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Food and Agriculture An international journal Vol. 59
Organization of forestry and forest
of the United Nations industries 2008/1
Editor: A. Perlis
Contents
Editorial Advisory Board:
F. Castañeda, R. Czudek, T. Hofer, D. Kneeland,
A. Perlis, L. Russo, T. Vahanen, P. Vantomme,
Editorial 2
M.L. Wilkie R.M. Martin
Emeritus Advisers:
J. Ball, I.J. Bourke, C. Palmberg-Lerche Deforestation, land-use change and REDD 3
Regional Advisers: C. Azevedo-Ramos
F. Bojang, C. Carneiro, P. Durst, P. Koné,
K. Prins Sustainable development and challenging deforestation in the
Brazilian Amazon: the good, the bad and the ugly 12
Unasylva is published in English, French and
Spanish. Payment is no longer required. Free L. Usongo and J. Nagahuedi
subscriptions can be obtained by sending an Participatory land-use planning for priority landscapes of the
e-mail to unasylva@fao.org Congo Basin 17
Subscription requests from institutions (e.g.
libraries, companies, organizations, universities) O. Dubois
rather than individuals are preferred to make the /CMKPIUWTGVJCVDKQHWGNFGXGNQROGPVDGPGſVUUOCNNHCTOGTU
journal accessible to more readers.
All issues of Unasylva are available online free
and communities 25
of charge at www.fao.org/forestry/unasylva Do biofuels help mitigate climate change? 32
Comments and queries are welcome:
unasylva@fao.org What effect will biofuels have on forest land and poor people’s
Reproduction and dissemination of material
access to it? 33
in this publication for educational or other P. Bhattacharya, R. Prasad, R. Bhattacharyya and A. Asokan
non-commercial purposes are authorized
without any prior written permission from the 6QYCTFUEGTVKſECVKQPQHYKNFOGFKEKPCNCPFCTQOCVKERNCPVUKP
copyright holders provided the source is fully four Indian states 35
acknowledged. Reproduction of material in
this publication for resale or other commercial R. Panwar and E. Hansen
purposes is prohibited without written permission Corporate social responsibility in forestry 45
of the Chief, Electronic Publishing Policy and
Support Branch, Communication Division, P. Hurtado
FAO. Corporate social responsibility for successful business:
Articles express the views of their authors, an example from Latin America 49
not necessarily those of FAO.
Designations employed and presentation of FAO Forestry 50
material do not imply the expression of any
opinion on the part of FAO concerning the legal World of Forestry 53
or development status of any country, territory,
city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the Books 56
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The FAO publications reviewed in Unasylva
may be ordered from any of the FAO sales
agents listed on the inside back cover. FAO
will process orders from countries where there
are no sales agents. Contact the Sales and
Marketing Group, Communication Division,
FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153
Rome, Italy.
Tel.: (+39) 06 57051;
Fax: (+39) 06 5705 3360;
Telex: 625852/625853/610181 FAO I;
E-mail: publications-sales@fao.org
Cover photo:
Cash crops replacing forest, Thailand
FAO/FO-6641/M.Kashio
EDITORIAL
Land use
The tropical forest of the Congo Basin in Central Africa has
one of the world’s richest concentrations of biodiversity. It
provides food, materials and shelter for more than 75 million
F
AO’s State of Food and Agriculture 2007 noted that people and is a major source of wealth for the region. The
“human ingenuity applied to the production of food Central African Forests Commission (COMIFAC) and other
and other commodities has allowed production to keep partnerships have fostered cooperation among countries of the
pace with population growth and income-driven demand, but region in harmonizing forest policies, building regional institu-
at the cost of considerable degradation of other ecosystem tions and leveraging funds to finance large-scale conservation
services” – including those of forests. This issue of Unasylva programmes. L. Usongo and J. Nagahuedi describe a regional
addresses the theme of land use and the relation of forests with conservation strategy undertaken by the COMIFAC countries
other land uses. How do we balance forest conservation goals based on land-use planning in 12 priority landscapes (large
and the need for forest products and services with the need ecosystems with consistent biological and socio-economic
for land for agricultural crops, livestock, urban development features). The approach involves establishing core protected
and more recently biofuel crops? areas surrounded by multiple-use zones.
Deforestation, forest degradation and other forest changes The foreseen expansion of biofuel crops, triggered by climate
account for around 17 percent of global greenhouse gas emis- change concerns and the heightened search for alternatives
sions, more than the world’s entire transport sector – a fact to fossil fuel, could have potentially severe consequences
that has recently strengthened the argument for supporting for forests and the people who depend on them, especially
forest conservation over other land uses and aggressively seek- in tropical countries. An article by O. Dubois and two short
ing measures to reduce deforestation. Future climate-change pieces that follow it consider impacts of biofuel development
negotiations are likely to consider measures for reducing green- on rural livelihoods, on people’s access to land and on land
house gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation use in general. Dubois’s article offers policy recommenda-
(REDD). In the first article, R.M. Martin goes against the tions for ensuring that biofuel schemes do not harm – and
current, cautioning that advocacy of REDD may undervalue preferably help – small farmers and rural communities. A
the economic and political forces behind deforestation. He brief review examines the potential for deforestation and land-
argues that it may be more feasible to promote carbon uptake access problems as new land is brought into production for
by restoring forest and agricultural landscapes and overcoming biofuel crops. A box (p. 32) points out the risk that if forests
forest degradation than by using policy and economic tools are cleared for biofuel crops, it is possible that the resulting
to overcome deforestation. greenhouse gas emissions could cancel out the emissions
The next two articles were developed from case studies prevented by using biofuel in place of fossil fuel.
presented at the international symposium “Our Common The issue concludes with some articles on other themes.
