The Energy

Co-generative and alternative sources of energy

Muni Raj G. (Student B.E.- I.C.)

Shah Muneek D. (Student B.E.- I.C.)

Dharmsinh Desai Institute of Technology

Abstract
Motivation: The reason behind presenting this paper is the curse of global warming on mankind…

Problem statement: This problem is created by the human beings themselves...The pollution
which in turn results in warming the earth’s surface and rising of the sea level...

Approach: Using the co-generative and alternative sources of energy we can minimize global
warming up to certain considerable level, if properly commissioned and optimally used...

Results: It’s not in our hand to totally stop the global warming abruptly but its surely in our hand
to slow down the effect of global warming and then gradually reduce it to zero by above
APPROACH

Conclusions: By undertaking such kind of methods of energy generation, some parts of the world
and U.S. have achieved considerable amount of reduction in usage of fossil fuels and hence in turn
it reduces global warming and preserves the conservative sources of energy...

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 Introduction:

What is Energy?

The capability of doing work is generally known as Energy. But physically it is defined as a
“thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the capacity of a physical system to do work; the units of
energy are joules or ergs”. Also energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

Energy lights our cities, powers our vehicles, and runs machinery in factories. It warms and cools
our homes, cooks our food, plays our music, and gives us pictures on
television.

With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the use of energy in the form of fossil fuels began
growing as more and more industries were set up. This occurred in stages, from the exploitation
of coal deposits to the exploitation of oil and natural gas fields. Electricity generated from fossil has
led to high concentrations of harmful gases in the atmosphere. This has in turn led to problems such as
ozone depletion and global warming

Due to the problems associated with the use of fossil fuels, alternative sources of energy have
become important and relevant in today’s world. They generally are known as non-conventional
sources of energy.

Non-conventional sources of energy cause less emission and are available locally. Their
use can significantly reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal pollution also renewable sources are
viable source of clean and limitless energy.

Through the method of co-generation a cleaner and less polluting form of energy is being
generated. Fuel cells are also being used as cleaner energy source. In India a number of initiatives have
been taken.

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Types of Energy Sources:
1) Renewable (non conservative) Energy.

2) Non renewable (conservative) Energy.

3) Alternative sources of Energy.

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 Universal source of energy…!!!

(1) “THE SUN”

By heating the planet, the sun generates wind, rain, rivers, and waves. Along with rain and snow,
sunlight is necessary for plants to grow. So due to all such various natural cycles the whole universe is
energized...

The cycle of energy shown below, enables the whole universe to work on the principle of
conservation of energy described:-

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 (A) Non Renewable sources of energy
DEFINATION: - The sources which take a very long time to get produced and once when
destroyed can never get re-generated in shorter period of time...i.e. Fossil Fuels

Examples:-

• Petrol
• Diesel
• Kerosene

(B) Renewable sources of energy

DEFINATION: - The sources of energy which can be generated in near future and never are never
accomplished are called renewable sources of energy…

Examples:-

• Solar Energy
• Bio-mass + Bio-fuel Energy
• Hydroelectric Energy
• Wind Energy
• Geo-thermal Energy
• Tidal energy/Wave power Energy

(C) Alternative sources of energy

• The sources of energy which replace the non renewable sources of energy are called the
alternative sources of energy.

• These resources affect the nature in its own sense but in the long run they are adversely
painful environmentally…

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 Examples:-

• Nuclear energy
• Compressed Natural Gas used nowadays in automobiles...

(D) Difference Between renewable and alternative sources of energy

A renewable energy source cannot run out and causes very little damage to the environment that its
use does not need to be restricted. Renewable energy sources are based directly or indirectly on solar
energy.

Study: - The sunlight that falls on the United States in one day contains more than twice the
energy the country normally consumes in a year. California has enough wind gusts
to produce 11% of the world’s wind electricity.

Emissions from gasoline-fueled cars and factories and other facilities that burn oil
affect the atmosphere through the greenhouse effect. About 81% of all U.S. greenhouse gases are
carbon dioxide emissions from energy-related sources.

