EC 1992

Figure 4
Ethanol production

Source: Mean values of several authors

ALCOHOL COPRDDUCTS Cane sauce and molasses are used in the food, chemical (antibiotics), sugar (acetone, butanol), plastics and other industries. Table 10 summarizes the subproducts obtained from the different basic materials in bioalcohol production. Equipment to obtain ethanol and its derivative products in industries come normally from Italy and Germany. Manufacturers studies have been carried out among the three types of processes, according to the derived product, and the results have been satisfactory in all cases. Besides, they have come to the conclusion that each process needs its own optimization, although it has been tried to get a system that includes the three processes with good results. The biggest bioethanol plants that exist in Europe are located in France, Spain and Italy. These plants usually work with sugar beet and wine substrates. In Table 11 there are some studies of production costs, taking into account the foresight for the selling price of bioethanol.

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Table 10
Subproducts from bioalcohol production and their application in agriculture.

Production From Wheat Straw DOGS From Sugar Beet Crown Dry pulp Vinasses From Sweet Sorghum Bagasses (50% humidity) leaves Grain Vinasses From Jerusalem Artichoke Crown (15% humidity) Vinasses Dry pulp
7.7 t/ha 2.3 t/ha

Application
fertilizer animal food

48 tlha 3.0 tlha 1.1 t/ha

animal food animal food animal food

00
12 t/ha 13 t/ha 1.1 t/ha 2.3 t/ha fertilizer animal food animal food animal food

6 tlha 6.79 tlha 4.48 t/ha

fertilizer animal food animal food

Source: Environmental Resources Limiled, 1990

Table 11
Economic cost of feedstock production. (Net of co-product credit)

Feedstock Wheat Sugar beet Potatoes Wine Maize Jerusalem Artichokes

• Average 01 available Member States

Economic Production Cost (ECU/hl Bioethanol)

9.5 22.0 50.0 72.0 16.3 23.0
Source: EC 1992

Industrial

Transformation

Processes

Ethanol can be obtained through two completely different processes: - through synthesis, - through fermentation.

TECHNICAL

APPLICATIONS

OF

BXISTING

BICFUBLS

For industrial uses, the first system (synthesis) is prefered, due to the pureness attained, that can reach values of 99.9 % in alcohol. For other uses (food, drug, pharmacy) there are more is advantages in the second one. Used as a fuel, which needs a pureness of 99.5 %, fermentation clearly advantageous. Raw products that could be used normally for ethanol production beet, sweet sorghum and others (see Table 7). The industrial process used to obtain sugar from sugar beet is known for a long time. Regarding process: The wet process (''wet milling" or "long" way) is caracterized runny element: after baking and saccharisation, process). The dry process ("dry milling" or "short" way) consists in a rude home grinding of the grains, followed by a baking-liquefaction in hot water. It is the most simple solution, and it is possible to find it closer to the miller than to the starch production. which turns glucose into ethanol and CO2 through an anaerobic reaction in presence of enzimatic complexes, where the most well known yeast is "Saccharomyces cerevisiae". The reaction releases an energy of 1200 kJ/kg. This process has a yield of 0.48 kg of ethanol per each kg of glucose. The obtention of ethanol by fermentation 1. Enzymatic conversion saccharification includes these processes: by hydrolysis and In any case, fermentation is proceeded afterwards, by the cereal division into a cereals, there are two methods to obtain the glucose solution: the wet and the dry in the EC are: wheat, sugar

a glucose solution is obtained (starch

of starch into sugars that may be fermented

(in sugared crops, this is substituted by sterilization).

2. Fermentation. Yeast converts the fermentable sugar into ethanol (8 - 12 %) and CO2, 3. Distillation, wherein the ethanol is separated. 1.

Starch hydrolysis· (liquefaction)

starch + water

------>
0: -

maltose

amylase

.. Saccharification
C12H22011

+ H20
glucoamylase

>2

C6H1206

maltose
C12H22011 + H20

glucose

>
invertase

C6H1206

+ C6H1206
fructose

saccharose

glucose

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2. Fermentation Yeast is added to the mash to convert monosaccharids CsH120s -------->2 glucose, fructose C2HsOH + 2 2 CO ethanol into ethanol and CO2,

450 g of yeast are added per 1000 I of mash, which is about 5 -10 million cells per ml.
Fermentation requires a pressure of 48 to 72 bar a temperature of 29 to 35 oC. The sugar concentration between 4,5 and 5. Theoretical yields are: 0,568 kg EtOH/kg starch 0,538 kg EtOH/kg saccharose However, actual yields are about 10 % less. 3. Distillation is done in columns, wherein it can reach a purity of 95 %. For even greater using a third component, such as benzene or should be 16 - 24 % to obtain 8 - 12 % ethanol, with a pH

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purity, it can be done either by dehydration,

pentane, or by vacuum distillation, which is more expensive. This process is carried out today in a continuous (Vogelbusch fermentor 200 hi/day. Both processes obtain ethanol through distillation, reaching a concentration of 96.4 %, way, either by fermentors in cascade

and Speichim), or by the Biostil process (Alta Laval) with only one ventilated

where, initially, a weak ethanol concentration

(52) avoids the inhibition of the

yeasts. This system has been adopted recently for cereals in Sweden, with a production of

followed by a dehydration that reaches the 99.5 % wished. The continuous distillation in vacuum does not seem to have a future at least in a short term. The byproducts following: - 370 kg of DOGS (Dried distiller's grains and solubles). obtained to get 285 kg of ethanol (1 tonne of wheat) would be the

-130 kg of bran. - 240 kg of low cellulose content residues.

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E~tI,.$.·.:

The production of ethanol in fixed-cell reactors by anaerobic fermentation of the produced gas obtained in the lignocellulose gasification is a potential alternative to the traditional hydrolysis method and the consequent fermentation to turn lignocellulose into ethanol. In the first place, lignocellulose gasification is a mature technology, applicable to a large number of different types of organic materials. The product obtained, called synthesis gas or syngas, consists mainly of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (C02) and dihydrogen (H2), in variable proportions. Two sets of three major experiments were carried out (Nyns et at, 1989). During the first of these sets, the access gas consisted in 33 % CO2 and 67 % H2. The second set was conducted feeding with gas having 14 % CO2 and 57 % H2. The biggest transference proportion of.feeding gas obtained in a fluidized bed bioreactor turned out to be the first set of the three experiments. Some typical figures of these experiments are shown up in the Table 12. This study suggests that a process carried out in two steps, in which bacterias would grow on a first step and metabolise the content of CO in food gas, and that would finish transforming through the second step, could be more appropriate from a technological point of view of the process. Table 12
Typical results of transfer-rate experiments to produce ethano; by anaerobic fermentation.

Experiment 2 Methane production rate (1) • Mean gas consumption yield (%). Mean methane production yield (%) ....
-liter CH4 per liter htoreactor working volume per day. • ratio of consumed to input gas, both expressed as COD. ....raUl) o1productd methane lias to sparlled lias, ootll expressed as COO.

number 3
2.9

0.3

0.9

75 71

84 78

49 45
Source: Nyns et ai, 1989

The previous tests document the possibility of obtaining methane and acetates as well as other products, including ethanol. However, it hasn't been possible to distinguish whether ethanol derives from syngas food or from the nutritive solution that is used as a fermentation. Now, we are going to consider three main procedures to produce ethyfic alcohol from biological materials. All three of them include a first phase of fermentation by yeasts followed by heat distillation. Each system has a different duration and a different alcohol production depending on the initial element, that can be a sugar containing product, starch or a cellulosic material. The easiest method is the one using a sugar containing product, such as sugar cane or sweet sorghum. As the crop yield is high, this method will also be the one that would

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produce the largest amount of alcohol per surface unit, although this is not completely the case for sugar cane, as we must consider that it occupies the soil twelve months a year. In tropical or subtropical climates, the alternative may include two or more crops per year. Anyway, the crop is treated by mechanical methods to obtain a sugared juice. With sugar cane and sorghum, just a simple mill is required. The sugar juice ferments in a tank until it becomes a low degree alcohol. Since this alcohol has to be completely water-free to be used in mixtures and the one obtained from the fermentation tank contains too much water, it is necessary to eliminate it in distillation columns, which is the most expensive part of the process. On the other hand, when used as a pure fuel, alcohol can contain up to 10% in water or even more depending on the kind of engine we are dealing with. The mixture of gasoline and alcohol named gasohol may reach a point expensive enough as to think about obtention of ethanol from starch and cellulose which fermentation and distillation processes are identical as those in sugar. Concerning starch containing products (grain or tuber), the process is longer. Before fermentation, the starch must be converted into sugar, and this requires an enzymatic process in a special tank. In this case, production can reach 2.5 galons of ethanol per grain bushel, that equals 25 kg of grain. As crop yield is about 100 bushels per acre, it is possible to obtain around 2400 litres of ethanol per hectare. Besides, this method leaves considerable amounts of protein nutrient as a residue, which constitutes an additional value. Using cellulose, this method is both more expensive and more difficult, as a new step is required to transform cellulose into starch, and this becomes even more complex when cellulose comes associated with lignin. Production is much lower than in the previous case and also smaller that methanol production from cellulose. Mass and Energy Balance

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As shown in former sections, the main and by-products of ethanol production can be used for many purposes. The further question is, how to produce ethanol from crops by biological conversion concerning the needed energy. In general crops containing sugar, starch but also cellulose (wood fibre) after hydrolysis are qualified. In warmer climates sugar cane and manioc (cassava), maize and millet are of interest for the ethanol production. In Middle Europe and other parts of the EC, raw materials for ethanol production will be also in the near future the common crops with a high sugar or starch content like grain, potatoes and sugar beet. To evaluate the energy generation and use of crop production and conversion to ethanol and to compare the energy output/input for different crops, mass and energy flow diagrams lead to the necessary information (Batel et at, 1981; Cabela et al, 1982; Rover and Austmeyer, 1988).

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If for example sugar beets are used tor the production of alcohol for fuels, the supply for the farm machinery could be available with nearly 10 % of the arable land in the

EC.

In Fig. 5 data are given for the 1 hectare average crop yield of sugar beet in 1988. The total biomass of the sugar beet plants was 87730 kg/ha. The roots with an average sugar content of 16

% had a mass of 48740 kg/ha and the by-products tops and leaves a mass of 38990 kg/ha. Figure 5
Mass diagram (per hectare) of ethanol production from sugar beets

To produce 4755 Itha ethanol, that is 3775 kg/ha, 48740 kg/ha sugar beets must be transported and handled. The prediction, whether and under which conditions it will be of interest from the

energy point of view to produce ethanol from biomass, can be made with energy flow diagrams. The required input energy for technical means and process energy will be compared by-products. For the energy balances, not only the amount of energy is important, but also the with the output energy stored in the produced ethanol and the

value of the different kinds of energy or energy carriers used. In any case, the value of the different energy carriers or kinds of energy have to be seen concerning the special application and the possibility of another usage. Besides the thermodynamic criterion, indicating that part of an energy form which can be converted into another, there are other evaluation into consideration factors like the biological-metaboliC energy equivalent, energy density, storage life and effects on the environment, which have to be taken

for the fuel production from agricultural raw materials.

The different kinds of energy, which appear in the process of ethanol production are: 1. energy of agricultural products, of food and of animal feed

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2. energy of high quality, as for example the energy of the produced or required fuel or the energy equivalent for technical means

3. energy of low quality like process energy

4. energy from sunlight

5. waste energy.
The energy flow diagram of ethanol production from sugar beet shows the different steps of

production, Fig. 6, and the energy inputs and outputs. The energy content of the main crop product -suqar beet- is 167.2 GJ/ha, of the by-product tops and leaves 78.5 GJ/ha with a value as fertilizer of 11 GJ/ha, leaving them on the field. The total crop has an energy content of 245.7 GJlha, most of which is energy from sunlight. The invested energy by technical means for the sugar beet production as an energy of high quality of 31.3 GJ/ha is the basis for efficient utilization of the energy from sunlight. Also energy of high quality must be invested for the ethanol plant. On the average

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460 kJ/1

anhydrous ethanol are necessary to build up the plant, equivalent to 2.4 GJ/ha. The total invested energy by technical means is 33.7 GJlha. The process of ethanol production needs 64.1 GJ/ha for juice extraction, dehydration hectare, production with a net heat content of 101.8 GJ/ha, will be produced. of ethanol, of the

drying of stifJage and beet pulp drying. With these input energies, 4755 I of anhydrous ethanol per The by-products of 14.7 GJlha biogas are 32.3 GJ/ha beet pulp and 18.7 GJ/ha stillage. Under the

assumption that the tops and leaves will be left on the field, the energy equivalent of its fertilizer value (11 GJlha) will reduce the invested energy input by technical means to 22.7 GJ/ha. This energy equivalent is same quality as the produced ethanol. If it is subtracted from the produced fuel energy, a net energy of 79.1 GJ/ha is usable as liquid fuel from 3695 I of ethanol per ha, not including the produced biogas and the process energy consumption for ethanol production. With the mass diagram (Fig. 7) and the energy flow diagram (Fig. 8) the ethanol production from wheat is to be discussed from the energetic point of view. With an average wheat crop of 5420 kg of grain per ha, the heat content of the dry matter is 78.9 GJ/ha. Thus, the energy from sunlight contained in the wheat grown is 183 GJ/ha. The energy consumption for wheat production is

25.2 GJ/ha and to establish the ethanol plant 1 GJ/ha of high quality energy is necessary, leading
to an invested energy by technical means of 26.2 GJ/ha. Attending to grain processing in the ethanol plant, the milling and malting process steps require 8 GJ/ha, the fermentation step 0.2 GJ/ha and dehydration of ethanol 10.4 GJ/ha. Decanting and drying of the thick stillage needs 6.1 GJ/ha. For anaerobe and aerobe treatment of the thin stillage

1.8 GJlha are required. For all different steps a total process energy of 29.9 GJ/ha is necessary. On the other hand, in the biogas digester 9.6 GJlha is generated, leading with the produced 2080 I ethanol of 44.5 GJ/ha to an output of 54.1 GJlha fuel energy of high quality.