Ground: Innovations in Land Use Decision-Making”, held P. Bhattacharya et al. discuss certification of wild medicinal
7 to 9 May 2007 at the University of British Columbia, and aromatic plants. The authors describe an attempt to adapt
Vancouver, Canada. These case studies show how individual global norms and standards for national-level implementation
groups resolve land and resource use issues or work together through a project in four Indian states. Finally, R. Panwar and
to achieve a common goal. E. Hansen explore the concept of corporate social responsi-
C. Azevedo-Ramos gives a broad overview of past and bility (CSR) in forestry, suggesting an issues management
future challenges for development in the Brazilian Amazon, methodology for companies in the wood products sector. An
addressing the drivers of deforestation in the region, the example of CSR from Chile follows.
contribution of science and technology to the solution of
W
critical issues and the advancement of rules and regulations ith the risks posed by climate change, maintenance
that can help orient land use. The Amazon basin has the of forest ecosystem services and sustainable pro-
world’s largest contiguous tropical forest and is home to 20 duction of forest products are more vital than ever.
million people. In the past 30 years, almost 60 million hec- But the earth’s population is growing and its cultivable land
tares of tropical forest were cut down there, most to support is finite. Conflicts are likely. Decision-makers will have to
large-scale agriculture. But regional planning, backed by weigh the trade-offs between different land uses. A coordi-
law enforcement, agro-ecological zoning and the expansion nated, multisectoral approach to policy-making and planning
of protected areas, has slowed deforestation and improved in forestry, agriculture, trade, development, energy, climate
biodiversity conservation in the Amazon. Developments are and transportation is thus essential to achieve the land-use
monitored through remote sensing and the results are posted mix that best meets the needs of each country.
on the Internet for public viewing.
3
T
Promoting forest restoration and he Intergovernmental Panel on to consider measures for reducing green-
sustainable forest management Climate Change’s fourth assess- house gas emissions from deforestation
has more promise for mitigating ment report (IPCC, 2007) esti- and forest degradation (REDD).
climate change than narrowly mated that the forest sector contributes While deforestation is a particularly
focusing on reducing greenhouse 17.4 percent of all greenhouse gases visible contributor to greenhouse gas
gas emissions from deforestation from anthropogenic sources; most of emissions, this article argues that over-
and forest degradation (REDD). this is due to deforestation and forest coming deforestation using policy and
degradation. The Stern Review on the economic tools is much less feasible than
economics of climate change (Stern, promoting carbon uptake by overcoming
2007), furthermore, observed that “curb- forest degradation and restoring forest
ing deforestation is a highly cost-effec- and agricultural landscapes. It suggests
tive way of reducing greenhouse gas that the literature and political discus-
emissions”. sion advocating REDD as cost-effective
Based on such scientific evidence, the and easy to achieve may significantly
thirteenth session of the Conference of undervalue the economic and political
the Parties to the United Nations Frame- forces behind deforestation.
work Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC COP-13), held in Bali, Indo- HOW MANY TREES QUALIFY AS
nesia in December 2007, addressed DEFORESTATION?
the role of forests in climate change To begin with, the term “deforestation” is
(UNFCCC, 2007). The Bali Action Plan, used loosely in the climate change nego-
which outlines long-term cooperative tiations. If the concept is to be debated by
action up to 2012 and beyond, calls for parties to UNFCCC, it needs to be firmly
enhanced national and international defined. The Global Forest Resources
action including: “Policy approaches Assessment (FRA), an existing, well-
and positive incentives on issues relating vetted process that involves all national
to reducing emissions from deforestation governments in defining and measuring
and forest degradation in developing the change in forest extent, would offer
countries; and the role of conservation, a suitable foundation (Holmgren et al.,
sustainable management of forests and 2007).
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in In considering the concept of
developing countries”. deforestation, it should be noted that
The Parties adopted a decision specific the removal of tree cover can be a normal
to the challenge, “Reducing emissions part of forest management. The number
from deforestation in developing coun- of trees harvested and the portion of
tries: approaches to stimulate action”, the area’s biomass removed are a func-
which encourages Parties to address the tion of forest type, species composition,
drivers of deforestation relevant to their management plan, market conditions and
national circumstances. Thus, negotia- a host of other factors. Just as harvest-
tions of a future protocol to limit emis- ing agricultural crops is not usually an
R. Michael Martin is Director of the Forest sions and stabilize atmospheric concen- environmental threat, removal of timber
Economics and Policy Division, Forestry tration of carbon dioxide (CO2) are likely from a forested site does not necessar-
Department, FAO, Rome.