Special measures like availability, capability, extraction costs, emissions, and

durability are to be considered when considering global energy solutions. Ironically, the atomic energy
industry seems to be profiting from concerns about greenhouse gases and global climate change.
Nuclear energy does not emit greenhouse gases, but its waste is stored in long-lasting containers and
thrown into the sea in underground caves nuclear energy has little political or social support.

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 (2) GEO THERMAL ENERGY
The energy generated from the heat produced from surface and beneath the earth is called
Geo-Thermal Energy

The planet's core, which may generate temperatures as high as 8,000°F (4,500°C), heats its
interior on an average, by about 1°C (2°F) for every 60 ft (18 m) nearer the core. Some heat
is also generated in the mantle and crust as a result of the radioactive decay of uranium and
other elements.

Tapping geothermal sources for power has proven a tricky proposition, because of costs and
hazards associated with deep drilling. But researchers may have stumbled on a way to boost the
power-producing potential of low-temperature hot springs close to the Earth's surface, using
nanotechnology. Drilling that far down has sometimes led to scary Earth tremors, which have halted
some geothermal projects, and caused scientists to fret about triggering major earthquake faults.

Low-temperature hot springs closer to the surface present less of a hazard, but also provides less
heat for geothermal plants to tap.

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 (A) Nanotechnology and its use in co-generation

Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is the study of the control of matter on

an atomic and molecular scale.
The nanoscale is more interesting than the atomic scale because the nanoscale is the first point
where we can assemble something just with the help of a nano structure!!

You can't walk up to a wall and immediately teleport to the other side of it, but at the nanoscale
an electron can -- it's called “ELECTRON TUNNELING”

Researchers had been developing cage-like nanostructures to store carbon dioxide at the Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory. They found to their surprise that the nanostructures could also act
as heat-storage particles within special liquids such as alkenes, which are currently used to help
turn power turbines in geothermal plants through evaporation.

This metal-organic heat carrier (MOHC) can boost the heat-storage capacity of special fluids,
and thereby improve power production efficiency from geothermal plants.

THE NANO PARTICLE USED FOR HEAT STORAGE IN GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

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 (B)There are four methods of power generation:
• Direct-steam power generation
• Flash-steam power generation
• Binary cycle power generation
• Combined/hybrid power generation.

(C) Advantages:

Geothermal energy is advantageous because it is renewable, reliable, and efficient, and

generates power more than 95% of the time.

(D) Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of geothermal energy include its limited use due to site availability.
(Requiring 1 to 8 acres of land per megawatt)
Its impact on environment due to drilling.
Its current prices also range from 5 to 8 cents per kilowatt-hours.

Volcanoes and Super Volcanoes are the sources which help the Earth to sustain such a large
amount of Heat Energy

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(3) SOLAR ENERGY

The Energy available from the rays of Sun falling on earth’s surface represents the solar energy

(A) The sun's energy is converted into electricity in one of two ways:

• Using photovoltaic cells, which turn the sun's light into electricity using a semiconductor
material that absorbs photons and releases electrons
• Using solar-thermal turbines, which use the sun's heat to generate steam, which then spins a
turbine to produce electricity

In the world of large-scale alternative energy, wind reigns supreme, mostly because it's
cheaper.

(B) The big problem:

The sun doesn't shine all the time. At nighttime or on cloudy days, power plants simply can't access
the sun's energy. This makes solar power expensive, since the power plants can't run 24/7.

(C) The solution is to Store the sun's energy:-

• The idea of storing the sun's energy is nothing new but all previous attempts have been
prohibitively problematic.
• Batteries are also extremely inefficient, making them too expensive to be a viable large-
scale storage option. You can store as much energy in a coffee thermos as in a laptop
battery, which costs 10 times as much and there's where the breakthrough comes in...
• And heat generates electricity in a solar-thermal power plant, so storing heat is a way to
pause the process: The sun heat something up, keep that thing hot until the sun goes
down, and then use that heat to generate the steam that turns the turbine.
• Salt melts at only very high temperatures, vaporizes at very, very high temperatures and it's
available in virtually unlimited, low-cost supply. Plus, it only loses about 7 percent of the
energy put into it
• It's using a different salt mixture often applied in combination of sodium and potassium
nitrate.{ The Andasol 1 power plant in Grenada, Spain, is packed with 30,865 tons (28,000
metric tons) of the stuff }
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 Na +KNO3