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Fig. 6
Energy flow diagram of ethanol production from sugar beets

Fig. 7
Mass diagram (per hectare) of ethanol production from wheal

Fig. 8 Energy flow diagram of ethanol production from wheat

By-products are thick stillage of 10.1 GJ/ha which can be used for animal feeding and straw with 104.1 GJ/ha. The energy balances, including the energy demand for the different production steps, for the

previously discussed common crops, to wit, sugar beets, wheat, potatoes, maize tor ethanol, and rape seed for diesel are found in (B. M. fOr Forschung, 1986) as shown in Table 13, as well as those for sugar cane found in (Batel et ai, 1981) and topinambur found in (Soltner, H.J., 1991). Most of these plants have an energy output, which is reasonably higher than the energy input.

Specially sugar beet is very appropriate, because of a very high ethanol yield per hectare (4755 I) with an energy equivalent of 101.8 GJ. Because of the relatively high sugar losses during storage of sugar beets also not so effective energetic crops like potatoes, wheat etc. have to be taken as renewable raw materials in ethanol plants producing all around the year. The energetic outputlinput ratio of ethanol production from sugar beet is 1.63, which means that with RME-produced fuel from rape seed of rape seed is that the present energy equivalent of low. So, if the aim is to produce triticale and other plants some

the energetic efficiency is not very high, as compared with a 3.47 ratio. However, a disadvantage

48.1 GJ/ha from an oil yield of 1405 I (1279 kg), is comparatively yields per hectare have advantages. For sweet sorghum,

a high fuel output from the agricultural area, sugar beets and crops with similar high carbohydrate comparison information about biomass yields is given by EI Bassam and Dambroth.

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Table 13
Energy output and input for the production of energy carriers from renewable raw materials in Germany Raw material Energy equivalent
---

Rape

Sugar beet

Potatoes GJ per hectare

Wheat

Maize (GGM)

Input farming conversion Sum input Output rapeoil met~ylesterRME)* ( ethanol pulpofthickstillage biogas leavesasfertilizer oil cake straw Sum output
28.2 (43.0) 76.0 (119) 159.8 87.5 (88.1 ) 64.2 (152.3) 1.63 1.04 1.14 (2.71 )
Source: Institul liir Biosystemtechnik der FAL, Braunschweig-Volkenrode

17.7 4.2 21.9

33.7 64.1 97.8

40.6 43.5 84.1

26.2 29.9 56.1

28.0 25.7 53.7

47.8 101.8 32.3 14.7 11.0 64.1 12.2 11.2 44.5 10.1 9.6 46.7 12.0 10.2

68.9

Sum output / Sum input

3.47 (5.43)

1.28

• Output data concerni ng rape oil as energy carrier are insignificantly higher as compared to RME

But there is a demand for future investigations

about mass and energy balances of plants usable considerations

as energy crops, taking into account the progress in plant breeding, farming and processing in the ethanol plant (Rexen, F. and Munck, L. 1984) as well as additional environmental and the comparison with other energy carriers. The energetic potential of biomass sources for fuel is evaluated in Table 14 (EI Bassam and

Dambroth, 1991). Positive energy balances, to describe with the energy output: input ratio are to obtain, as given in Table 15 (EI Bassam and Dambroth, 1991). If for crops with a high ethanol yield, e.g. sugar beets, the energy input for the production process will be satisfied only by fuels like gasAoil, which are high quality energy carriers, the whole process will run with only a small surplus of high quality energy. One of the main results of investigations with energy flow diagrams is that the production of ethanol by fermentation for sugarcane, bagasse. availability because more than the requested will be justified, if low with the on the If nonbut to quality energy is available to generate the requested process energy. This condition is fulfilled e.g. process energy can be generated from sugar beets is dependent process energy. for the required We may suppose that the ethanol production of low quality energy or energy carriers

renewable energy sources like coal are not utilised on the direct way of coal liquefaction,

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generate the necessary process energy for ethanol production from biomass by fermentation, a much better energetic efficiency can be reached. Because of the climatic influence of CO2 from burning non-renewable energy resources, it is to take into consideration, on which way the necessary process energy can be generated by the combustion of biomass like straw, wood, etc. or use of low quality energy from power plants. Table 14
Yields of different energy crops (location Braunschweig 1990191)

Crop Contents (%) Spartina pectinata Arundo donax Sorghum bicolor I. (Sweet- and libre sorghum) Keller ZH 530 ZH 243 Maize Reynoutria sachalinensis Miscanthus sinensis Giganteus Grosse FonUine Goliath Silberturm Undine Malepartus Wellerfahne Winter wheat (Ares) Winter triticale (EUC6) Triticum spelta l. (Dinkel) Winter Rey (Karlshulder) Spring wheat (Pares) Spring Rey (Karlshulder)
68.1 46.9

OryrnaUer Yield (tlha)

12.8 21.9

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23.1 27.6 28.1 37.5 30.4 66.0 67.6 76.7 75.9 75.2. 72.9 76.0 60.9 81.5 80.8

17.6 21.8 15.8 16.5 3.9 16.5 13.1 12.5 8.0 6.9 6.9 6.6 12.9 17.9 14.7

56.4
54.3 65.8

14.5
10.7 11.0
Source: EI Bassam, Dambroth, 1991

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Table 15
Energy Balances of Biomass Fuels

Crop
-_.-

Biomass Fuels
ethanol ethanol

Energv Input (GJ/ha) Agr. Prod.

22 26

Output Total
56 - 89 44 - 62

Input: Output I:

Conver.
34 - 67 18 - 36

(GJ/ha)
118 62

Sugarbeet Maize

2.1 - 1.3 1.4-1.0

Winter wheat a] without straw ethanol ethanol + straw bl with straw c) whole plant whole plant Rapeseed a) without straw bIwith straw Sweet sorghum Miscanthus Arunda donax
oil + meal as a) + straw ethanol whole plant whole plant

22 26 26

16 - 33 22 - 39 7

38 - 55 48 - 65 33

57 147 195

1.5 - 1.0 3.1 - 2.3 5.9

17 24 20 26 26

4 8 bagasse • 7 7

21 32 20 33 33

72 147 104 300 • 400 .".

3.5 4.6 5.2 9.1 13.6

• Including energetic contents 01 bagasse • at 20 t dry matteona level 'I' at 30 t dry matter/lla level

Source: fI Bassam. Dambroth 1991

Application
The properties are summarized

in combustion
and characteristics in Table 16.

engines
of different alcohols compared with gasoline and Diesel fuel

Table 16
Some Properties of Ethanol, Methanol, Gtlsoline and Diesel Fuel

Ethanol Boiling temperature Density (W) Calorific value (MJ/kg) Vaporizatiol1 heat (kJ/kg) Stoichiometric ralio Octane number (MON) Calorific value of the mixture (MJ/m3)
78.3 0.79 26.9 842 9.D 106 3.87

Methanol
64.5 0.77 21.3 1100 6.5 105 3.90

Gasoline
99.2 0.70-0.78 43.7 300 15.1 79-98 3.73

Diesel
140-360 0.83-0.88 42.7
14.5

3.89
Source: Gouvello. Ch. 1987

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Commercial

experience with ethanol blends in combustion

engines that has been carried out in

the U. S. and Brazil between 1980 and 1985 has been positive . • In the transportation sector, fossil fuel is still the most important element. However, we

have the "Proalcool" example in Brazil (ethanol trom sugar cane) and the "Gasohol" in USA (blend of gasoline "super" and ethanol obtained from corn) which show that the biotuels are technologically feasible, and that they are provided with some competitivity from the economical point of view. One of the reasons of the existence of these programmes lead of fuels is replaced. is the environment protection, when the but the

But it's not only lead the one that creates

this necessity,

presence of gases such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfurates, etc. (See Section 3 of this study). To be able to get rid of these oxides, the only possibility system, that cannot work in presence of lead. The main differences of ethanol-fueled engines are: higher compression ratio internal combustion engines in relation to gasoline-fueled we have is the catalytic

00

new pistons and shape of the combustion chamber fuel tank needs a tin treatment fuel pump must be resistant to rust heating of the blend new gauge and resistance to rust of the carburetor new gauge of the distribution (variation of the ignition point) to match the materials of the valves spark plugs with the appropriated thermic degree manufactured joints to be able to cope with the engine high compression ratio

batteries of larger capacity, and alternators to propel the larger starting motor standard equipment for transistor injection carburetor with a nickel coating and alcohol pumps with chrome or cadmium to avoid rust

nylon pipes and diaphragm of the combustion pipe of a material that cannot be attacked by alcohol

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lead treatment and tin for the fuel tank, also to avoid the rusting to automatise the cold starting.

As a whole, the engines built today to use ethanol as a fuel have more than 300 parts which are different compared with the ones using conventional fuel. After years of experience in the bioethanol program, there have been identified several

advantages and disadvantages

when using ethanol in internal combustion engines.

As advantages, we can consider: a more complete combustion better overall performace (in some cases, in Brazil, they have reached 38 %) power and torque increase higher energetic value per volume unit of mixture various environmental advantages: decrease in several carbonated emmissions (50 %

carbon monoxide), solid residues decrease. Among the socioeconomic advantages:

increase in use of non-skilled labour creation of new jobs in agriculture improvement of the distribution of wealth decrease in the external energetic dependence. that have been identified are: taking into account the calorific value (26900 kJ/kg) of ethanol

Disadvantages -

higher consumption,

reduction of mechanical performance lower calorific value per kg aldehyde emissions from the exhaust (in the USA, catalytic systems that get rid of 80 % of these emissions are installed)

sulfuric acid content, due to some distillation processes .

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TEC"'iiNICAL

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TrNG

FUELS

Table 17
Oxygenate production capacity in the EC (12) (thousand tonnes)

Installed capacity at 1985 Benelux France West Germany Italy U.K. Total Additions 1985 -1990

MTBE 385
-

GTBA 460 - 550

Methanol 750 125 820 120 750 2565

165 100
-

650

460 - 550

00
40 20 ..... 100 170 180
100

France West Germany Greece Italy Spain U.K. Total Total Capacity
..,.Estimated share of total etherification plant capacity • some of the TBA production may be converted to MTBE

380

380 840 -930·

I

610 1260

2565
Source: EC 1992

Table 18
Oxygenate supply/demand balance in the EC (1985-1990) (thousand tonnes)

MTBE 1985 Produclion Imports Exports Apparent consumption 535 19 163 391 1990 1000 450-500 150 1300-1350 1985 435 15 25 425

GTBA 1990 930

-

Methanol 1985 5~0· }

-

• 1990
250

Others ..,. 1985 85 1990 200-250

-

1250
-

30 900

580

1500

85

200-250
Source: EC 1992

• Excluding production, consumption and trade in chemical sectors (3 million tonnes in 1985) and in MTBE production (290000tonnes in 1985) . ..,.Includes TAME and the higher alcohols. • It is not possible to separate the elements of production and trade of methanol specifically directed. towards gasoline blending rather than chemical uses.

1.2.2

Methanol
In t r o d u c t i o n Different information

and

data

relevant

to methanol

production.

A foremost advantage of alcohols as fuels is that they paiute less than petroleum derivates, since both methanol and ethanol have simpler structures than gasoline or diesel fuel, making a better combustion and therefore leaving less residues. In respect to this, methanol is even superior than ethanol. All technologies to produce ethanol by fermentation from treated cellulose materials are low

productive with high costs. The major problems in the ethanol are two: one is storage; the other one is the effect on soil depletion and soil exposure to erosion. The recent cut stover is the principal feedstock safely because of fermentation in ethanol production, but it can not be baled

problems (burning!). that can be used in small

In the case of methanol, instead, there are many different feedstocks local industries, using stover only in fall from neighbour fertilizers in the same fields as the crops from origin.

fields. The wastes can be used as

In relation to erosion, it will be larger as more stover is cut and less amount of vegetable material is left on the field. On the other hand, the most used stover is corn and, to obtain high yields, it has to be employed big amounts of fertilizers and pesticides, that can pollute groundwaters and subsoil in case of excess of these substances. The idea is that obtention alternative of methanol. Certainly, the final result regarding energy is more positive when producing methanol. Ethanol is a low yield and a high cost product with two important additional problems: storage and effect on soils. The calorific power of a liter of methanol is equal to 18 MJ, but as its engine efficiency is higher than that of gasoline (20 %), we may assume an equivalence of 22.5 MJ per liter . • Methanol is often mentioned as the best fuel for future surface transport, can be obtained in very diverse ways, among which we have natural gas. • Methanol is easier to handle, it is less volatile, less dangerous in case of traffic accident and combustion may be extinguished with water. Pipe transport of methanol is cheaper than that of natural gas when considering large distances. Methanol obtention from wood is a very antique technique, although it was originaly a subproduct as it has a from biomass suits preferently methanol, though ethanol could be

useful for a limited sector such as agriculture.

For all these reasons, we must bear in mind the

great versatility. It is also an important raw material for plenty of chemical processes and

..

of charcoal.

Then production

was very low, as almost all the yield was coal. Nowadays,

this

">

"'" or

,z CaN

lC

A It

'a 1> 1> L :t CAT

:I 0 N S

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II' x

1ST

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8I

0 F t1 B L S

method is used with better results in several countries such as Brazil, Sweden and others from the EC. In some of these processes also part of the feedstock is burnt to give some of the heat necessary for the plants operativity taking into account that it is the lowest-value heat source. Besides, gasoline can be obtained from methanol although with energy loss. Anyway, it may be convenient in some cases (as a fact, gasoline can be obtained directly from the biomass without having to get through the intermediate step of methanol obtention). Methanol can be converted into a high octane number gasoline at a very low cost with the added advantage that it has no sulfur and polutes less, This gasoline may be used in countries that are not ready to employ engines that are fed directly with methanol. Anyway, the conversion from one system into the other implies a cost. There are two questions to be answered: • First, what is the necessary amount of biomass to obtain a methanol unit?