FAO/FO-6659/C.ECKELMANN
degradation can be defined and meas-
ured, the search for opportunities to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
these two sources raises interesting ques-
tions. When deforestation is defined as
a land use change, it is necessary to ask While a degraded forest is often assumed to
who intended this change. Was it an look like this, with spindly trees and paltry
explicit public or private choice? Did UVQEMKPIPQſZGFFGſPKVKQPGZKUVUTGEGPV
proposals emphasize the reduced capacity
it just happen largely unnoticed over of the forest to produce goods and services
time? What were the motivations? In this
sense, deforestation and forest degrada-
tion are a consequence of a number of Where did all the forests go?
explicit actions responding to the eco- The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FAO, 2001) made a notable effort to docu-
nomic, political and social situation. ment the transition of forest to other land uses and other land uses to forest, based on a pan-
Distributions of wealth, information and tropical look at land-use change using remote sensing images compared over time. The data,
political power within the country also also available for 1980–1990 and 1990–2000, show that different forces are at work through
play a critical part. WLPHDQGLQGLIIHUHQWFRQWLQHQWV7KXVUHPHGLHVDSSURSULDWHIRU$IULFDPD\EHVLJQL¿FDQWO\
different from those that might be effective in Asia or Latin America.
NOW YOU SEE THEM, NOW YOU
Percentage of total area change due to different causes, 1980–2000
DON’T
Deforestation has been attributed to a
spectrum of causes (ECOSOC, 1996; Africa
World Rainforest Movement, 2002;
Estrada Porrúra, Corbera and Brown, Asia
2007) ranging from lack of market
reward for conserving forests (market Latin America
failure) (Panayotou, 1992) to inadequate
specification of property rights (Pearce Pan-tropical
and Brown, 1994), policy failure, pov-
erty (Otsuka and Place, 2001) or poor 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
management practices. All of these per-
Expansion of shifting cultivation into undisturbed forests
spectives probably hold some truth.
Various actors participate in forest con- Intensification of agriculture in shifting cultivation areas
version: subsistence farmers, small farm Direct conversion of forest area to small-scale permanent agriculture
operators, large farm enterprises, gov- Direct conversion of forest area to large-scale permanent agriculture
ernment and industry (see Box). They
Gains in forest area and canopy cover
all respond to different economic and
Other
social incentives; thus different policy
instruments or incentive systems may be Source: Based on FAO, 2001.
to plant, but carbon payments would tries an obvious measure of improvement tional and economic systems still favour
have to involve a significant guarantee is the removal of forest cover and its growth and development. Land grants,
for the future to convince an individual replacement with an agricultural crop or through titling, concession arrangements
to give up farming. This is a major life some other “economic” use. The conflict and other approaches, are among the
change requiring new knowledge, skills, in logic here is that this conversion may few means available to governments to
equipment and culture. The incentive not be legal ex ante. But since forests, promote economic development. Thus
needed to induce a farmer to make such especially in remote areas, suffer from REDD-related mechanisms must over-
a shift should be considered when REDD weakness in law enforcement over vast come powerful underlying incentives
payment schemes are contemplated. areas, conversion, either abrupt or grad- for forest conversion.
The underlying assumption with such ual, is difficult to control. Ex post, the
incentive payments appears to be that land is improved and the economic agent WILL MONEY MAKE A
an additional carbon payment will petitions for regularization of title. This DIFFERENCE?
encourage existing owners to change is not only a phenomenon of developing What are the economic arguments
their behaviour, favouring forest reten- countries. It is likely that a number of in favour of retaining forest cover?
tion. In this sense, it is useful to look the wildfires occurring in the Mediter- Moreover, will carbon payments make
at the factors causing economic agents ranean region each summer are related a difference? Is deforestation simply an
(individuals, families or business enter- to attempts to remove the vegetation as economic issue, or must more be done
prise) to convert forest to another use. part of a land claim process. in terms of policy, law and institutions
Conversion is time consuming, laborious Land conversion and land titling offer to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and expensive. significant opportunities for building from deforestation and forest degrada-
and storing wealth (de Soto, 2000). In tion? The myriad factors underpinning
FOREST IS LAND – AND LAND IS societies troubled by a legacy of infla- deforestation include positive incen-
MONEY, POWER AND AUTHORITY tion, land assets are deeply treasured tives for agriculture, transportation,
In many societies, agriculture and urban and sought. But this opportunity for mining, energy production and the like
lands are privately held. Forests, how- wealth creation comes at significant risk, (Kanninen et al., 2007). Where the same
ever, are often deemed part of a col- expense and investment. The readiness plot of land cannot support both uses at
lective patrimony serving the common and ability of economic agents to under- the same time, a positive incentive for
good by providing, historically, meat, take these risks is related to their wealth agriculture may be a negative incentive
nuts, berries, medicinal plants, forage, or poverty as well as their economic and for forests. The most efficient policy
fuelwood, building poles and so forth. political power. measures may well be the removal of
Almost all countries, with only a few Governments often actively or at least agricultural subsidies that encourage
exceptions, constitutionally enshrine tacitly encourage settlement in remote deforestation.