[PROCEDURE IN WHICH SALT LIKE CRSTAL STRUCTURE WHEN COOLED DOWN EMITS THE HEAT WHICH INTURN PRODUCES
ELECTRICITY]

• Parabolic Reflectors can generate more heat, compared to Regular Reflectors. Therefore
parabolic reflectors reigns it spot on the top of reflectors category.
• The parabolic reflectors can generate twice as much heat, than needed to operate the plant
efficiently.
• To collect the heat from the parabolic reflectors , oil is used
• Only some part of the heated oil is used to heat the water to generate steam and then turn
the turbine to generate Electricity.
• The extra heated oil is sent to a heat exchanger running between giant vats of molten salt.
• One vat holds relatively cool molten salt (about 500 oF or 260 oC).
• That salt is pumped into the heat exchanger, where it picks up heat from the oil.
• The now hotter molten salt (752 oF or 400 oC) flows into the second vat, where it waits
until the sun dips behind a cloud.
• When the power plant needs the stored heat, the hotter molten salt is pumped back
through the heat exchanger.
• There, it transfers its heat to the oil that will generate steam.

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 • The hotter oil travels to the power center, and the now-cooler molten salt flows back into
the cooler tank.
• The process then starts all over.
• By using salt to store the sun's heat, the plant can operate without sunlight, running almost
twice as long as other solar power plants.
• That extra generating ability lowers the overall cost of the plant's electricity.
• It could eventually rival the cost of natural-gas power.

(D) Cogeneration with help the Nanotechnology

• The factor – cogeneration of energy now comes in the picture by the invent of nano flakes

• Nano flakes -- a semiconductor nanostructure that may point the way for the next
generation of solar-cell energy production.
• "discovered a perfect crystalline structure" that could allow the harvesting of 30 percent of
solar energy directed at a surface
• "We believe that the nano flakes have the potential to convert up to 30 per cent of the solar
energy into electricity and that is twice the amount that we convert today," says Martin
Aagesen who is a PhD from the Nano-Science Center and the Niels Bohr Institute at
University of Copenhagen.
• We can reduce the solar cell production costs because we use less of the expensive
semiconducting silicium in the process due to the use of nanotechnology.
• At the same time, the future solar cells will exploit the solar energy better as the distance of
energy transportation in the solar cell will be shorter and thus lessen the loss of energy.

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(4) NUCLEAR ENERGY

Changes occurring in the structure of the nuclei of atoms are called nuclear reactions.
Energy created in a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy

The inexhaustible energy like sun is the result of nuclear reactions, in which matter is converted to
energy.

Presently, nuclear energy provides for approximately 16% of the world's electricity. The
nuclear reactors work on the principle of nuclear fission…

Fusion reactors have the potential of providing more energy with fewer disadvantages than fission
reactors.

Naturally: the Sun and other stars make heat and light by nuclear reactions.

Man-Made: Nuclear reactors- parts of nuclear power plants- provide electricity for many cities.
Man-made nuclear reactions also occur in the explosion of atomic and hydrogen bombs.

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(A) TWO WAYS:

1. FISSION

Nuclear Fission: In nuclear fission, the nuclei of atoms are split, causing energy to be released
as in atomic bomb and nuclear reactors. Uranium is the main fuel used to undergo nuclear
fission since its nuclei can be easily split by shooting neutrons at them. Also, once a uranium
nucleus is split, multiple neutrons are released which in turn are used to split other uranium
nuclei and known as

CHAIN REACTION

2. FUSION

Nuclear Fusion: In nuclear fusion, the nuclei of atoms are joined together, or fused under very
hot conditions. The hydrogen bomb, also works by fusion.

An atomic bomb is used to provide heat required to start fusion as heat requirement is larger.

Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form helium and in the process release huge amounts of energy thus
producing a huge explosion as in stars and various celestial bodies!!

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(B) Advantages of Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear power plants need less fuel.

• Well-operated nuclear power plants do not release contaminants into the environment.

(C) Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear explosions produce radiation. The nuclear radiation harms the cells of the body
which can make people sick or even kill them. Illness can strike people years after their
exposure to nuclear radiation.

• In melt down kind of disaster the fission reaction goes out of control, leading to a nuclear
explosion

• Nuclear reactors also have waste disposal problems. Reactors produce nuclear
waste products which emit dangerous radiation.

• Nuclear reactors only last for about forty to fifty years.

• The Threat of Nuclear Proliferation is a Serious Problem

Example: Hiroshima, Nagasaki bomb explosions by USA

(D) Nuclear Energy and Waste and its Risk

After the fuel has been in the reactor for about 18 months, much of the uranium has already
fissioned and a considerable quantity of fission products has built up in the fuel. The reactor is then
refueled by replacing about 1/3 of the fuel rods. This generally takes one or two months. When fuel
rods are removed from the reactor they contain large quantities of highly radioactive fission
products and are generating heat at a high rate. They are then put in a large tank of water about the
size of a swimming pool. There they become less radioactive as the more highly radioactive
isotopes decay and also generate less and less heat. The longer the spent fuel is stored, the easier it
will be to handle, but many reactors have been holding spent fuel so long that their tanks are getting
full. They must either send the rods off or build more tanks.

The fuel rods should then be chemically reprocessed. Reprocessing removes any leftover
uranium and the plutonium that has been formed

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The fission products are then put in a form for long term storage. A large reactor produces about
1.5 tones of fission products per year.

(E) The Future of Nuclear Energy

Some people think that nuclear energy is here to stay and we must learn to live with it. Others
say that we should get rid of all nuclear weapons and power plants. Both sides have their cases as
there are Advantages and Disadvantages to nuclear energy. Still others have opinions that fall
somewhere in between.

(F) General Applications of Nuclear Physics

General applications of nuclear physics refers to both applications as a result of nuclear physics
and applications which employ nuclear physics

• Medical Imaging (such as CAT scans and MRI) is used to determine the amount of radiation
a person has been exposed to

• Radioactive Dating uses radioactive properties of certain elements to determine the age of
something such as an ancient person.

• Radiation Detection involves different instruments used in order to detect radiation present
somewhere.

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(5) WIND POWER

(A) Modern Wind-power Technology

There are two primary designs: horizontal-axis and vertical-axis.
Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) are pretty rare. Currently there is only one in commercial
production is the Darrieus turbine, which looks kind of like an egg beater.

Vertical-axis wind turbines

In a VAWT, the shaft is mounted on a vertical axis, perpendicular to the ground. VAWTs are
always aligned with the wind, unlike their horizontal-axis counterparts, so there's no adjustment
necessary when the wind direction changes; but a VAWT can't start moving all by itself -- it needs
a boost from its electrical system to get started. Instead of a tower, it typically uses guy wires for
support, so the rotor elevation is lower. Lower elevation means slower wind due to ground
interference, so VAWTs are generally less efficient than HAWTs. On the upside, all equipment is
at ground level for easy installation and servicing; but that means a larger footprint for the turbine,
which is a big negative in farming areas.

(B) Turbine Aerodynamics

Unlike the old-fashioned Dutch windmill design, this relied mostly on the wind’s force to push
the blades into motion, modern turbines use more sophisticated aerodynamic principles to capture
the wind’s energy most effectively...
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 The two primary aerodynamic forces at work in wind-turbine rotors:-
1) Lift, which acts perpendicular to the direction of wind flow
2) Drag, which acts parallel to the direction of wind flow.