00

We use as a rule of thumb that a ton of dry biomass produces 700 liters of methanol, which is an aproximate relation of 50%, though it is obtained without taking into account the energy input. • The other question has to do with this energy input, which gives an average relation between the energy in methanol and the energy input for its production of about 2.0. Considering only the non renewable part of energy, the efficiency in the production of methanol is 2.3. Also to produce methanol, biomass seems more appropriate than coal (C02 in atmosphere,

greenhouse effecU).

Application

in combustion

engines.
blend of ethanol and gasoline. This blend

Methanol can be used also as a fuel, in a tertiary only ethanol. The first automobiles with internal combustion

consists in 33 % methanol, 60 % ethanol and the 7 % left of gasoline. The result is not as good as

engines used methanol as a fuel, and it has also

been employed in races such as Indy 500. To begin with, methanol advantages relation with its calorific power, are its superior engine performances, higher power obtained lower combustion in

higher

efficiency,

less pollution,

temperature and less risks. Compared with ethanol, methanol is much cheaper. Among its disadvantages we have corrosion, toxicity, the difficulty of cord starting and the

emission of non burnt methanol and aldehydes, mainly formaldehyde. about toxicity of this methanol. The advantages appear mainly at great speeds, while disadvantages

There is a serious question

can be imputed to the lack

of study of methanol engines compared with others using other kind of fuels .

..

B I 0 po 0 I!: L S

Lately, the Ford Motor Company has developed an engine able to work with neat methanol in the Escort model, but the last new is the so called FFV (Flexible Fuel Vehicle), which can use any mixture of gasoline and methanol adjusting to each proportion automaticaly. use nearly pure methanol as fuel are avaliable. Thus, there are reasons to study the substitution of ethanol by methanol even for road transport. Besides, engines that

1.2.3

Oxygenated

Components in Fuel Blends

by one or more of these three ways:

The substitution of lead in gasoline is compensated • • •

to refine the petrol more to have a higher octane number, to decrease the compression ratio in engines,

to use another kind of antiknock component. in octane number of by a high RON in

Oxygenates are considered as a convenient option to reach the requirements determine their lise, now and in the future. Usually, they are characterized

a petrol group, but they are not the only options, and price will continue being the key which will relation to petrol (though its contribution to MON is less significant). The oxygenates have a high sensitivity (RON-MON) and From an environmental oxygenated uncombusted compounds

a high volatility.

paint of view, the addition of oxygenated compounds (whether alcohols or benefits. By favoring the amount better combustion, monoxide the addition of emissions and actually reduces of carbon

ethers) to gasoline otters considerable hydrocarbons.

Moreover, this addition limits the amount of aromatic compounds

needed to meet octane requirements. Recently, including in the United bioethanol. States, there has been a growing a decisive demand of oxygenated products products

However,

impulse to spread the use of oxygenated car emissions

came from the "Clean Air Act Amendments trend already transformation established gasoline fuel reformulations. not just to new vehicles.

of 1990". This new legislation further developed the to regulating

in some states to shift from regulating

The advantage of this approach is that it will permit an environmental sector over the short term, extended to aU circulating cars and gasoline can considerably '\ reduce the amount of (trom gas tanks)

of the automobile

In fact, reformulated

polluting exhausts as well as the release of toxic substances due to evaporation without requiring engine modifications. Among the most widely used oxygenates, are: MTBE, obtained from the petrochemical to 10 %. ETBE, obtained from bio-ethanol. industry, can be incorporated

in proportions up

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Methanol, obtained from natural gas, available in large quantities and cheap all over the world. It's not very soluble when water traces are present.

TBA can be used as a solvent of methanol. It exists in small quantities, byproduct TBA, and 95 % petrol) can be used. Ethanol, also as a solvent of methanol, in blends of the type M3E3.

because it is a

used to obtain propylen oxide. A mixture of M3TBA2 (3 % methanol, 2 %

Plain Ethanol, in a ratio of 7 %, in which no solubility problems exist. octane number for petrol without lead is at least 95 RON and 85

In any case, the demanded MON.

According to established regulations, all Member States of the EC must have had lead-free petrol available in their own territory starting from October it appropriate". 1989. Likewise, Refineries all Member States are such as induced to reduce the highest lead content of the petrol sold in their own territory down to a level of 0.15 gIl "as soon as they consider can use oxygenates MTBE, TBA, and mixtures of methanol and ethanol to be blended with gasoline. Table 17 shows the oxygenate production capacity in the EC in thousands of tonnes. The refining industry in the EC will not be faced with an octane deficiency throughout the rest of the century. complementary The use of oxygenated fuels should therefore always be viewed as being to, and competing with the refinery'S internal octane supplies, rather than as an

essential requirement in the gasoline pool. The oxygenate supply/demand Alternatively, in the EC (1985-1990) is summarized in the Table 18. of high pricellow volume could be adopted on the basis of

however, a strategy

small-scale bioethanol plants located near to refineries identified as having problems in meeting RON requirements. During the 1990's, this strategy could aim at a market of up to 0.6 million tonnes or 7.5 million hi of bioethanol, at a pricing level of 100 to 120 % of premium gasoline. It is observed that the volatility of these components is higher than the one of petrol except for the MTBE, being this one the reason why it is considered compound. To compensate its volatility, as the most appopriated oxygenated some of the elements that are usually found in the

mixture should be eliminated, generally butane. This fact has to be taken into account at the time of doing an economical study, because it can imply a loss for the refinery, when finding itself forced to separate it from petrol and to sell it in another market, in which its price is lower. Another aspect to consider is the change that exists in the volume and in the weight when the oxygenated component is added. The removed butane volume does not have to coincide necessarily with the volume of the new blended element. This fact influences the volume of the final fuel and it has to be evaluated economically.

The Member States of the E. C. have allowed the use of oxygenates fuels, so that although on one side decreases the energetic richness, on the other increases its profit. The solution to refine more is, at the end, more expensive than the profit, while the oxygenates provide the same profit at the octane number, whatever its initial value in petrol when it comes up pure. There is much research oriented to obtain a higher octane number and spending less energy than that used in alcohol obtention. Needless to say, success in this investigation mixtures obsolete. would make alcohol

CONCLUSIONS No dramatic changes have to be introduced in engines to be adjusted to alcohol fueling, and of bioethanol

especially when used as oxygenate additive to gasoline. The technical advantages are not very important and it is in the economics where the main questions arise. •

Ethanol, no matter its origin, can be devoted to very different uses: the basic ones are nourishment and energy and, included in the last one, it can be burned directly or used in internal combustion engines. This versatility, similar to other biologically derived nonfood products, is considered one of its main advantages.

In central Europe and other areas of the EC, raw materials for ethanol production will be also in the near future the common crops with a high sugar or starch content like grain, potatoes and sugar beet.

Methanol is often mentioned

as the best fuel for future surface transport, as it has a

great versatility. It is also an important raw material for plenty of chemical processes and can be obtained in very diverse ways, among which natural gas. • Methanol is easier to handle, it is less volatile, less dangerous in case of traffic accident and combustion may be extinguished with water. Pipe transport of methanol is cheaper than that of natural gas when considering large distances.

T B C H NrC

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R&D

NEEDS It seems therefore advisable to continue R&D activities in unsolved aspects of bioalcohol

production and use, at least as a strategic measure towards the future: • to further enhance the studies devoted to energy balances of bioalcohol and other

biofuels, from diverse origin and at each site and condition, of raw materials production as well as of their industrial conversion . • the wide scope study and testing of mixtures of different alcohols with petroleum-derived fuels, like gasoline, in different proportions. Also, more research is needed on oxigenates gasolines and of different fuel-mixtures. in general, as a means to boost octane number of

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agro Developpement; Parpinelli Tecnon: 1987. CostlBenefit analysis of production and use of bioethanol as a gasoline

additive in the European Community. Associacao Nacional dos Fabricantes ao cicio Otto. G.J. Mejer;

Brussels-Luxembourg. de Vefculos Automotores (ANFAVEA): 1980. Novas altemativas para combustiveis

veiculares aplicaveis Batel, W.; M. Graef; altemativer

F. Schoedder

u. G. Vellguth:

1981. Athanol

aus nachwachsenden

Rohstoffen

als

Kraftstoff fur Fahrzeuge.

Grundl. Landtechnik.

Bd. 31. Nr. 4, S. 125/137. Commission of the european

Belletti, A; Biolec, A.: 1990. Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) as an alcoholic hill cultivation. communities. Brussels-Luxembourg. na utilizacao como combustivel automotivo. Universidade

Benez, S. H.: 1990. Cuidados Botucatu. Botucatu.

Estadual

Paulista.

Campus de

Cabela, E. et al.: 1982. Energie aus BiomasseSeibersdorf. Commission of the European Communities:

Energiebilanzstudie.

OEFZS Bericht No. A0354 Osterr.

Forsch. Zentrum

1992, Cost/benefit

analysis of production

and use of bioethanol

as a gasoline

additive in the European Community. Companhia brasileira de tratores: 1981. Uma altemativa fOr Forschung und Technologie: concreta: CBT.3000 alcool. Rohstoffe, Bonn, p. 113.

Der Bundesminster

1986. Nachwachsende

Dovring, F: 1988. Farming for fuel. Praeger. New York. EI Bassam, N.; Dambroth, M: 1991. A concept of energy plants' farm. Proceedings of the 6th E. C. Conference on

Biomass for Energy, Industry and Environment, Environmental Resources Limited;

p. 34/40. impacts of large scale bioethanol production in

1990. Study of Ihe environmental

Europe (Final report). London. Gouvello, Ch.: 1987. Le programme 'Proalcool" breslllen, 11 ans apres, Revue de I'energie, 393. Washington, D. C. 47th Convention.

Grinnell, G. E.: 1987. Impacts of ethanol fuel production on U. S. agriculture. Miller, F. R.: 1979. Genetic challenges Worth. Texas. Mundler, P.: 1990. Le retour de I'ethanol. Agriculture magazine, 57.

in plant breeding for alcohol production.

Seed Trade Association

Nyns, E. J.; Naveau, H. P.; Beckers, G. H.: 1989. Production of ethanol or other fuel molecules in fixed-cell Luxembourg. Northrup production. reactors of gas produced . 1980. Sucrosorgo. A new family of sorghum hybrids specially by lignocellulose gasification. Commission

by anaerobic

fermenlation Brussels-

of the european

communities.

King Semences: SI. Jory. France.

bred for sugar and alcohol

Pauwels, 0.: 1986. Du ble dans nos moteurs. Revue de I'energie, 386. Rexen, F; Munck, L.: 1984. Cereal Crops for Industrial Use in Europe, EUR 9617 EN. Rover, H; Austmeyer, Nr.675. Soltner, S.365/380. H. K. E.: 1988. Moglichkeiten der Energieumformung mit nachwachsenden Rohstoffen. VOI-Berichte

J.:

1991.

Mechanisierung

des Produktionsverfahrens

bei Helianthus

tuberosus

untar

besonderer

Berucksichtigung

eines meh~iirigen

Anbaus in 8eetkultur.

Oiss. Gesamthochschule

Kassel - Universitiit.

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1.3

GASEOUS

BIOfUELS:

BIOGAS

AND

PRODUCER

GAS

1.3.1

Introduction
The use of agricultural products and residues to obtain fuel gases for energy can be made by two ways of conversion: • dry residues can be incompletely burned to obtain producer gas and • wet residues can be employed in anaerobic fermentation to produce biogas. The application of gases to internal combustion engines is not new. As far as 1860 the Belgian engineer J.E. Lenoir built a 2-stroke gas engine with success, The German engineer N. Otto in 1876 built a 4-stroke internal combustion engine fuelJedfirst with compressed gas. It is recorded that in 1907 in India an Otto-engine was powered with biogas. In Europe during World War II, producer gas was used broadly in spark ignition engines in automobiles, trucks, and military vehicles. In 1943 France had over 60000 charcoal-burning, gasifier-equipped cars while Sweden had about 75000.
With the spreading of municipal waste-plants in USA and Europe, the application of biogas to

stationary engines is a fact and represents substantial saving in running these plants.

Goss et al (1979) refer to the use of producer gas obtained from crop and wood residues in both spark-ignition and diesel engines. Worgetter (1982) reports about the use of producer gas in diesel engines. He indicates that it is necessary to reduce the values of the compression-ratio to around 13:1 and that the amount of diesel fuel should be from 10 to 25 % of the total energy of both fuels. Siogas has been used mainly in spark-ignition engines (Friedberg, 1976; Neyeloff and Gunkel, 1975; Smith, 1978; Williams et at, 1976; Ortiz-Cafiavate et ai, 1988), but also dual-fueled in diesel engines (Persson et ai, 1976; Ortiz-Canavate et ai, 1981; Ortiz-Canavate et ai, 1990). Diesel engines are more difficult to operate with gaseous fuels than spark-ignition engines, but since diesel engines are more efficient and sturdier than spark ignition engines, they are more frequently used on farms as a source of power and for that reason they can be adapted to run dual-fueled with gas.