forested lands with a status of a public or frontier areas. They effectively offer As noted in the Box on p. 5, most
trust resource rather than a privately land grants in exchange for the risks deforestation results from conversion
owned resource (FAO, 2006b). Decen- and hardships that settlers will face. to subsistence farming or small-scale
tralization and devolution of central gov- “Development” of remote areas allows permanent agriculture or large-scale
ernment authority has sometimes trans- governments to secure their perimeters, conversion to pasture, legumes, oil palm
ferred ownership and responsibility to win votes and broaden their economic or plantation crops such as coffee, tea
a lower constitutional level (provincial, foundation. For example, the various and cacao. The challenge to economic
regional, municipality or commune), but governments holding Texas since the late analysis of decisions leading to forest
a major share of the forest area across the seventeenth century – Spain, Mexico, the conversion lies in valuing the oppor-
globe – 84 percent – is publicly owned Republic of Texas and the United States tunity cost of capital and labour to the
or managed (FAO, 2006a). On a regional – successively awarded land grants to economic agents.
basis, the percentage in Africa and Asia settlers and to companies expected to The economic theory underpinning
is even higher. sell the land to raise funds for trans- financial transfers or other monetary
Over time, however, a great deal of port infrastructure (Texas General Land rewards for REDD depends on three
forest area has been converted to other Office, n.d.). assumptions:
uses. A main motivating factor appears It is instructive to recall that settle- xmarket failure can be overcome
to be legislation allowing public land to ment of forest and prairies was con- through incentive payments;
go into private hands if the petitioner has sidered progress until recently, even xpublic investment in REDD is merited
“improved” the land – and in many coun- in developed countries. Legal, institu- and can be supported politically;
FAO/FO-6657/M. KASHIO
is that if a market for carbon could be
created and economic agents could real-
ize payments for carbon stored (receive
an incentive), they might choose dif-
ferently. Alternatively, if penalties (a
disincentive) were imposed for releasing is to find mechanisms for funding that ment controls – rests on the assumptions
carbon, the assumption is that the eco- would maintain public support among that emitters would seek the least expen-
nomic agents would choose to avoid or both the gainers and those that would sive means to achieve their obligations,
minimize emissions. forego a development opportunity. An thus reducing the total economic cost
The second argument is that, in the important issue to maintain political sup- of meeting the overall global emission
absence of transaction costs, if those who port will be a clear definition of what is target; and that reducing deforestation
gain (the beneficiaries) from the provi- to be purchased and at what geographic could represent a low-cost alternative
sion of a public good could compensate scale – global or local. to more stringent controls in the trans-
those who lose and still realize overall As a first stage towards a comprehen- port, energy or industrial sectors. Most
gains, then the investment has merit. It is sive global cap on carbon emissions, the industrial plants and energy facilities
the economic equivalent of the greatest Kyoto Protocol established national obli- adopt a given production technology that
good for the greatest number over the gations for developed countries to reduce becomes relatively fixed over the life of
long term. The public good sought in greenhouse gas emissions. Anticipation the plant – perhaps 10 to 20 years. Faced
this case is an atmospheric concentra- of and finally ratification of the Kyoto with a cap on emissions, it is assumed
tion of CO2 that does not exceed the Protocol have facilitated the growth of a that some would turn to the purchase of
level beyond which potential unknown number of trading mechanisms whereby emission offsets offered through plans to
consequences and processes might be individual emitters that are able to keep reduce emissions from deforestation and
set in motion, as established by the sci- their emissions below their allocation forest degradation. Still to be considered,
entific community. Physically, this is through energy conservation or new however, are the mechanisms to transmit
said to be achievable through controls technology are allowed to sell their the revenues from these purchases to the
or limits on carbon emissions for the excess rights to emit. Likewise, emit- providers of the deforestation-reducing
foreseeable future. The concept, there- ters that cannot reduce their emissions service.