Turbine blades are shaped a lot like airplane wings -- they use an airfoil design. In an
airfoil, one surface of the blade is somewhat rounded, while the other is relatively flat. Explanation
of lift--when wind travels over the rounded downwind face of the blade, it has to move faster to
reach the end of the blade in time to meet the wind travelling over the flattened
Upwind face of the blade (facing the direction from which the wind blows). Since faster moving
air tends to rise in the atmosphere, the downwind, curved surface ends up with a low-pressure
pocket just above it.
The low-pressure area sucks the blade in the downwind direction, an effect known as
"lift." On the upwind side of the blade, the wind is moving slower and creating an area of higher
pressure that pushes on the blade, trying to slow it down. Like in the design of an airplane wing, a
high lift-to-drag ratio is essential in designing an efficient turbine blade. Turbine blades are twisted
so they can always present an angle that takes advantage of the ideal lift-to-drag force ratio.
Aerodynamics is not the only design consideration at play in creating an effective wind
turbine. Size matters as the longer the turbine blades the more energy a turbine can capture from the
wind and the greater the electricity-generating capacity.

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Doubling the rotor diameter produces a four-fold increase in energy output..
In a lower-wind-speed area, a smaller-diameter rotor can end up producing more energy than a
larger rotor because with a smaller setup, it takes less wind power to spin the smaller generator, so
the turbine can be running at full capacity almost all the time.
Tower height is a major factor in production capacity, the higher the turbine, the more energy it
can capture because wind speeds increase with elevation increase -- ground friction and ground-
level objects interrupt the flow of the wind. Scientists estimate a 12 percent increase in

wind speed with each doubling of elevation.

In Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) shaft is mounted horizontally, parallel to the ground.
HAWTs need to constantly align themselves with the wind using a yaw-adjustment mechanism.
The yaw system typically consists of electric motors and gearboxes that move the entire rotor left or
right in small increments. The turbine's electronic controller reads the position of a wind vane
device (either mechanical or electronic) and adjusts the position of the rotor to capture the most
wind energy available. HAWTs use a tower to lift the turbine components to an optimum elevation
for wind speed (and so the blades can clear the ground) and take up very little ground space since
almost all of the components are up to 260 feet (80 meters) in the air

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Large HAWT components:

• rotor blades - capture wind's energy and convert it to rotational energy of shaft
• shaft - transfers rotational energy into generator
• nacelle - casing that holds:
• gearbox - increases speed of shaft between rotor hub and generator
• generator - uses rotational energy of shaft to generate electricity using
electromagnetism
• electronic control unit (not shown) - monitors system, shuts down turbine in case
of malfunction and controls yaw mechanism
• yaw controller (not shown) - moves rotor to align with direction of wind
• brakes - stop rotation of shaft in case of power overload or system failure

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• tower - supports rotor and nacelle and lifts entire setup to higher elevation where
blades can safely clear the ground
• electrical equipment - carries electricity from generator down through tower and
controls many safety elements of turbine

(D) Calculating Power

To calculate the amount of power a turbine can actually generate from the wind, we need to
know the wind speed and the turbine power rating. Mostly turbines produce their maximum power
at wind speed of 15 meters per second (53 km/h). Considering steady wind speeds, it's the diameter
of the rotor that determines how much energy a turbine can generate.

Rotor Size and Maximum Power Output

Rotor Diameter (meters) Power Output (kW)

10 25

17 100

27 225

33 300

40 500

44 600

48 750

54 1000

64 1500

72 2000

80 2500

Sources: Danish Wind Industry Association

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 At 53 km/h, most large turbines generate their rated power capacity, and at 45 mph (20
meters per second), most large turbines shut down. There are a number of safety systems that can
turn off a turbine if wind speeds threaten the structure, including a remarkably simple vibration
sensor used in some turbines that basically consists of a metal ball attached to a chain, poised on a
tiny pedestal. If the turbine starts vibrating above a certain threshold, the ball falls off the pedestal,
pulling on the chain and triggering a shut down.

(E) Wind Power Usage in the U.S.