1.3.2

Production
Produ ction of biogas

The process of anaerobic digestion of organic residues consists of a microbial breakdown of biological material, normally livestock wastes or any kind of sewage, evolving methane gas

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together with some carbon dioxide, while leaving non-digestible that can be used as fertilizer.

residues in the form of a slurry

In developed countries, like USA and the European Community, this technic is applied mainly for industrial- and municipal-wastes countries, specially and the interest in anaerobic digestion of farm wastes has been and expensive and this has provided spasmodic until recent years and restricted to a few individuals. On the other hand, in developing in the East, fuel is often scarce motivation for large numbers of small digesters to be run, like in China, India, Korea, Taiwan and the Philippines. Most of these digesters are small, labour intensive and involve no sophistication of design. Only now that many Western countries are interested in the process of anaerobic digestion for livestock wastes because of environmental protection and alternative uses of crop land, attention is devoted to optimise the process concept and engineering. Indeed, it is now being widely realised that anaerobic digestion is applicable, not only to sewage and livestock wastes, but to any source of wet biomass such as grass, vegetable residues, algae and possibly also plantation crops grown specially as a feedstock. Anaerobity of the process is essential to its succesful operation. When the feedstock is confined in a closed tank, the conditions tend to become anaerobic and, so long as other conditions are 00 correct, the bacterial species necessary for methane production will multiply. The process can be operated in two temperature and a higher or thermophilic ranges: a lower or mesophilic range of 15-42 'C

range of 50-70 ·C. Between these two limits the reaction rate falls off ranges. By far the most common temperature range for

and it appears that two quite different populations of bacteria are responsible for carrying out the process in these different temperature practical digesters has been established constituted thermal by 60% methane content at 30-36 'C in the mesophilic range. Biogas is normally

(CH4) and 40% carbon dioxide (C02) as mean values, giving a of 20-26 MJ/m3. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)is a minor component of biogas,

variable and dependent upon the feedstock used, but typically 0.1 % of the volume and above. Its combustion gives rise to sulphur dioxide (502), which may cause corrosion of engines and pipes. Removal of hydrogen sulphide is possible by scrubbing with a water curtain or shower and also exposing the gas to iron fillings.

Production

of producer

gas
system is to transform solid fuels into gaseous ones and in the state, ideally

The purpose of a gasification

process to carry the largest amount of energy from the solid into the gaseous

keeping the gas clean and free from harmful constituents which are present in the solid fuel. Gasification occurs when air is led across the glowing hot gaSification material, the air stream

being dry or containing steam. In many gasifiers connected to an engine, the suction effect of the engine's pistons is used for this purpose. The chemical reactions occur between the gasification material and the air, and the product of these reactions is the producer gas, while the nongasifiable part of the gasification material remains as ashes or stag.

The air stream can be led in the same or in the opposite direction of the fuel feed, or it may even go crosswise gasification. The composition of the producer gas vary very much depending of the dry fuel and the to the feed. In consequence, designs different methods of gasification downdraft are possible. The and crossdraft three most important are: updraft gasification, gasification

gasification method, the components vary normally within the following limits: CO (carbon monoxide) 20-30% 10-25% 0-4% 2-15% 45-60% (by volume)

- H2 (hydrogen)
- CH4 (methane)
CO2 (carbon dioxide) N2 (nitrogen)

The thermal content of the producer gas will lie between 3.8 and 5.9 MJ/m3 in accordance with each particular composition of the gas.

1.3.3

Properties

of biogas and producer gas

Gaseous fuels mix more thoroughly with air to burn more completely than liquid fuels. Also they produce a smaller amount of contaminating pollutants, less sludge in the lubricating oil, no wash down of cylinder wall lubrication during engine starting and less valve burning. One advantage of these gaseous fuels over petrol is the high octane number that they possess. Producer gas always surpass the value of 100 in the number of octane (""110-115). and methane even goes above this value to 125. This quality permits the use of these gaseous fuels with a high compression of increasing the performance in the efficiency and power of the engine. In Table 19 properties of biogas and producer gas are given in comparison and liquid fuels. The composition of biogas and producer gas is not constant and it depends on the running with other gaseous ratio (up to 10 and

even more in spark ignition engines and higher than 15 in dual fuel diesel engines), with the result

conditions of the digester gas and of the gasifier. In biogas the most important component from the point of view of energy is methane with a for liquefaction of -82QC,

heating value of 35.9 MJ/m3 <> 10 kWh/m3.With a critical temperature

methane can not easily be liquified. Some authors like Maurer, 1981 have used compressed gas at 200-220 bar in cylinders of 0.05 m3 capacity and others like Steinmetz et al 1986 have used liquefied biogas applied in both cases to fuel tractors. Other tests conducted in Germany (Maurer, 1981) and Switzerland (Fankhauser et ai, 1988) show that this last possibility, although technically feasible, has not an economical interest.

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All these experiences show that application of biogas to vehicles is not economical and its practical utilization is only suitable for stationary motors.
The properties of biogas as an engine fuel can be summarized as having low heat content per volume of gas ( ",,20 MJ/m3 ), high octane number (125) and a low speed of combustion.

Table 19
Properties of biogas and producer gas in comparison to other gaseous and liquid fuels

Fuel type

Typical composition

Minimumcalorilic Stoichiometric Calorificvalue Octane value air/fuelratio mixture number

Critical values TempDC ·36 -130 Presbar 76 51

MJ/m3
Bio·gas 60% CH4 ; 40% CO2 21.6 5.57

MJ/kg
17.8 5.05

m3 air/m3fuel 5.72 1.17

MJ/m3 3.21 2.57

N.O.
>120 >100

Producer as 23% CO; 18% H2 g 10% CO2; 2% CH4 Methane LPG CH4 90% C3H8 10% C4H1O C16H34 CaH16

35.9 93.5

50.1 46.3

9.53 -

3.41 3.68

115 112

·82.5

47 44

90
296

Dieselluel Gasoline

41.8 43.1

3.97 3.77

00

>90

24.2

Sou ree: Ortiz·Caiiavate J. et al. 1981

1.3.4

Mass and Energy Balance

Mass and Energy Balance for Biogas

Most of the biogas produced in agriculture comes from residues of animal production in anaerobic plants. The main goal in this process is depuration of these residues for environmental sugar-beet leaves. As an example and according grass for silage is considered. to Schuchardt, The production 1981, the mass and energy balance for 1 ha of of a mid-intensity grass plot is 50 t/ha, that protection. But it is possible to consider energy crops for producing biogas like silage grass, myscanthus or

represents 10 tlha of dry matter or 170 GJ/ha of energy. The energy consumed in 1 ha is: Tillage, cultivation and harvest Transportation Fertilizer Machines and buildings manufacturing Total technical means The energy - equivalent for the anaerobic digestor to the anaerobic fermentor and back 6.1 GJ/ha 2.7 GJ/ha 16.5 GJ/ha 2.1 GJ/ha 27.4 GJ/ha is estimated in 2.4 GJ/ha. In Table 20 the

values of mass and energy balance for 1 ha silage grass for biogas production are given .

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Considering both energies as useful (heat-fertilizer), we obtain a net energy production of (52.9 + 9.4)-(27.4 + 2.4) Table 20 Energy and mass balance for 1ha silage grass to produce biogas

= 32.7

GJ/ha and an energy output/input ratio of: 62.3/29.8

= 2.1.

Source: SchuChardt, 1981 modified

Mass

and

Energy

Balance

for

Producer

Gas

It is possible to obtain producer gas from different origins: wood. straw. nut-shells. corn-cobs. etc. The potential of wood-crops and straw for burning directly or to obtain producer gas is very big. As an example. and according to Batel et al., 1982, we consider the mass and energy balance for straw of 1 ha wheat. The amount of straw produced is 6400 kg/ha. This straw can be considered the grain the main objective as a residue, being in the

of the culture; for that reason the only energy considered

process is the equivalent consumed in harvest and transport and to make pellets. The sun energy referred to straw is proportional to the total sun energy used by the crop. In Table 21 the values of mass and energy flow diagramm are given. refered to 1 ha. When producing crops. In this case we obtain a net energy gain of 57.1 - (17.7 + 1.8 + 0.6 ) = 37 GJ/ha. or an energy output/input ratio of: 57.1120.1 fuels by energy cropping. the knowledge of the total energy balance is very

important to see if we obtain a good result and to compare it with the results obtained with other

= 2.84.

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Table 21
Energy and mass balance for 1ha wheat straw

Source: Batel et at, 1982 modified

00

1.3.5

Application

ot Gaseous Biotue/s to Internal

of an anaerobic

Combustion Engines

The economic feasibility

digester depends in many instances on the extent to

which the produced biogas can entirely be used within the farm. The easiest way is to burn the gas for space heating and hot water production. However, usually excess gas is produced, mainly in summer. An attractive alternative way to flaring the gas off is • • • to burn it in an engine or to run a generator to produce electricity for the farm to run a motor to drive a pump or any other kind of machinery {a ventilator of a dryer, etc.}.

In this way, it is possible to produce both power and usable heat in the form of hot water or hot air for drying. Another possibility is • to compress the gas to run a tractor. to 200 bar or

In order to carry an adequate amount of gas on the tractor, it has to be compressed more with gas bottles located at both sides of the hood of the tractor or on the roof. According to Ortiz-Canavate

et at (1981), to convert a diesel engine to operate with producer gas

and biogas, it is necessary to carry out minor modifications: • a mixing chamber with a venturi for low-energy gas and a carburetor for biogas

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I)

a mechanism to hold the governor plate of the diesel injection pump in a desired minimum delivery position and

• a slight advance in injection pump timing. Dual-fuel engines running with low-energy gas perform best at medium-high speed and mediumhigh torque. With biogas they perform best at medium speed and high torque. Under these conditions, efficiency is fully comparable to engines using diesel fuel. At small loads (low torque), temperatures attained inside the cylinder are not sufficiently high to ignite the producer gas or biogas promptly when injection begins, so that brake thermal efficiency is lower than in diesel fuel operation. At normal operating conditions (high-medium load, exhaust temperature below 550"'C and air-ratio above 1:1), the relative power delivered by a diesel engine running with biogas is 85-90 % of the power that the engine would deliver with diesel fuel only. Application of biogas to internal combustion engines

Many studies have shown that while motor vehicles could use the biogas as a fuel, most vehicles have not the possibility of adequate storage capacity for extended operation. For this reason it is assumed that most applications using the digester gas will be in stationary engines. The use of biogas or methane as a fuel for internal combustion engines has several advantages. It has a high octane rating which gives excellent anti-knock qualities as well as providing for higher efficiency in engines if compression ratio is increased. Methane is a slow burning fuel. Therefore, the timing advance of engines fuelled with methane needs to be increased to maximize the engine output power. If the ignition point is not advanced enough, the fuel will not have burnt completely before being exhausted through the exhaust valves. This exposes the exhaust valves to higher temperatures and their expected life is shortened. If the timing is too advanced, the peak pressure rise will occur before top dead center and knocking will appear. The test engine used by Koelsch et al (1982) was run for 1220 hours on unscrubbed biogas with an average H2S content of 0.4%. The high sulfur content caused rapid deterioration of the buffering capacity of the oil resulting in short oil change intervals. The capacity of the oil to neutralize the effects of sulphur in the fuel is indicated by the Total Base Number (TBN), and this number decreased very rapidly (less than 100 hours) from a TBN of 10 to less than 2 is the admitted minimum level. Diesel engines can be used for biogas with modifications if some diesel fuel is used for ignition purposes. The original injection system can be maintained with a slight modification to guarantee a minimum amount of diesel fuel, as well as the diesel's high compression ratio if the engine is dual fuelled. Three to four degrees injection advance seems favourable to avoid knocking and misfiring at low torque levels.

~ a C H N I~CA L

i ~p

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Persson et at (1981) used in their tests a diesel engine dual fuelled. They state that, normally the minimum amount of diesel fuel that could be used before irregular ignition occurred, was constant for all tests and independent of load and injection timing. The amount of diesel fuel needed for
e

proper ignition depends on the design of the fuel system and on the type of the engine. At 100 % load and maximum efficiency, the liquid fuel needed was less than 10 of the necessary fuel when the energy while at 10 % load, the diesel fuel supplied 40 % of the energy. Consequently, as close to full load as considered feasible. It may also be desirable to maintain a fairly high engine coolant temperature vapour condensation. also recommended. Ortiz-Caliavate et al (1981) made some recommendations to transform a medium size diesel Reductions of H2S concentrations to prevent water

goal is to utilize mainly biogas for energy input to the engine, it is essential to operate the engine

to a level of 1 mg H2S per litre or less is

engine to run on biogas: • Dual-fuel diesel engines running with biogas perlorm best at medium speed (",,13001600 r/min) and high torque. Under these conditions efficiency is comparable to engines using diesel fuel only and exhaust temperatures • and air ratios are also favourable.

At higher speeds the biogas doesn't react quickly enough to burn completely inside the cylinder, a situation resulting in lower efficiency and air-ratio values and in higher exhaust temperatures (>600°C) which are not compatible with long engine life. inside the cylinder are not sufficiently high to

00

At small loads (low torque) temperatures than that with diesel fuel only.

ignite the biogas promptly when injection begins so that brake thermal efficiency is lower

In general, each model of diesel engine would have to be modified in ways specifically suited to its construction. conventional In any case, it seems advisable and more economical to modify the available diesel engines for operation with biogas rather than to design special dual fuel

engines to operate with biogas and diesel fuel. In a correctly tuned up engine, the use of methane as a fuel yields less hydrocarbons, monoxide and nitroxide in respect to petrol or diesel fuel. These hydrocarbons using petrol or diesel fuel. These anti-pollution gaseous fuels considered. To choose the right engine for a specific farm it is necessary run per day. Dohne (1986) has given following values of biogas consumption energy balance of a biogas cogeneration set producing with an average value of 60 % for the farm, electricity and to take into account how much reactivity, that is the capacity of forming smog, with respect to the hydrocarbons carbon

have also a lower from a motor

I.:

features are of big interest for application on the

biogas is produced per hour or per day and also the number of hours the engine is supposed to

methane content for different types of engines and power ranges (Table 22). He also indicates an electricity thermal heat for the fermenter and usable heat in the form of hot water for the farm (Fig. 9).