fore, is to use REDD-based incentives or maintain them below the cap, or that
and other tools to mobilize investment find it cheaper to buy credits than to RECONSIDERING THE BASIS FOR
for keeping atmospheric CO 2 below adopt emission-reducing technology, REDD
this threshold. Those who gain (every- can buy credits. Governments generally seek to buy
one) must identify a way to motivate Under a broader global “cap and trade” something with their tax dollars – secu-
the losers, including those who would agreement, emission reductions might rity through defence expenditures, a more
benefit financially from deforestation. also include investments in forestry. The prosperous future through investments
The challenge is to build not only the third economic argument underpinning in science and education, better public
argument for public support but also the REDD – that markets will contribute health through vaccination programmes,
means. A major effort under the Bali to achieving emission goals more effi- etc. Public incentive systems seldom pay
Road Map adopted at UNFCCC COP-13 ciently (at a lower total cost) than govern- people not to do something – especially if
the “something” is widely considered to toration of forested watersheds. At the forestry community may need to return
be contrary to the public interest. In most global level, countries could be recog- to its roots and explain with greater
countries, unauthorized deforestation is nized for increasing their carbon stocks effectiveness the potential of sustain-
against the law. Incentive payments to in natural environments – agricultural able forest management to boost the
encourage people not to deforest will soils, woodlands, urban greening and long-term carbon carrying capacity of
strike most voters as paying people not forests. Indeed, positive incentives for forest biomass and soils. For the reasons
to do what is already against the law. tree planting and stewardship could be indicated above, the political, social and
Governments do not pay people not to COQTGGHſEKGPVOGCPUQHGPUWTKPIHQTGUV economic costs associated with reducing
commit arson, for example, even though cover and could be easier to adminis- deforestation are likely to be perceived as
the public and private costs of arson may ter than avoiding deforestation. Trees higher than the low opportunity cost from
far exceed what the perpetrator would planted outside the commons on private agricultural conversion. Discouraging
consider good compensation. Such pay- farms and community plots have better economic agents seeking to capture
ments are avoided because they promote FGſPGFVGPWTGCNNQYKPIVJGKTUVGYCTFU land from engaging in deforestation will
antisocial or imprudent behaviour by more clearly to claim ownership. In prin- be politically challenging for govern-
compensation seekers who would oth- ciple, the Clean Development Mechanism ments. For commercial interests that can
erwise have been inhibited sufficiently (CDM) allows for projects in land use, mobilize significant capital and access
by moral or legal censure. Farm sub- land-use change and forestry. In practice, international markets competitively to
sidy programmes, employment insur- however, less than a handful of affores- produce the commodities in growing
ance programmes and family safety net tation/reforestation projects have been demand, the low level of carbon pay-
(welfare) programmes remain widely approved. This suggests that the CDM ments that could be foreseen will not be
discussed and heavily criticized in most needs to be revisited in order to capture adequate to defer developments that can
countries. Antipathy towards the idea of VJGWPTGCNK\GFDGPGſVUHTQOHQTGUVT[EKVGF achieve scale economies. Furthermore,
being paid to “not do something” seems in the Stern Review (Stern, 2007) and those who convert forest land may not
deeply ingrained in the human psyche. elsewhere. own it, and would not necessarily be the
For this reason, reversing forest deg- recipients of payments made to discour-
radation may have the most promising SUMMARY age its conversion to other uses.
future in the REDD complex, even if less Realizing a system of international pay- A more feasible scenario would be one
carbon is saved and monitoring could ments or other economic incentives for where actions to reward carbon seques-
DG FKHſEWNV (QTGUV FGITCFCVKQP KU VJG countries to reduce emissions from tration more broadly in the rural envi-
slow-death equivalent of deforestation. deforestation and forest degradation ronment are acknowledged, and where
Continuous impoverishment of forest will require detailed understanding of IQXGTPOGPVUJCXGOQTGƀGZKDKNKV[VQWUG
stock reduces carbon balances above and the deforestation process and the influ- funds gained under an international com-
below ground. Effectively, the reverse ences of agricultural, trade, develop- pensation mechanism to apply a variety
of a negative externality (carbon emis- ment, energy and transport sector poli- of initiatives such as land-use planning,
sions) is a positive externality (remov- cies. Deforestation is often driven by zoning, conservation easements, forest
ing and sequestering excess carbon from a desire to acquire land as a source of management planning and training for
the atmosphere). Rebuilding the carbon collateral, as a store of wealth and as a underemployed rural and indigenous pop-
storage capacity in degraded or denuded hedge against inflation. Changing the ulations. In this scenario, economic agents
forest lands represents a positive invest- trajectory of deforestation will require – government, individuals and business
OGPVRTQFWEKPICRWDNKEIQQFUWHſEKGPV policy programmes that reduce incen- – would be compensated for producing
atmospheric capacity to absorb industrial tives for forest cover removal as a basis something additional (new carbon stored)
and transport-sector emissions without for land titling. More importantly, devel- rather than rewarded for “not doing some-
tripping alarm bells while new low-carbon oping countries will need to be able thing” (not deforesting or not degrading).
energy technologies come into play. to realize development goals through Special attention must be given to pro-
Within this context, countries and eco- other means. Otherwise governments viding support to traditional forest users
nomic agents receive compensation for will continue to see land development and subsistence farmers to promote car-
sequestering carbon and sustaining it. The as one of the few means within their bon-rich, community-friendly sustainable
voluntary carbon markets are increas- reach to meet their goals for economic forest management. X
ingly evolving along these lines. They competitiveness and security.