Potential disadvantages aside, the United States has a good number of wind turbines
installed, totaling more than 9,000 MW of generating capacity in 2006. That capacity generates in
the area of 25 billion kWh of electricity, which sounds like a lot but is actually less than 1 percent
of the power generated in the country each year. As of 2005, U.S. electricity generation breaks
down like this:

• Coal: 52%
• Nuclear: 20%
• Natural gas: 16%
• Hydropower: 7%

• Other (including wind, biomass, geothermal and solar): 5%

Source: American Wind Energy Association

The current total electricity generation in the United States is in the area of 3.6 trillion kWh
every year. Wind has the potential to generate far more than 1 percent of that electricity. According
to American Wind Energy Association, the estimated U.S. wind-energy potential is about 10.8
trillion kWh per year -- about equal to the amount of energy in 20 billion barrels of oil (the current
global yearly oil supply). To make wind energy feasible in a given area, it requires minimum wind
speeds of 9 mph (3 meters per second) for small turbines and 13 mph (6 meters per second) for
large turbines. Those wind speeds are common in the United States, although most of it is
unharnessed.

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 When it comes to wind turbines, placement is everything. Knowing how much wind an
area has, what the speeds are and how long those speeds last are the crucial deciding factors in
building an efficient wind farm. The kinetic energy in wind increases exponentially in proportion to
its speed, so a small increase in wind speed is in fact a large increase in power potential. The
general rule of thumb is that with a doubling a wind speed comes an eight-fold increase in power
potential. So theoretically, a turbine in an area with average wind speeds of 26 mph will actually
generate eight times more electricity than one set up where wind speeds average 13 mph. It's
"theoretically" because in real-world condition, there is a limit to how much energy a turbine can
extract from the wind. It's called the Betz limit, and it's about 59 percent. But a small increase in
wind speed still leads to a significant increase in power output.

(F) Wind Farms

As in most other areas of power production, when it comes

to capturing energy from the wind, efficiency comes in large
numbers. Groups of large turbines, called wind farms or wind
plants, are the most cost-efficient use of wind-energy capacity. The
most common utility-scale wind turbines have power capacities
between 700 KW and 1.8 MW, and they're grouped together to get
the most electricity out of the wind resources available. They are
typically spaced far apart in rural areas with high wind speeds, and
the small footprint of HAWTs means that agricultural use of the
land in nearly unaffected. Wind farms have capacities ranging
anywhere from a few MW to hundreds of MW. The world's largest
wind plant is the Raheenleagh Wind Farm located off the coast of
Ireland. At full capacity (it's currently operating at partial capacity), it will have 200 turbines, a total
power rating of 520 MW and cost nearly $600 million to build.
The cost of utility-scale wind power has come down dramatically in the last two decades
due to technological and design advancements in turbine production and installation. In the early
1980s, wind power cost about 30 cents per kWh. In 2006, wind power costs as little as 3 to 5 cents
per kWh where wind is especially abundant. The higher the wind speed over time in a given turbine
area, the lower the cost of the electricity that turbine produces. On average, the cost of wind power
is about 4 to 10 cents per kWh in the United States.

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 Energy Costs Comparison

Resource Type Average Cost (cents per kWh)

Hydroelectric 2-5

Nuclear 3-4

Coal 4-5

Natural gas 4-5

Wind 4-10

Geothermal 5-8

Biomass 8-12

Hydrogen fuel cell 10-15

Solar 15-32

Sources: American Wind Energy

As the world's population increases and there is continued comparison to the current
western European, Japanese, and North American living standards, there is likely to be demand for
more electrical power. Energy sources available in the world include coal, nuclear, hydroelectric,
gas, wind, solar, refuse-based, and biomass. In addition, fusion had been originally proposed as the
long-term source.

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(6) Comparison of all the sources of Energy:

Every form of energy generation has advantages and disadvantages as shown in the table below.