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Figure 9
Energy balance of a biogas cogeneration set referred to the amount of gas produced by an LU (large animal unit = 500 kg weight) (Dohne, 1986)

mechanical

energy 28%

UPM 1 UAM 1 FAL 11993

Table 22
A verage consumption of biogas in m3 Ih

Engine power (kW) 10 20 30 50

80

Otto engines Full power 6 12 18 30

48

Diesel engines 50% power

4 8

Full power
4.5 9

50% power 3.3 6.5

9.8

12 20 30

13.5 22.5 36

16.3 26
Source: Dohme, 1986

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Table 23
Comparison of electrical and thermal outputs from selected biogas power units

Source: Oohme, 1986

The data indicated in Table 22 are the mean values from the different manufacturers power units, which also are given in Table 23,

of biogas

The use of heat from the cooling system of the engine and from the exhaust gases is very suitable for the farm, Its application can be used as hot water or heating for the animals or for people, Normally, to use the heat coming from the cooling system of the engine is very simple, but in some cases it is also possible to use a heat-exchanger from the exhaust gases, In these cases the temperature the dew point (> 120-150°C) to avoid corrosion. A very important question for both the life of the engine and for the economics of operation is in order to increase the heat recovered

ot

the gases should

not

decrease below

wether or not the H2S component should be reduced below a certain amount (e.g. 0.1 % in Vol. or 1 mg H2SIIiter of gas) to avoid corrosion. Cu-holder components of the engine corrode very quickly with biogas having small amounts of of the engine should not be made of Cu but instead of other

H2S. For that reason components

metals not containing Cu alloys or if Cu is necessary, it must be carefully protected. The engine should run if possible in a room without biogas-emissions. If that is not possible, all has to be gastight.

the electric components should be specially protected and the control-board

When there is not a device to desulfurize the biogas available, or it results too expensive, it is very important to check from time to time the TBN (Total Basic Number) of the engine-oil. TBN of a new oil is around 10 and decreases of acids like H2S or H2S04, Before it reaches values below 2 to 3, it should be replaced in order to avoid corrosion in the engine. device, it should be considered how long the oil in with the presence

To establish the economics of a desulfurization lasts with or without comparison to the amortization of the device.

it (e.g. 500 hla to 250 h/a) and the money saved from this concept

Corrosion occurs when the engine is not running continuously, when it starts and stops frequently, and when it cools, while it's motionless producing the aggressive H2S04, to run continuously the remained H2S combines with condensed water For this reason, for engines fueled with biogas it is convenient

or before they stop, to run for a while with a clean gas like LPG.

Power reduction in engines on using biogas instead of gasoline or diesel-fuel can be of the order of 5 -

10 %. The use of heat of the engine from the cooling system and in some cases, from the

exhaust gases can be very interesting for the biogas-plant

itself or for the external applications,

and in some cases it results necessary for economical reasons. In this case the total efficiency of the engine can be up to 60 - 70 % (mechanical power + useful heat/energy of the fuel). The main problem' of using biogas in internal combustion engines is the presence of H2S,

specially in amounts higher than 0.1 % in volume. To install a desulphurization device can only be interesting from the economical point of view for

large plants with big engines over 100 kW or even more. In general it is more advisable to prepare the engine as follows: avoid the presence of biogas emissions at the engine room, substitute all Cu-holder components engine as continuously or protect them very carefully, check the TBN of the oil frequently and substitute it before reaching the value of 3 or less, run the as possible and avoid motionless times, or in case that it is necessary to stop, the engine should run with a clean gas like LPG for a while.

Application

of producer

gas to internal

combustion

engines

One of the most attractive applications for power or electricity diesel- and otto-engines very little modifications. generation.

of producer gas is its use in internal combustion engines producer gas can be burnt in gas turbines, this

Although

section is concerned only with reciprocating internal combustion engines commonly referred to as is their ability to run on fuels other than what they were designed for with However, there are many questions that should be looked into before chamber is certainly inferior in some

attempting to run an internal combustion engine with an alternative fuel such as producer gas. A producer gas-air mixture as delivered to the combustion respects to the gasoline-air or diesel fuel-air mixture for which the engine has been designed. The chemical and physical properties of producer gas as compared to these mixtures are so different that a thorough evaluation of the following topics is necessary in order to understand the operational differences: • • • • Actual efficiency of the engine; Power output on producer gas operation and engine modification; Engine wear and long-term effect on engine; Engine exhaust.

The large number of automotive gas producers before and during World War II did not stimulate the development conditions combustion operation. of a special gas producer engine. The reasons should be sought in the war gas producers. However, extensive research most or all of the power loss. An internal and the uncertain future of automotive

has been done on how to recover more conveniently

engine should meet certain design criteria for a possible conversion to producer gas

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A. Conversion of a gasoline engine to producer gas:

Today's compression ratio for spark ignition engines lies within the range 5 - 8 for industrial

engines and 9 - 10 for premium gasoline passenger cars. The expected power drop for an unaltered engine will be about 30 - 40 %. There are four alternatives to recover part or all of the power loss: No modifications of the engine. In this case recovering of the power loss means driving

the engine at a higher speed on a continuous basis. Supercharging Supercharging or turbocharging or turbocharging the engine. the engine and supercharging the gas producer. ratio.

Increasing the engine compression Dual fueling the engine.

The use of an unaltered gasoline engine for producer gas operation is appealing from an economical point of view and technically sound. This approach is, in particular, beneficial in cases where an existing unit is operated on half load most of the time and the full power requirements generation. are not crucial. This approach Examples are engine-water pump systems and electricity and trucks which depend will certainly not work for tractors

heavily on a full power output for a great part of their running time. There is a considerable diversion of opinion as to what extent the recovery of the power is actually useful. One should clearly distinguish between efficiency and power output. The actual efficiency of the gasoline engine will be only slightly affected for producer-gas makes sense to anticipate the expected power drop in operation. It therefore

a new installation and choose a

larger engine to meet the power output requirements and extend the life of the unit.

B. Conversion of diesel engines to producer gas

Most of the previous discussion about gasoline engines applies to diesel engines as well. However, diesel engines are compression compression combustion ignition engines and operate at a much higher ratio of 16 - 20 depending on whether they are direct injection chamber, prechamber, four stroke or two stroke engines. Their piston speed at maximum ignition engine, usually of the

power rating is about the same as industrial and tractor gasoline engines and only 70 % of the piston speed of automobile gasoline engines. In a compression air near the end of the compression a full unthrottled charge of air is drawn in during the intake stroke. The temperature injected into the cylinder and ignited by the high air temperatures. A diesel engine cannot be operated on producer gas without injection of a small amount of diesel oil because the producer gas will not ignite under the prevailing pressure. A diesel engine needs to be dual fueled Besides the usual modifications or completely converted into a spark ignition engine. of the induction manifold and the installment of a gas-air

stroke is quite high. Just before top center, diesel oil is

mixing chamber as previously described, one can convert a diesel engine to producer gas as follows: Rebuilding of the entire engine with a new piston and new cylinder head and installment of electric ignition equipment. This kind of conversion is expensive and time consuming. The power drop in diesel engines converted to spark ignition operation is not as severe as in gasoline engines operated on producer gas. An alternative method of effective diesel conversion for the use of producer gas is by retaining the existing compression ratio and arranging for dual fueling. In this case the fuel injection system is retained together with the original pistons and modifications are confined to a special induction manifold and a gas-air mixer as in converted gasoline engines. The injection pump needs to be modified to accommodate a fixed or variable amount of fuel injection smaller than the amount injected during idling of a diesel engine. Not all diesel engines are suitable for this kind of conversion due to their compression ratios and the shape of the combustion chamber. Diesel engines are manufactured in three types: direct injection, turbulence chamber and pre-chamber engines. Direct injection engines, although they are working at high compression ratios compared to gasoline engines, are more suitable and do not require special low compression ratios as long as the compression ratio does not exceed 16 to 17. Ante-chamber and turbulence chamber engines are more difficult to convert. Their compression ratios are higher, up to 21, and need to be reduced to 16 or lower. Experiments conducted with unconverted engines of this type were very unsatisfactory and it was concluded, that a major rebuilding of the engine was necessary before they could be used for producer gas operation. The difficulties with a proper injection timing in dual-fueled diesel engines are the same as with a proper ignition timing in producer gas operated gasoline engines. In either case, a fixed injection or ignition timing is just a compromise between bad combustion and rough running. All known reports reviewed agree that the injection of the diesel oil must be advanced. There is little advantage in a variable injection time control because it complicates the entire system even more. Both past and recent experiments found an advanced injection timing of 30 - 35 degrees as a good compromise. It should be emphasized that these numbers are only rough guidelines and the most proper timing must be found through trials in each particular case. Modifications and the operation of an internal combustion engine fueled with producer gas are greatly simplified in stationary units which operate under constant load. In such cases, ignition and injection timing can be optimized and there are no difficulties to set the proper producer gas-air mixture. The gas producer can be kept in a semi-equilibrium state, only interrupted through batch feeding the unit. There will be some problems with a gas producer for transportation vehicles such as passenger cars, off-road vehicles, and vehicles operating under various loads or in difficult areas.

The question whether combustion

of producer gas in an internal combustion

engine will

result in increased engine wear and shorter lifetime cannot be answered precisely. There is no such thing as uniform producer gas. The amount of mineral vapors carried into the engine and their type are not well known. Past experience indicated some problems with silica vapor usually found in the form of a fine white powder in producer gas. The highly complex amount of ammonia acetic acids generated and hydrogen in the distillation zone and the significant of coal and

sulfide associated

with the gasification

some biomass fuels are probably the main cause of engine wear, since their effect on the piping and condenser has been well demonstrated. This claim, however, cannot be backed by scientific data. Of course an efficient purification system will help to keep undue engine wear at a minimum but is certainly not a guarantee against ruined engines. Because of this uncertainty, some makers of automotive gas producers installed an oil drip feed to wet the oil scrubber as incoming gas before it entered the mixer. Others employed a self-induced the last cleaning stage and saturated the gas with a fine oil mist. The same uncertainties apply to the quality of the engine exhaust gases. Until recently

there was no concern about the engine exhaust and no data exists about the performance of the past units with regard to pollutants in the exhaust gases. The general awareness about the potential danger of engine exhaust gases has increased significantly during the last decade and standards have been set for the allowable percentage of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and the most dangerous nitrogen oxides in the engine exhaust.

CONCLUSIONS The application of biogas and producer gas to vehicles is cumbersome and of not economical

interest and their practical utilization is only suitable for stationary engines. Internal combustion engines supply less power running with gaseous biofuels (5-10% with biogas and 15-20% with producer gas) compared to standard fuels: gasoline or diesel fuel. An additional problem removed. Dual-fuel engines running with low-energy gas perform best at medium-high high torque. With biogas they perform conditions, efficiency is comparable to engines using diesel fuel. Many studies have shown that while motor vehicles could use the biogas as a fuel, most vehicles have not the possibility of adequate storage capacity for extended operation. For this reason it is assumed that most applications using the digester gas will be in stationary engines. In general diesel engines would have to be modified in ways specifically suited to its construction to run dual fueled with biogas or producer gas. In any case, it seems advisable and more economical to modify the available conventional diesel engines for operation with gaseous fuel speed and mediumUnder these with biogas is the presence of H2S, that can be very corrosive if it is not properly

best at medium speed and high torque.

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rather than to design special dual fuel engines to operate with gas and diesel fuel. There is technologically feasible since many years to produce crops for gaseous biofuels and to engines, but their interest is of secondary rank compared to

apply them into internal combustion

the production and application of liquid biofuels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amin, H., 1980. Preliminary Evaluation of an Automotive Gas Producer, General Motors Research Publication GMR -

3431, F&L-709, Warren, Michigan, September. Baader, W. Further development 'or the production Landbauforschung

Vl>lkenrode (Germany,

0'

of technical procedures (Energy source) (Biog.asgewinnung - verfahrenstechnische Weilerentwicklung)

biogas

F.A.); (1979); Nr. 49, p. 146 - 154; ISSN 0458-6859. Gas: Its Potential and Application in Developing Countries, Tropical

Breag, G.A. and A. E. Chittenden,

1979. Producer

Producers Institute, Report G130, London, England. Chen, V.A. (US Meat Animal Res. Center, Clay Center, Nebraska of beef cattle manure. Agric. Wastes (USA); (1983); Vol. 6 (1) p. 13 - 29. A.G. (American Soc. of Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, Michigan (USA» Energy requeriments 15 - 17 Apr. 1980. for (USA). US Dept. of Agriculture, AgriC. REs. Service)

Thermal properties ISSN 0141-4607;

Chen, V.A.; Hashimoto,

anaerobic (methane) fermentation

of Livestock wastes.

Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Livestock Wastes,

Amarillo Civic Center, Texas (USA); 1981; p. 117 - 121. Dohne, E. 1986 "Verwertung Fankhauser, J.; H.Rudowski; von Biogas-was E.Stadter; bleibt unter dam Strich?" Landtechnik and A.Wellinger, 41-2: 76-80. of a tractor diesel engine

KEgger

1988 "Biogas as fuel-Adaption

to biogas operation". 3rd EC Conference

on Energy from Biomass. Tiinikon.

Friedberg, J, 1976 "Methane and propane as autofusts" Alternative sources of enrgy. 23: 12-18. Goss, J.A.; J.J. Mehlschan and B.M. Jenkins 1979 "Downdraft gas producer systems to utilize crop and wood residues"

9th CIGR Meeting Michigan. P. III 1-20.

Hashimoto, A.G.; Varel, V.H.; Chen, V.P.; Hruska, A.L. rate. Trans. ASAE (Dec. 1979); Vol. 22, p. 14; ISSN 0001-2351. Progress in Energy Combustion Sci.; (1982);

Factors affecting methane yield and production Hobson, P.N.; Feilden, N.E.H. Vol. 8, p. 135 - 158; Koelsch,

PrOduction and use of biogas in agriculture.