deal in new forest plantations, improved To realize contributions from forests
management of degraded lands and res- in the context of climate change, the
T
Agricultural expansion, opening of he Amazon region comprises 61 This article gives a broad overview of
new roads and migration of people percent of Brazil’s land area (5.3 past and future challenges for develop-
to unexploited areas are all major million square kilometres), with ment in the Brazilian Amazon, as well
causes of Amazon deforestation; a population of 20 million people. The as recent achievements. In recognition
thus many sectors share the region has the largest continuous tropical of some similarities between the Ama-
responsibility for reversing it. forest in the world and hosts around 20 zon basin and the popular image of the
percent of the world’s plant and animal American Far West, it borrows from the
species. The potential for an economy title of Sergio Leone’s 1966 epic Western
based on forest resources is enormous. film The good, the bad and the ugly to
Although Brazilian participation in observe the phases of Amazon develop-
world trade of forest products is still ment. However, the order is reversed to
small (around 3 to 4 percent) relative to finish on an optimistic note, since much
other sectors (e.g. 20 percent in the meat has been achieved. Passing from the
sector), the forest sector comprises 8.6 worst to the best situation, the article
percent of Brazilian exports and provides addresses the drivers of deforestation in
6.5 million jobs. In south and southeast- the region, the contribution of science
Claudia Azevedo-Ramos is Director of ern Brazil, the forest plantation sector in and technology to the solution of critical
the Brazilian Forest Service, Ministry of particular has competitive advantages for issues and the advancement of rules and
Environment, Brasilia, Brazil. growth, considering the climate, infra- regulations that can help orient land use
Adapted from a paper presented at the symposium structure and technological expertise. in the Brazilian Amazon.
“Our Common Ground: Innovations in Land Use The diversity of the native forests in
Decision-Making”, 8–9 May 2007, Vancouver, the Amazon similarly offers commer-
Canada.
cial potential that has not yet been fully
'ZRCPUKQPQHNCTIGUECNG
explored. However, the equation for a Planting of soybean for animal
agriculture, while offering balanced development associating eco- feed and biofuel also drives
economic opportunities nomic growth with social and environ- forest conversion indirectly by
for Brazil, is the newest displacing cattle ranchers to
driver of deforestation in
mental benefits is not yet solved. forested areas where land is
the Amazon region cheap (state of Mato Grosso)
C. AZEVEDO-RAMOS
C. AZEVEDO-RAMOS
bean prices; increased soybean demand est forces for the implementation of new At one extreme is a “business-as-usual”
from European markets because of the infrastructure in the region, especially scenario which includes all pavement of
mad-cow disease (bovine spongiform roads. The current governmental infra- roads scheduled until 2027 (14 000 km
encephalopathy); and rapid economic structure plan for the Amazon includes of roads), low law enforcement, agricul-
growth in China (9 percent per year) road paving, new hydropower projects tural expansion and population growth
(Nepstad, Stickler and Almeida, 2006), and construction of waterways and ports. and migration. According to the model,
which consumes great quantities of poul- It has the potential to change drastically in this scenario 40 percent of Amazon
try and pork fed with soybean. the social, economic and environmental forests would be lost between 2003 and
Soybean can also be used for biofuel. situation of the Amazon. Paved roads can 2050 (closed-canopy forest formation
The Brazilian Government has declared IGPGTCVGGEQPQOKECPFUQEKCNDGPGſVUDWV reduced from 5.3 million to 3.2 million
the obligatory addition of 2 percent also deforestation and forest degradation square kilometres).
biofuel into petroleum diesel starting if not accompanied by regional planning. At the other extreme is a “governance”
in 2008. In 2013, the proportion will Studies have shown that more than 70 scenario which includes pavement of
increase to 8 percent, increasing bio- percent of deforestation occurs within 11 500 km of roads up to 2026 along with
fuel consumption to 2.5 million litres 50 km of paved roads, while at most law enforcement, agro-ecological zon-
per year. This policy, together with the 7 percent occurs along unpaved roads ing (preventing agricultural expansion
announced interest of other countries in (IPAM, 2000). The promise of a new onto inappropriate areas) and expansion
alternative fuels, has encouraged local highway (Br163) in the central Amazon and conservation of protected areas. The
producers to increase their soybean plan- has already taken many new sawmills to difference in deforestation between these
tation area. About 2 million hectares will the region and redirected migration. two scenarios would be 1 million square
be needed just to meet the new Brazilian Seeking sustainable development in kilometres.
demand. In addition, Brazil has built this particular region, civil society pro- The deforestation facilitated by road
up technological expertise in ethanol moted a popular movement for participa- pavement and low law enforcement
production from sugar cane. tory regional planning. The federal gov- could also dramatically increase the
Although the increased demand for soy- ernment then created a working group annual net carbon emissions from the
bean and the growth of biofuels repre- with the participation of 21 federal insti- Amazon. The model predicts that under
sent excellent opportunities for Brazil, tutions to elaborate the “Br163 Sustain- the business-as-usual scenario 32 billion
the challenge is to increase production able Plan” based on studies and public tonnes of carbon would be emitted by
without encouraging new deforestation. hearings. State and federal governments 2050 (equivalent to four years of cur-
The Ministry of Agriculture states that adopted the plan, making a commitment rent global annual emissions), contrasted
the total area of already deforested and for further actions and public policies with 15 billion tonnes of carbon under
arable land in Brazil is more than enough associated with Br163. This initiative the governance scenario.