Source Advantages Disadvantages

• Requires expensive air pollution

controls (e.g. mercury, sulfur
dioxide)
• Significant contributor to acid
• Inexpensive
rain and global warming
Coal • Easy to recover
• Requires extensive transportation
system

• Fuel is inexpensive • Requires larger capital cost

• Energy generation is the most because of emergency,
concentrated source containment, radioactive waste
• Waste is more compact than any and storage systems
source • Requires resolution of the long-
Nuclear
• Extensive scientific basis for the term high level waste storage
cycle issue in most countries
• Easy to transport as new fuel • Potential nuclear proliferation
• No greenhouse or acid rain issue
effects

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 • Very limited source since depends
on water elevation
• Dam collapse usually leads to loss
of life
• Very inexpensive once dam is
• Dams have affected fish (e.g.
Hydroelectricity built
salmon runs)
• Government has invested
• Environmental damage for areas
heavily in building dams.
flooded (backed up) and
downstream

• Very limited availability as shown

by shortages during winters
• Could be major contributor to
global warming
• Good distribution system for
• Very expensive for energy
Gas / Oil current use levels
generation
• Easy to obtain
• Large price swings with supply
• Better as space heating energy
and demand
source
• Liquefied Natural Gas storage
facilities and gas transmission
systems have met opposition from
environmentalists
• Wind is free if available. • Need 3x the amount of installed
• Good source for periodic water generation to meet demand
pumping demands of farms as • Limited to small generator size;
used earlier in 1900's need many towers.
• Generation and maintenance • Highly climate dependent - wind
Wind
costs have decreased can damage equipment during
significantly. Wind is proving to windstorms or not turn during still
be a reasonable cost renewable summer days.
source. • May affect endangered birds;
• Well suited to rural areas. however tower design can reduce
impact...

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• Sunlight is free when available
• Costs are dropping
Solar
• Industry in its infancy
• Could create jobs because
Biomass
smaller plants would be used
• Fuel can have low cost
• Could create jobs because
Refuse Based
smaller plants would be used
Fuel
• Low sulfur dioxide emissions
• Combines easily with oxygen to
produce water and energy
Hydrogen
• Hydrogen and tritium could be
used as fuel source
• Higher energy output per unit
Fusion mass than fission
• Low radiation levels associated
with process than fission-based
reactors
• Does require special materials for
mirrors/panels that can affect
environment
• Current technology requires large
amounts of land for small amounts
of energy generation
• Inefficient if small plants are used
• Could be significant contributor to
global warming because fuel has
low heat content
• Inefficient if small plants are used
• Could be significant contributor to
global warming because fuel has
low heat content
• Flash can contain metals as
cadmium and lead
• Contain dioxins and furans in air
and ash releases
• Very costly to produce
• Takes more energy to produce
hydrogen then energy that could be
recovered.
• Breakeven point has not been
reached after ~40 years of
expensive research and
commercially available plants not
expected for at least 35 years.
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(7) Conclusion

Throughout the world, we need every energy source we can get - including nuclear. As one
can see from the table above, all energy sources have BOTH advantages AND disadvantages.
Nuclear has a number of advantages that warrant its use as one of the many methods of supplying
an energy-demanding world. Even with conservation efforts, energy demand has been and will
continue to increase. Other factors can accelerate that increase, e.g. the proposed shift to electric
cars to meet environmental air quality goals. In using each and every one of these forms of energy
production, we need to make sure we conserve as much as we can so we leave sources for future
generations. Energy suppliers need to ensure that they do not contribute to short and long-term
environmental problems. Governments need to ensure energy is generated safely to that neither
people nor the environment are harmed.

To ensure that energy resources will be available for future generations, we need to take actions in
the following areas:

• improve home and building designs to conserve energy and take advantage of passive
renewable resources
• conduct research to ultimately lead to significant cost reductions for renewable energy
sources
• design industrial parks for those energy-intensive industries that take advantage of
cogeneration concepts
• ensure that power plants use cogeneration methods to minimize waste heat
• develop uses for nuclear waste products
• Significantly reduce use of those energy production methods that are major contributors to
global warming, or develop technical solutions that curb releases of those materials that
produce global warming...

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References:-

Book:-

INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

-- FELIX A. FARRET, M. GODOY SIMOES

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY: POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL FEASIBILITY

--CHRISTOPHER A. SIMON

Websites:-

Popular Science Magazine (USA)- www.popsci.com

How Stuff Works (Discovery Channel)- www.howstuffworks.com

National Geographic Channel – www.natgeo.com

Wiki Pedia – www.wikipedia.com

Danish Wind Power Industry – www.windpower.org

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