R.K.; W.J. Jewell; C.E. Harrison and R.J. Cummings

1982 "Co-generation

of electricity

and heat from biogas·

ASAE Paper NQ82-3621. SI. Joseph. Mi. Maurer, K. 1981 'Biogas Neyeloff, Agriculture Ogunlowo, Aspirated Engineering, S. and W.W. Schlepper" Gunkel Agrartechnische. Berichte, 15: 122-127. dioxide mixtures in internal combustion engines" Energy,

1975 'Methane-Carbon

and Waste Management. A.S., 1979. Design

Ann Arbor Mich pp. 397-408. and Controls for the Operation of Single-Cylinder Air-Cooled Naturally-

Modification

Diesel Engine on Producer-Gas University of California, Davis.

USing Pilot Injection of Diesel Fuel, M.S. Thesis,

Department

of Agricultural

Ortiz-Canavate,

J.; SA Vigil; J.A. Goss and G. Tchobanoglous

1981 "Comparison

of operating characteristics

of a 34 kW

Diesel engine fuelled with low-energy Ortlz-Oafiavate, J.; W.Baader

gas, biogas and diesel fuel" Biotechnology

and Bioengineering

Symp. 11, 225-236.

and A.Ahlers

1988 "Blogas as 'uel for internal combustion

engines· ASAE Paper N~ 88-

5013, St. Joseph, Mi.

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Ortiz-Canavate, 24 (4), 808-813. Ortiz-Oariavate,

J.; D.J.Hills and W.J. Chancellor,

1981 "Diesel engine modification

to operate on biogas" Trans. of ASAE

J.; W.X. Ribeiro; M.Camps

and J.va.zquez

1990 "Modification

0'

a 7 kW diesel engine to operate dual-

fuelled with biogas and LPG. Tests results" Ag.Eng 90. Benin. Persson St.Joseph, S.P. and H.D. Bartlett Mi. of an anaerobic pp 403-431. Biogas als Altemativkraffstoff" Agrartechnik 36 (4): 150-153. digester at the Washington State dairy farm" Symposium: Energy from 1981 "Biogas engines from agricultural moto-generators" ASAE Paper N2 81-3585.

Smith, K.D. 1978 "Operation

Biomass and Wastes. Washington

Steinmetz, W.; KMOhrel and J.Franz, 1986 ·VerflOssigtes Williams, Willians,

D.W. et al. 1976 ·Utilization of biogas for farm production R.O., et al., 1978. Development

energy" Trans. of ASAE 19(6), 1034-1040. Systems for the Conversion of Crop and Wood

of Pilot Plant Gasification

Residues to Thermal and Electrical Energy, American Chemical Society, Symposium-Series, Worgetter, M. 1982. Contribu1ion to: "Biomass 'or Energy". O.E.C.D. Symposium,

nQ76, pp 142-162.

Paris (F). Oct. 25-28.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF USING AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES AS ENERGY SOURCES

POT

ENTIAL

BEN

E FIT

U SIN

A G RIC

ULTURAL

2.1

INTRODUCTION

An initial assessment Biofuels as alternative

Energy representatives

of the societal issues transportation fuels.

countries

involved

in

using

of OECD member

and EC countries

have reached

the

conclusion, alternatives

in the last five years, that "technology

has been slow in providing

cost effective 1990).

to liquid fuels based on petroleum". Also, "more attention should be focused on R+D in transportation fuels". (OECDflEA,

efforts to promote a higher degree of diversification Fuels for transportation developed gains constitute there

more than three fourths of energy fuels used in the more through efficiency oil substitute remain opportunities for further reducing

countries. Although

oil use has been curtailed quite substantially

in the last decade,

transportation

fuels, biofuels being an important cathegory among them. of the situation described activities. above, there have been a number of studies to sources are also included in the

As a consequence

assess the relative potential of alternative fuels in general and, more specifically, of those suited for road transportation comparative Liquid fuels from biological evaluations. Given the great importance of the broad issue of biofuels, as one among the decision made by the authors of this albeit in a very compressed the cited theme in the analysis,

the many plausible options in fuels for transportation, study has been to incorporate fashion. The mentioned studies are elaborated assessment. In an effort to summarize and cathegorize

upon a variety of different topics valuable for technology

the concerned

issues, one can say that the following

subjects and authors represent the current perspective and debate: Energy security (Korner, N. D., 1991; Mckenzie, J., 1990; OECD, 1990; Difiglio, C.,

1990; US Congress, 1991; Santini, 1988.). Air quality and urban ozone. (Baker, G.F., 1992; Rajan, 1992; Heidelberg, E. 1990; US

GAO, 1990; Klausmeier, R. 1990; Santini, D.J. (ed.)1989; Sperling, D. (ed) 1989.) Global climate change 1988.) Health and safety in handling and use (Kidman, RB. et at. (eds) 1990; Fishbein, L. et at. 1990.) Enhancement of overall engine performance. (SAE, 1992, 1991a, 1991b; lEA, 1992(De Luchi, 1990; Mckenzie,

P. 1990; Difigfio, C. 1990; EMA

1991; Black, F. 1991; Maggio 1990; OTA USA, 1990; EMA 1988; OECD/IEA 1985.) Transportation planning and design for urban and regional development (Booz-Allen

and Hamilton Inc, 1992; Webb, 1991: Heath, M. 1989). Fuel Economics (Hann, 1992; Lawrence et a11990, US-GAO 1990.)

COM

MOD

IT

IB

ERG

SOU

Technology diffusion and the role of government (GRI, 1992; Sperling, D. 1991; Kliman, M. 1990; Sathaye, J. 1989, Hallet, P. 1989.)

Fuels research (Baker, 1986.)

In the subsequent paragraphs of this report an attempt will be made to summarize the debate on alternative fuets for transportation, focusing on biofuels as much as possible. We will assess most of the issues above mentioned and within the time horizon placed at the present decade. The feedstock-production systems that allow the supply of different products, from alternative

processes and feedstocks are depicted in Table 24. There are mainly six distinctive technological contribute to energy security/reliability paths which appear to have significant potential to

in the chosen tlrnespan.

1. Fuels from very heavy oils VHOs and tar sands 2. Natural gas in two forms: compressed (eNG) or liquified (LNG)

3. Methanol (in blends of 85% to 100% methanol content) 4. Ethanol (in blends of 85% ethanol content and above) 5. Synthetic fuels from natural gas 6. Vegetable oils and related fuels 7. Other fuels In most of the studies reviewed, other fuels, such as liquid petroleum gas (LPG), low level alcohol blends, electric powering (of vehicles), considered chosen time frame. Fuels for narrowly defined markets and commercial niche fuel technologies are rarely included in hydrogen and synthetic fuels from coal or oil shale are contribution in OEeD countries and at the as being unlikely to make a significant

the mainstream bibliography on alternative fuels for road transport. There are several reasons for the authors of fuel assessments to discard oxygenated fuels from

road transport evaluation studies: Apart from methanol and ethanol, these include ethers such as MTBE and Dimethyl Ether and higher alcohols like iso-propanol and tertiary butanol. One, is that the formerly mentioned oxygenates are widely used in low level blends to replace lead as an octane improver. They are fully compatible with the prevailing system and do not require separate labelling at the pump. Such fuels are utilized as gasoline octane boosters and gasoline extenders. Other motives for exclusion are that they are mostly obtained from chemical refineries and refinery streams, and also that they. are produced gasoline components. by-products, field as

and fully commercialized

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Table 24
Fuel Products obtained from different available feedstocks and processes

Feedstock Grain crops Sugar crops Other starch crops Starch and sugar wastes Crop residues Wood MSW Grass crops Rem ate natura I gas Rem ate naturaI gas Coal Crop residues wood MSW Grass crops Coal Oil sands Oil shale Water

Process
Fermentation (Biological conversion)

Fuel product
Ethanol

Fermentation Hydrolysis

Ethanol

Compression Liquefaction Reforming Synthesis Gasification

CNG/LNG

Methanol

Methanol

Direct Liquifaction Pyrolisis

Petroleum-like liquids Petroleum-like liquids

Electrolysis

Hydrogen

Low level alcohols' blends are also usually discarded because they can make only a very limited contribution to fuel diversification but, as much as they are related to methanol and ethanol production, they are somehow introduced in many transportation fuel assessments.
Vegetable oils derived from biomass are regarded as usable in diesel engines and other specially

designed engines, requiring esterification to overcome viscosity problems. They are not usually merged into the assessments. Instead, they are considered to have potential in the heavy duty engines cathegory, mainly in agricultural and construction equipment, developing country situations when they can be produced by inexpensive processing techniques. The above mentioned road transport cathegory includes heavy duty trucks and light duty engines, i.e. passenger cars and light trucks. Also in relation to biofuels as a cathegory to be contemplated in assessing feedstocks as alternative transportation fuels, the Office of Technology Assessment of the US, in its 1990 report

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"Replacing Gasoline: Alternative fuels for light duty vehicles" have summarized some of the tradeoffs involved, including electric, hydrogen and reformulated gasolines, as expressed in Table 25.

Table 2S
Pros and cons of some alternative fuels

Advantages Methanol Familiar liquid fuel Vehicle development relatively advanced Organic emissions (ozone precursors) will have lower reactivity than gasoline emissions Lower emissions of toxic pollutants, except formaldehyde Engine efficiency should be greater Abundant natural gas feedstock Less flammable than gasoline Can be made from coal or WOOd,though at higher cost Flexfuel "transition" vehicle available Familiar liquid fuel Organic emissions will have [ower reactivity than gasoline emissions (but higher than methanol) Lower emissions at toxic pollutants Engine efficiency should be greater Produced from domestic sources Flexfuel transition vehicle available Lower CO with gasoline (10% ethanol blend) Enzyme-based production from wood being developed Though imported, likely North American source for moderate supply Excellent emission characteristics except for potential of somewhat higher NO emissions Gas is abundant worldwide Modest greenhouse advantage Can be made from coal Fuel is domestically produced and widely available Minimal vehicular emissions Fuel capacity available (for nightime recharging) Big Greenhouse advantage if powered by nuclear or solar Wide variety of feedstocks in regular commercial use Excellent emission characteristics- minimal hydrocarbons Would be domestically produced Big greenhouse advantage if derived from photovoltaic energy Possible fuel cell use No infrastructure change except retineness Probable small to moderate emission reduction Engine modifications not required May be available for use by entire fleet, not just new vehicles

Disadvantages Range as much as 1/2 less, or larger fuel tanks Would likely be imported trom overseas Formaldehide emissions a potential problem. esp. at higher mileage requires improved controls More toxic than gasoline M100 has non-visible flame, explosive in enclosed tanks Costs likely somewhat higher than gasoline, esp. during transition period Cold starts a problem for M1 00 Greenhouse problem if made trom coal Much higher cost than gasoline Foodfuel competition at high production levels Supply is limited, esp. if made from corn Range as much as 1/3 less, or larger fuel tanks Cold starts a problem tor E100

Ethanol

Natural gas

Dedicated vehicles have remaining development needs Retail fuel distribution system must be built Range quite limited, need large fuel tanks with added costs, reduced space (LNG range not as limited, comparable to methanol) Dual fuel "transition" vehicle has moderate peliormance, space penalties Slower refueling Greenhouse problem if made from coal Range power very limited Much battery developments requir,ed Slow refueling Batteries are heavy, bulky, have high replacement costs Vehicle space conditioning difficult Potential battery disposal problem Emissions tor power generation can be significant Range very limited, need heavy, bulky fuel storage Vehicle and total costs high Extensive research and development effort required Needs new infrastructure Emission benefits remain uncertain Costs uncertain, but will be significant No energy security or greenhouse advantage

Electric

Hydrogen

Reiormulated Gasoline

Source:

us Office

of Technology Assesrnent, 1990

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As it happens with most new technologies, much remains to be learned on the wide scale adoption and utilization of alternative fuels. Key sources of uncertainty regarding the horizon of a large-scale supply system are: • What are the real-world constraints imposed by maintenance in a mass production system? • What is the sensibility of costs and performance to numerous non-easily predictable future decisions about manufacturing, regulating, financing and marketing the fuel systems including, for example, the design decision to compensate fuel economy and vehicle performance? • What is the probable evolution of the competing gasoline-based systems, for example regarding reformulated gasolines and further improvements in catalytic controls? • What are the most probable economic, environmental and health outcomes of long term technology advances?, such as: enzymatic hydrolysis processes for producing alcohols from lignocellulosic materials; advanced or new batteries for electric cars, etc... It is because of the many uncertainties and potentialities involved that any projection of benefit/costs ratios of alternative fuels depends on somewhat heroic assumptions, for instance, about technological advancements in engine emissions and power efficiency, fuel feedstocks' costs, capital charges, etc. Drastically changing the single point and range values of the parameters of the specifically devised system simulation models might result in completely different assessment outcomes. Technology assessments on alternative transportation fuels usually refer to the following issues: 1. 2. 3. 4. Availability of feedstock resources and energy security Economic evaluations Environmental impacts Health and safety effects.

Natural gas appears to be the feedstock fuel to play the most important role in security terms and in case of diversification needs in transport fuels during this decade. Natural gas can be used as eNG or LNG or converted into methanol, gasoline or distillates. It is often seen as the more abundant source of supply of proven gas reserves. The panoply of individual sources of supply (both geografically and in the distribution modes) is broader than for petroleum, and more so if exploration for gas reserves is enhanced. Methanol and synthetic products -derived from natural gas- will be, most likely, produced in those countries owning the gas reserves. Furthermore, flexible-fuel vehicles could also operate on gasoline if methanol imports for whatever reasons were curtailed. Even if methanol supplies were reduced, the price of methanol could not be increased above the fuel-equivalent cost of gasoline, since flexible-fuel vehicles could switch to gasoline. Thus, flexibility of fuel use provides greater price stability and fuel security, even if supplies of one given fuel are interrupted.