to increase soybean plantations with- demonstrated the influence that well Soares-Filho et al. (2006) also analysed
out need for further deforestation. For organized local civil society can have. the potential species loss in these two
instance, the national production of etha- Regional planning demands synergy scenarios. By 2050, about 100 mammal
nol could be doubled by using only 3.3 among public policies. In this regard, species (30 percent) would lose more
percent of Brazil’s 90 million hectares of decision-makers can benefit from pre- than 40 percent of the forests within
arable land. However, care must be taken dictive models, which can show, among their distribution ranges under the busi-
to prevent new deforestation caused by other things, trends in the forces of ness-as-usual scenario, compared with
displacement of other economic activi- deforestation depending on different 39 species (10 percent) under the gover-
ties such as cattle ranching, which has political choices. For instance, based nance scenario.
already occurred. When biofuels increase on the historical relationship between Protected areas assume an important
demands for crops, prices will rise, farms deforestation and roads in the Brazil- role in forest and biodiversity conserva-
will expand and displaced ranchers will ian Amazon, Soares-Filho et al. (2006) tion. For instance, almost 40 percent of
clear new lands, usually in forested areas built a model that predicts Amazon mammal distribution ranges are within
where land prices are still low. New occu- deforestation under eight different protected areas (Azevedo-Ramos et al.,
pation of areas that used to be remote, scenarios depending on the number of 2006). Impacts of roads would be felt
and which are associated with weak new roads or roads paved and various in 89 indigenous lands, 22 protected
governmental presence and land tenure development parameters. The output is areas and 68 priority areas for biodi-
problems, tends to be chaotic. projected scenarios of Amazon develop- versity conservation – in 28 percent of
Agribusiness has been one of the strong- ment up to 2050. protected areas overall (IPAM, 2000).
Macapá
Manaus
Belém Indigenous land
São Luis
Federal protected areas
State protected areas
Military areas
Palmas
Rio Branco
Porto Velho
Cuiabá
The analysis of Soares-Filho et al. (2006) Brazil has advanced and transparent Brazil’s energy matrix is consider-
showed that under a business-as-usual remote-sensing systems for monitor- ably cleaner than that of other devel-
scenario, protected areas would do lit- ing deforestation, giving monthly and oping countries. About 20 percent of its
tle alone, contributing to a reduction of annual estimates (DETER and PRODES, energy production comes from renew-
new deforestation to 7 percent below respectively). The reports are posted on able sources (wood, charcoal, sugar-
the business-as-usual baseline. On the the Internet (www.inpe.br), and images cane derivatives and others), and if
other hand, protected areas associated are available for verification by members hydroelectric energy is included this
with a governance scenario could avoid of civil society. A similar system for percentage goes up to around 60 percent.
one-third of the deforestation projected detecting illegal logging (DETEX) is About 23 percent of the country’s green-
to occur by 2050 under the business-as- being developed. Collaborative monitor- house gas emissions come from fossil
usual scenario. ing activities shared by the federal police fuel combustion and 75 percent from
and the Brazilian Institute of Environ- land use changes, primarily Amazon
THE GOOD ment and Renewable Natural Resources deforestation (Ministry of Science and
Most of the recommendations included (IBAMA) resulted in the arrest of more Technology, Brazil, 2004). By reduc-
in the governance scenario of Soares- than 500 people involved in illegal ing deforestation since 2004, Brazil has
Filho et al. (2006) have been put into deforestation or logging in 2005 and avoided the emission of approximately
action and enforced. 2006. Moreover, 20 million hectares of 200 million tonnes of carbon.
The federal government now acknowl- new federal protected areas were estab- Strengthening the social, environmen-
edges that reducing deforestation is not lished in those two years in the Brazilian tal and economic importance of forests,
exclusively the concern of the Ministry Amazon (about 10 percent of the total). a new public forest management law was
of Environment, as it was historically Currently, 48 percent of the Brazilian established in 2006. It stipulates that
believed to be. The government has Amazon (about 201 million hectares) all public forests should remain public
established a committee involving 14 is in some kind of protected area (see and retain their forest cover. They can
ministries to design and execute a plan for Figure). These actions, together with a be transformed into protected areas,
reducing Amazon deforestation. Moni- decrease in international soybean prices, allocated to traditional populations or
toring and control of illegal deforestation have reduced Amazon deforestation by sustainably used for economic purposes
have been particularly intensified. 52 percent since 2004 (INPE, 2008). under forest concessions. The same law
created the Brazilian Forest Service, the new public forest management law, FAO. 2008. FAOSTAT database. Available
which has the responsibility to manage the settlers should develop forest-based at: faostat.fao.org
and protect the public forests. The law activities in areas where there is forest Houghton, R.A. 2005. Tropical deforestation
also established the National Fund for cover. This means that rural public policy as a source of greenhouse gas emission. In P.
Forest Development, which supports should now promote forest resource use Moutinho & S. Schwartzman, eds. Tropical
forest-based activities such as research, (with training, credit and technology) deforestation and climate change, pp.
capacity building and economic activi- instead of only agriculture. Otherwise, 13–22. Belém, Brazil, Instituto de Pesquisa
ties related to forest management. these settlers may become the new driv- Ambiental da Amazônia.