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The total world resources

of VHOs and tar sands are estimated 1986)

equal those of conventional

petroleum but are less well known and explored (IENOECD

Coal, even of the low grade cathegory, is another feedstock for liquid transportation distributed geographically than oil and gas reserves and therefore

fuels. It can

be converted into methanol and also into a directly liquified fuel. Coal reserves are more widely have a higher potential to enhance energy security. The European Continent and the EEC have important coal reserves. Gas reserves are relatively smaller but might be imported though pipelines and other means from the former USSR and North Africa. The biomass throughout agricultural conversion resource base for alcohols (ethanol and methanol) as repeatedly mentioned to fuel

this report, include conventional and food residues, industry

and short rotation wood, herbaceus solid wastes. Although the technology

energy crops,

and municipal

the biomass

is smaller than that of petroleum,

about starch and sugar

crops to fuel ethanol is well established. Furthermore, biomass resources might be based on quite abundant resources and broad of the of also

production technologies on accesibility potentially

as it might be ascertained biomasses

by looking at Table 26. Assessments yields,

exact potential of biomass resources for motor fuels are hampered by, both, lack of statistical data to the different and productivity contribute and the huge variety by observing as stressed obtainable products and utilizing markets as it can be evidenced they can effectively to energy security,

Table 26. Anyhow,

in the

subsequent Section 4 in this report.

Table 26
Biomass overview

Production Technologies Sylvicullure

I

Resource basis

Conversion technologies

Products

Markets

Terrestrial

Biochemical

Liquid fuels

Transportation sector Residential Commercial sector Industrial sector

Landbasedand openOcean Aquatic

Aquatic Biomass

Thermochemical

Gaseous fuels

Solid fuels

Residuals collection

Forestry, Agriculture and Animal residues

Material processing

Process energy Petrochemical substitutes

Utility sector Agricultural sector

---------

Although, today, most ethanol fuel production in the world comes from grains (corn in the US) and sugarcane and cassava in Brazil, it is possible to expand feedstocks However, the ethanol production to other agriculturaP and forestry commodities. potential of biomass resources may be made the

limited by their possibly higher-value uses as food crops and also because of its capacity to affect the market of a number of related agricultural products. For example, it is frequently point in biofuel evaluations that ethanol production might be hurt because of the increased derived from corn certainly affects prices of poultry

soybean oil and soybean meal and, likewise, strongly alter livestock markets. Cattle producers demand and prices of corn. On the contrary, producers might be benefitted, due to the lower costs of high protein feeds flown into the market as byproducts of ethanol from corn production. In addition to government budget implications and some moral and technical conslderationss, mentioned above are at the core of the political constraints the

long and wide repercussions

placed

on the utilization of food resources as fuels by governments. Gasohol allows 10% ethanol, as an additive to boost octanage and as an extender. The Brazilian proalcohol program based on sugarcane and cassava allows for a greater percentage and constitutes an issue at debate in many Latinamerican for economical conversion to fuel ethanol. However, If it is wanted that biomass alcohols make countries. Thus, only special circumstances

in those two large countries -pressures by interested societal groups - make these crops suitable

a significant contribution to energy supply, other

cellulosic crops and agricultural wastes should be utilized. These feedstocks are widely available in the EC and in the world, but their use would indeed require suitable management in order to avoid further problems of deforestation.
Environmental feedstocks introduction issues constitute in road transport also an important focus in the general assessment However, any justification of biomass for their to introduce in relation to

as alternative

fuels. They might provide and heavy duty vehicles. must demonstrate grounds

a large part of the momentum at least equal performance

them on environmental

existing fuels. A complete discussion on environmental Obviously, in addition to the environmental The cost of each alternative transport

issues is given in Section 3 of this study.

and safety and security topics the issues relative to the or evaluation. fuel depends, to begin with, upon both the cost of

economics of transport fuel options are of foremost importance in any assessment production and the additional cost of distribution and engine end use. Production distribution costs, in turn, are determined by the relative scarcity or abundance by the availability

of the energy used in the

resources from whith they are extracted, as well as the fuel conversion technologies and end use. These are determined reliability of the engines to be utilized along with the new or alternative fuel.
1

of delivery systems and the

Other agricultural crops cultivated in temparate regions ate: Sugar crops, Include: sugar beets. sugar cane, sweet sorgum. jerusalem artichokes, fodder beets and fruits. Starch crops, Include: grains (maize, wheat, rye, baney, mils) and tubers ( potatoes and sweet potatoes) COrrosion Is often Citedas the main drawback for higher alcohol percentage in blendings.

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Table 27
Comparative costs of substitute fuels

Overall Cost
(1987 US $ per barrel-gasoline Crude Oil (assumed) Conventional Gasoline eNG VHO Products Methanol (from gas) Synthetic Gasoline (from gas) Diesel (from gas) Methanol (from coal) Methanol (from biomass) Ethanol (from biomass)
S 18

energy equivalent)

s 27
S 20·46

s 21·34
$ 30-67 $ 43-61 $ 69 $ 63-109 S 64-126 $66-101
Source: DECO. Substitute fuels for road transport, 1990

Gasoline and diesel fuel from VHO's, natural gas or reformulated formules require relatively minor changes to existing infrastructure fuels require major modificactions distribution and end use systems, whereas CNG's and alcohol except if they are used as additives.

Table 27 shows the estimated cost range of alternative fuels based on current oil and gas prices and the technology now available. As it can be observed, CNG and VHO fuels can be economically competitive with conventional gasoline, at present. Methanol and synthetic gasoline from natural gas are close to be competitive if one makes optimistic assumptions about gas prices. Methanol from coal had a cost more than double that of gasoline at 1987 oil prices and current technology. Methanol and ethanol from biomass escalate even to further price levels_ They are not competitive. As it can be observed in the preceding Table 27, methanol prices from wood and ethanol from corn appear to surpass most other options, among those contained in this comparison. The issues concerning use considerations covered overall engine performance, reduction fuel consumption and vehicle end

have also been studied in the numerous assessments to indicate that, although

carried in relation with fuels have better

substitute fuels for petroleum. This is a very important part of the present report and it will not be at length here, It might suffice features alcohol combustion than gasoline for use in otto engines, (see Section 1), they have lower

energy value per unit volume. In recent times, nonetheless, the development alcohol-fueled of fuel flexible vehicles, enabling engines to run on

any mixture of gasoline and alcohol, constitutes a breakthrough in the transition toward dedicated vehicles, Fuel-flexible engines are at the fleet trial stage and seem to be operating However, certain problems need be solved. such as: emission compliance etc. __ fuels but quite satisfactoraly.

and certification, fuel sensor reliability, engine lubrication specifications, In the case of diesel technologically Numerous alcohol/diesel manufactures system. engines, alcohol fuels are comparable

to conventional

less well developed

than Otto engines- they need improvements

in efficiency.

are pursuing different approches

and there is not one single prefered

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Last but not least, to say that there is a lot of R+D work and fleet trials being done on methanol engines. In the long term methanol provides the opportunity for greatly improved automotive fuel economy. Another cost estimation suitable of quotation in this report is the provided by the U.S. National Research Council, the results of witch are shown in the next figures (Figures 10, 11, 12, 13). The three different assumptions, included in the last three figures shown, depict the corresponding sensitivity to their changing values. As it can be realized, wood-to-methanol and corn-to-ethanol compare very disfavourably with almost all alternatives. Once again, as in the other studies previously discussed, the most competitive fuels are those extracted from natural gas followed by methanol obtained from underground (UCG). Methanol-from-wood The public acceptance, and ethanol-tram-com marketing aspects prices are significantly similar. role in the implementation of coal gas

and government

alternative fuels are also issues that concern most technology assessments. Much of the current debate on organizational relative power of the government taking into account perspective conceived an ample matrix of alternative-fuel structure and control issues comes down to the sector. Within this bipolar sociopolitical might be environmental implementation elements: paths, or approaches, fuel choices,

and the private

four basic strategic

concerns, marketing and pricing and fuel production investment. In general, it is widely accepted today that the greater the role that goverment is given, the more certain the result and the more inflexible options for industry. Conversely, lower the likelihood of major structural changes by the industry. Thus, if the policy goa/ is, for example, to achieve the most cost effective reduction in emissions, the private role should be maximized and the government this policy framework would be reformulated role minimized. The likely outcome in emissions reduction gasoline with its accompanying the more flexibility given approaches, but the to the private sector, the greater its ability to select the most cost-effective

and providing less energy security benefits as, for example, compared with biomass fuels. Alternatively, if the policy goal is to achieve the broader benefits associated should be maximized. intervention. with newer fuels, the

role of government

In the specific case of biofuels there are

a number of
and

reasons for governmnet

The remaining of this section on potential agricultural

a diversity of positive arguments in favor of enacting public measures to direct and speed the rate of adoption of biofuels as an alternative technology.
wider benefits of biofuels presents However, apart from several other considerations underlined in different sections of this report,

one should point out to two salient negative traits worth-mentioning. On the one hand, there is a set of indirect effects on the land, water and air, i.e. environmental impacts, caused by the cultivation of energy crops. And, on the other hand, there are safety and health implications of using biofuels which might be also ranked as negative. implications are dealt with in Section 3 of this study.
I \

These effects and

..

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Figure 10
Cost: Crude Oil Equivalent
($ per barrel)

NG>Methanol Coal>Methanol UCG>Methanol Wood>Methanol NG, MTG Coal. MTG NG, Shell, MDS Compressed NG Corrolithanol Oil shale Tar sands, Pyrolisis Tar sands, Extaction Direct liquefaction II
I. II

II

10

20

30
_

40

50

60
_

70
Commercial

80

c=J No demonstration

Demonstrated

Source:

us National

Research Council

Figure 11
Role of changing discount rate. Domestic production: $20 Crude Oil Price

Source: J.l. Sweeney, 1989

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Figure 12
Impact of Crude Oil Price on Cost Domestic Production

Source: J.L. Sweeney, 1989

Figure 13
Impact of Natural Gas Price Function on Cost of Domestic Production

Source: J.L. Sweeney, 1989

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2.2

POTENTIAL AND RELATED

BENEFITS ISSUES

FOR

EC

AGRICULTURE,

The development of new energy crops and the alternative utilization of many traditional crops might mean a number of potential benefits that can accrue to society. Proponents of these two biomass alternatives frequently mention the following benefits: • improvement in agricultural or forest resource utilization,

e increase in farm income and market diversification,

@

reduction of agricultural commodity surpluses and derived support payments, enhancement of international competitiveness,

e revitalization of retarded rural economies,

e reduction of negative environmental impacts,

e decreased dependency on petroleum and other traditional energy sources and

enhancement of the domestic supply of essential and strategic materials. The last two issues are covered in Sections 3 and 4 of this report and, therefore, they will be only slightly touched upon in this part of the study.

2.2.1

Improvement in agricultural resource utilization and related extensification measures

It has been frequently proposed in some European agricultural circles that the development of alternative markets for agricultural commodities might result in more productive uses of the cropland, currently underutilised in many European locations. In 1991, the EC planted 128 million ha of land to crops. Aproximately 0.8 millions ha were removed from production under the set aside program. As it is explained some paragraphs below a much greater amount is scheduled to remain idled in the current decade. Conceivably, a reorientation of some of these lands might avoid some misallocation of agricultural resources. The EC-12 internal food demand will not expand much in the future. Static population levels and changing nutritional behaviour will keep growth consumption rates at bay. Moreover, external demand will not expand much either, as agricultural export subsidies are being reduced due to both, EC budget restrictions, and strong international pressures. In addition, effective demand on the part of LOC's growing populations and former socialist Eastern countries is not likely to advance very rapidly in the near future, in a world of widespread economic recession. Further agrifood supply growth, most probably, will not keep pace with the reduced expansion of demand. Genetically engineered seeds, new fertilizer and ploughing techniques, improved agricultural management procedures, etc, all lead to increased productivity, rates over and above what would be necessary in order to balance out demand growth rates in the future. Thus assuming a continuation of technological progress- the prospects for land, labor and capital

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resources involved, both in its production and in added value processes, are either a much lower level of economic returns, or a continuation of the present support schemes. The socioeconomic and political forces outlined above have influenced the adoption of particular

options in the CAP. In order to support farm incomes, and in addition to other crucial price and income measures, the following policy orientations are pertinent to the subject of this study. 1. To let idle increasing land areas 2. To enhance extensification and afforestation of land sensitive farming practices toward non-food uses including the energy crop solution

3. To encourage environmentally 4. To change crop orientation

among other alternative industrial uses.

Hence, what is envisaged is, on the one hand to promote non-food utilizations of agricultural commodities and, on the other, to foster cropping of alternative cultures and to further some specific industrial transformation techniques.
Land planted to crops has been somewhat reduced in the last twenty years, following the above mentioned reasoning. However, the outcome has been not only that some lands remain idle but, also, a considerable environmental degradation.

There are instances where the degradation process is being caused by the abandonment of appropiate crop practices but, most frequently, a maze of new problems emerge due to intensified uses of the newly somewhat idled resources, such as pesticide and fertilizer pollution, saline waters, /ivestocks manure concentrations, etc.
Needless to say that these indirect effects are predictible. It is obvious that farmers will be forced to change and intensify their cropping practices in order to maintain prior incomes, unless they receive a direct compensation or income support.

The forecast for the year 2000 (Moncada et al, 1991 ) is to idle roughly 20 million ha of cropland and between cultivated 10-20 million ha of marginal land. In these figures one should include the land in the future which could today with surplus crops, the land that will incur in the same problem

because of the supply and demand imbalance, and the land presently underutilized be cultivated for alternative industrial and/or energy uses. The production and non-food uses of agricultural crops

has been so far of relatively

low

importance in the EG. In 1990, the quantities produced were as follows (Moncada, 1991): Starch Sugar Alcohol Line Fibre Cotton Fibre Tobacco Wood
2 Million! 0,18 Million! 12 Million! 0,11 Million! 1,3 Million! 0,411 Million! 75.384 Million m3 (1986)

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The commodities listed above count on quite reliable input and output markets, which form the basis of their logistic procedures. Any addition to the list, such as the cultivation of other biomass energy crops will need to develop a variety of agricultural producing, industrializing and marketing activities, which in turn, would take considerable time and resource expenditures by the part of those farmers and operators willing to remain on the rural areas in the future.
Because a huge out-migration rate has been estimated for the present decade (200.000 persons projects on alternative agricultural

per year), targeted extension efforls along with demonstration and forestry output are urgently in need.

2.2.2

Increase

in farm incomes and market diversification

European agriculture relies on the production of a limited number of crops, mainly used for human and livestock food, many of which are, at present, on surplus production. Reduced prices and, in some cases, price variability of those commodities have resulted in low and variable income for certain European farmers. Basically due to budgetary reasons, the EC Green Paper 1985 advocated, among other measures, a reduction of price support for some surplus commodities, to set up quotas for some commodities in surplus production, to foster extensification, to enhance the alternative uses of land, and to anticipate the retirement of farmers. The aims sought by the above mentioned measures, although manifold, specifically included the non-food utilization of EC agricultural production. The new 92 CAP reform represents a radical shift in the EC management of agriculture. The broad aim is to alter market support schemes - high intervention prices and public buying -and, likewise, to allow lower agricultural prices to become closer to international levels. Compensatory payments are targeted to specific commodities conditioned and limited to some farm attributes, such as the number of production units or the hectares under plantation. The economic rationale is that, because the measures are only indirectly related to the volume effectively produced, total production amounts will not be actually encouraged. Besides, and in regard to arable crops, one -not voluntarily as in the past3, but compulsory, fifteen percent, set aside regime for arable crops under cereals, oilseed, protein seeds - has been instituted. The set aside programe is tied to the above mentioned compensatory payments for plantations over 20 ha producing more than 92 1. The set aside land can be equally applied for non-food uses, in which case it might receive some financial support. There are 4.3 million agricultural holdings which plant cereals, oil and protein crops in the EC. These farms occupy 172 million ha.
To some extent, these figures show the potential those producers affected by the set aside program and the cultivation of energy crops.
3 In 1990 Only 2% of land under cereal crop cultivation chosed voluntarily to partake in the set aside program (800.000 hal

importance

of allowing financial incentives

to

who choose to enter afforestation

programs

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In 1990 the EC Commission granted to cereals 13.4 MECUS as financial support, far above the 3.2 MECUS assigned to oil crops.
The savings from the reduction of the support to these commodities could be applied to payments

tied to the cultivation of plant varieties capable of alternative non-food uses.

Furthermore, some CAP budget reallocations are possible in order to compensate for some farm income losses.
For example, it has been advocated that the predicted compensatory payments 15% overexpenditure derived from the new

might as well be reduced by devoting some lesser amounts to partially

enhance the incomes of those farmers that initiate the production of new energy crops.

This could take several forms, ranging from a direct income support to price subsidies for producers.
In the end, this policy will work both ways: alleviating the EC budget problem and diminishing the administering and monitoring costs of direct payments, as it has been advised to the Commission by the part of the EC Auditing Office.

2.2.3

Reduction payments

01 agricultural

commodity surpluses and derived support

The introduction and development of energy crops in European agriculture could potentially reduce, or at least alleviate in the long run, the present surplus problem of the CAP. The initial objective for the creation of the CAP, intended to ensure an adequate agricultural supply, was surpassed almost two decades ago, with the consequence of the appearance of large surpluses of some specific commodities. Public stocks of surplus commodities have been in the rank of 11-23 million tlyear, with a financial cost between 4.6 and 11.3 billion ECU. This cost was reduced to 3.7 billion ECU in 1991 due to yield variations caused by weather conditions and better stock management practices. However, despite the huge magnitude of the financial effort made in order to divert surplus commodities from the market. inequity situations between large and small farmers and between continental and mediterranean products subsist, with only marginal improvements.
The cultivation of energy crops could reduce surpluses provided that farmers shift land utilization from the production of surplus crops to the new crops.

However, this behaviour cannot be assured, since farmers might choose to increase the cultivation of non-surplus commodities. New energy crops may be more economically competitive with the latter than with crops in surplus production.
The substitution effect, therefore, might lead to unexpected outcomes. Supply response economic studies are needed to forecast future events in this regard.

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Unfortunately, there is little and nonsignificant information on the subject. Furthermore, as comented before, any policy action in which the surplus commodities were forced to be replaced by a given energy crop through economic incentives, should take into account the high administrative cost of the needed monitoring process by state and EC agencies. Some commodities in surplus production have support prices, and are affected by the supply management mechanisms of the CAP. The reduction sought in intervened agrifood prices by the new reformed CAP will, no doubt, approximate their present levels to those prevailing in international markets. This outcome will surely cause some social unrest and political pressure which might be partially avoided by, • either, using direct payments and other economic incentives in order to change productive orientations to other commodities • or, idleing land resources previously utilized. As it is discussed in Section 4 of this study, another important issue also related to the elimination of surpluses and the reduction of CAP expenditures has to do with the difficult and ambiguous issue relative to the fiscal balance of returns and payments. This is so because, in the final analysis, if biofuels need to be detaxed to effectively compete with traditional fuels, the gain from avoiding payments to commodities in surplus, by shifting land use to biofuels, might be offset by the reduction of excise taxes. Likewise, some other indirect and recursive effects are to be expected. Surely, by enhancing the non-rood use and demand of one given commodity, other commodities are affected. For example, the utilization of beets, potatoes, wheat and sweet sorghum to extract ethanol will enhance their relative prices, to the extent allowed by their respective elasticity of demand. Moreover, apart from the effect on the livestock sector, the rise in the price of those commodities will induce a price alteration of cereals. They will rise or diminish depending on the susbtitution and complementary relationships of their respective demand and supply with the cited ethanol source crops. And, consequently,
once the prices of the former commodities intervention mechanisms are influenced by those of the ethanol sources, the

of the PAC would stan to act with the end result of affecting the budget.

A similar reasoning can be made on the issue of the byproducts or coproducts resulting from the production of alcohol from starchy or sugar crops. This issue is also touched upon in Section 4 of this report.

2.2.4

Revitalization

of retarded

rural economies:

employment

generation

There are at least two ways in which the utilization of biotuels and the cultivation of fuel crops can help rural and retarded economies:

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It

it represents one additional possibility in the utilization of farm resources, with the end
result of rising incomes and direct employment on the farm

the manufacturing communities.

and commercialization

of fuel crops need to be based on the rural

The new incomes will surely improve the material welfare of rural communities result in a further activation of the local economy. emigration rates to urban environments, of the CAP. However, recent trends in automation and related technologies

and this might

In the end, this will mean a reduction in the

which is also a very important goal in the new provisions

in the processing sectors might

limit the employment and income growth potential of the biofuel initiative. The optimal infrastructural number, factors, size and location the dispersion of the processing plants

are heavily influenced by

agents, transportation and the processing

of supply and demand

economic

costs, scale economies in industrial plants, etc ... However, this risk could be somewhat alleviated if the major uses of biofuels were for agricultural would mean also one disadvantage. Some of the presently used storage, transport and processing facilities could be easily modified to serve the biofuel solution. This does not mean that the adoption and diffusion of the biofuel technology will be at no social or economic cost. engines and machines facilities were of reduced scale. This fact may restrain the potential market of fuel crops. That

Further studies on the issue are needed to elaborate a complete picture about the adoption mechanism and the revitalization of rural communities.
For the less developed advantages development peripheral regions of the Ee, the biofuel market could contribute some paragraphs. -agricultural However, in the initial phases of the and lndustrlslrisk aversion need to be

as expressed

in the above

of the biofuels technology

reduced and some tangible economic incentives allocated and targeted for the very short run.

Demonstration projects are therefore strongly recommended.

Additionaly, the distinct impact on small and large farms should be taken into consideration. efficiency improves To a

given extent, fuel crops productive

as the scale and size of operations and quality conditions are of less

increases. Since many of the fuel crops are bulk commodities importance, they usually have low unit values.

Hence, economies of scale are vital to compete with other final utilizations and other energy resources. This no-neutral efficiency case need to be investigated also and taken into consideration at devising appropiate technology adoption policies for biofuels.

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2.2.5

Enhancement

of international

competitiveness:

international

trade

The EC is the major world trader in agricultural commodities. However, the balance between imports and exports is influenced by the terms of trade prevailing in the market. At the present time, the EC needs to subsidise some exports in order to fill out the gap between internal and international prices.
Proponents of the fuel crops solution indicate that fostering new uses for tradWonal crops or, of high-value industrial expotte such as know-

samely, fuel crops, could lead to the development how incorporated technologies.

They would, somewhat, replace the traditional low-value bulk agricultural commodities that are currently exported by the EC member countries. As mentioned in earlier paragraphs, the fuel crops technology path would enhance agricultural export opportunities for less developed countries. By reducing the surplus production of some agrifood commodities in the EC, some third countries will find new markets both inside the EC and in other industrialized economies where the surplus commodities are subsidized in order to be competitive. In addition, trade relationships with industrialized countries could be improved.By diverting agricultural resources from non-fuel to fuel crops, surplus production will be reduced. And, obviously, a reduction in the production and trade protection of some food crops will help to find additional solutions to international trade conflicts such as those at debate in GATT.

2.3

OTHER

WIDER

POTENTIAL

IMPACTS

There are many other potential impacts which might be caused by an expansion of the biofuel production and utilization system. Two of these impacts are analysed, quite extensively, in other sections of this report: • energy reliability/security issues (Section 4) and • environmental issues (Section 3). Other impacts frequently retered to in the specialized bibliography are • health and safety issues (Section 3.4). Moreover, additional information on these three issues is also given in other sections of this report. The issues relative to the concepts of • sustainable development and • biodiversity

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CULTURAL

are also matters of concern in analysing the future potential of renewable energy resources. Sometimes sustainability is taken as a catching word used to emphasize the concept of renewability.
B/ofuels development focuses, indeed, on the topic of renewability.

Other times sustainability refers to the moral issue concerning the handing over to future generations the stock of "natural" capital needed in order to enjoy economic and environmental options similar to those enjoyed today.
The "biomass as fuel" technological path, undoubtfully, shares this sustainability capacity.

Biodiversity is an additional issue which needs to be addressed to in the process of further developing alternative biomass fuels.
To some extent, biodiversity could be threatened if very specialized are used for energy purposes. However, at vegetal species and varieties

a global scale, it is very likely that new biological

species suited for energy production might replace crops cultivated as monoeultures.

CONCLUSIONS

Bioethanol, biomethanol, vegetable oils and their derived esthers constitute three alternative technological paths to be considered in any assessment on transportation fuels substituting for petroleum. Differently from other feedstocks (natural gas, bitouminous soils, coal, electricity, etc) the assessments on the potential of biomass resources for motor fuels are hampered by a lack of statistical data on: a) accessibility to different sources, b) productivity yields, and c) the large variety of potentially obtainable products and markets. Current perspectives and debate usually refer to issues or dimensions to be considered in technology assessments on alternative fuels. The concerned issues are: energy security and diversification, environmental impacts (air quality and urban ozone, global climatic change, etc) health and safety in handling and use, enhancement of overall engine performance, cost/price relationships and wider economic issues and the role of governments in technological diffusion. Biofuel contribution to energy supply might incorporate additional market niches to that of transportation fuels. Fuels derived from biological sources might meet specific demands in local/regional specific markets (corporate and municipal fleets) and in the agricultural and construction sectors of the economy. Besides, they might be used as additives and octane boosters. However, for biomass fuels to make a significant contribution to energy supply, vegetable oils and esthers for diesel engines and cellulosic crops and waste with organic matter should be utilized.

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Traditionally used sugar and starch crops (corn, wheet, cane, beet, etc) show long established markets which can be easily distorted by new utilizations. Besides, their conversion technologies seem to advance quite slowly. Cellulosic materials are widely available in the EC, but their use would indeed require suitable management in order to avoid further problems of deforestation. Vegetable oils and derived esters can be easily procured from several agricultural origins (sunfloweer, rapeseed, etc) but some economic aid and demonstration projects should be publicly provided. The development of biofuels as an alternative technological path to fossil fuels might be judged in terms of their potential to EC agriculture. New energy crops and additional utilization of some traditional crops might have a number of positive effects that can accrue to society. Frequently invoqued benefits include: improvement in resource utilization, increase in farm incomes and wider market diversification, reduction of agricultural commodity surpluses and derived support payments, revitalization of retarded rural economies. The new CAP contains some policy orientations which, in principle, could positively affect the development of a stronger biofuel industry. The policy orientations (set aside, extensification and afforestation measures, enhancement of sensitive farming practices and change of crop orientation to non-food uses) give rise to a solid foundation and substratum on which biofuels developemnt might thrive on. The continuous outmigration from rural and agricultural areas in the present decade will not be enough to compensate for the loss of income resulting from much lower CAP supported prices. Any addition to the list of non-toed commodities presently produced in the EC will take considerable time and resources by the part of those farmers and operators willing to remain on the rural areas in the future. Targeted extension efforts and demonstration projects are urgently in need to make the transition possible. There are approximately 172 million ha of cropland cultivated with cereals, oil and protein crops in the EC. This represents over 4,3 million agricultural holdings. Thus, the set-aside scheme allows ample space in the EC to switch to the cultivation of energy crops and to practice afforestation measures, capable of producing cellulosic materials. Furthermore, the savings from the reduction of the support to the abovementioned commodities could be partially used to foster the development of energy utilizations of, first. the same or new energy crops, and, second, to create additional forest in order to provide cellulose stocks for energy. The cultivation of fuel crops, the utilization of forests to produce energy feedstocks and the final use of the derived biofuels can help rural and retarded economies. Obviously, any further utilization of farm and forest resources will represent additional income and rural employment. Besides, the manufacturing and marketing of biofuels need to be based on the rural communities.