Another important change was the ers of uncontrolled deforestation. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais
decentralization of forest management The production of biofuels offers (National Institute for Space Research,
and monitoring, previously under federal important opportunities for Brazil – but INPE). 2008. 0RQLWRUDPHQWR GD ÀRUHVWD
government responsibility. Now, every policies must ensure that these oppor- amazônica brasileira por satélite – Projeto
Brazilian state has its share of respon- tunities do not come at the cost of new PRODES. Available at: www.obt.inpe.
sibility for issuing forest management deforestation in the Amazon. br/prodes
permits and for preventing illegal log- Support and incentives are needed to Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia
ging and deforestation. maintain the increasingly extensive pro- (Amazon Institute for Environmental
As a means of strengthening the forest- tected areas. In this regard, the Brazil- Research, IPAM). 2000. Forward Brazil:
based economy in the Amazon basin and ian Government proposed to the United environmental costs for Amazonia. Belém,
as a part of major regional planning, the Nations Framework Convention on Cli- Brazil. Available at: www.ipam.org.br
federal government is creating Sustain- mate Change (UNFCCC) that develop- Ministry of Science and Technology, Brazil.
able Forest Districts – areas where public ing countries should be compensated 2004. Inventory of anthropogenic emissions by
policies, concerning for example forest for reducing deforestation below their sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse
management, land tenure, energy, indus- national historical rates, since the con- gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol:
try, education and science and technology, sequent reductions in carbon emissions Brazil’s initial national communication, Part
will be implemented to stimulate forestry generate benefits for all humanity. II. Brasilia, Brazil. Available at: www.mct.
or forest recovery. One district of 19 mil- Development has followed various gov.br/upd_blob/0005/5163.pdf
lion hectares has already been created in phases in the Brazilian Amazon. Having Morton, D.C., DeFries, R.S., Shimabukuro,
the central Amazon (Br163). Two others reached a phase in which forest protec- Y.E., Anderson, L.O., Arai, E., del Bon
are being planned in the Amazon. tion and sustainable use are promoted, Espirito-Santo, F., Freitas, R. & Morisette,
the country needs to make this position J. 2006. Cropland expansion changes
FINAL REMARKS permanent. Despite the achievements, deforestation dynamics in the southern
The obstacles to sustainable rural deve- challenges remain. Yet there is now Brazilian Amazon. Proceedings of the
lopment and conservation in remote stronger political and civic will to deal National Academy of Sciences of the United
areas are complex and difficult to over- with them. X States, 103(39): 14637–14641.
–14641.
14641.
come. New waves of people migrating Nepstad, D., Lefebvre, P., Lopes da Silva, U.,
to unexploited areas in search of better Tomasella, J., Schlesinger, P., Solórzano,
life opportunities and easy profit will L.A., Moutinho, P., Ray, D. & Benito, J.G.
make the prevention of illegal logging 2004. Amazon drought and its implications
and deforestation a continuous struggle HQT HQTGUV ƀCOOCDKNKV[ CPF VTGG ITQYVJ C
unless local institutions are reinforced Bibliography basin-wide analysis. Global Change Biology,
and the State becomes more present in 10: 704–717.
affected remote areas. Adequate poli- Asner, G.P., Knapp, D.E., Broadbent, E.N., Nepstad, D.C., Stickler, C.M. & Almeida, O.T.
cies based on land-use regulation, local Oliveiri, P.J.C., Keller, M. & Silva, J.N. 2006. Globalization of the Amazon soy and
governance and law enforcement could 2005. Selective logging in the Brazilian beef industries: opportunities for conservation.
reduce deforestation and biodiversity Amazon. Science, 310: 480–482. Conservation Biology, 20(6): 1595–1603.
loss and allow economic growth. Con- Azevedo-Ramos, C., do Amaral, B.D., Soares-Filho, B.S., Nepstad, D.C., Curran,
taining migration to the region still poses Nepstad, D.C., Soares-Filho, B. & L.M., Cerqueira, G.C., Garcia, R.A.,
challenges, however. Brazilian agrarian Nasi, R. 2006. Integrating ecosystem Azevedo Ramos, C., Voll, E., Macdonald,
reform, for example, has supported the management, protected areas and mammal A., Lefebvre, P. & Schlesinger, P. 2006.
creation of several new legal rural set- conservation in the Brazilian Amazon. Modelling conservation in the Amazon basin.
tlements in the Amazon. According to Ecology and Society, 11(2): 17–41. Nature, 440: 520–523. X
C
Central Africa’s conservation entral Africa holds over 15 assessment of ecosystem representative-
approach is based on land-use percent of the world’s remain- ness, biodiversity significance, socio-
planning in 12 priority landscapes, ing tropical forest, the second economic importance and geopolitical
involving establishment of core largest contiguous forest on the planet. and strategic factors. The participatory
protected areas surrounded by The forest provides food, raw materi- selection process involved national gov-
multiple-use zones. als, freshwater and shelter for over 75 ernments, conservation organizations
million people and is a major source of and local stakeholders.
wealth for the region. However, forest
resources are threatened by overexploi- A REGION RICH IN NATURAL
tation, clearing for agriculture and com- RESOURCES
mercial bushmeat trade, all exacerbated The tropical forests of Central Africa
by high population growth. cover more than 193 million hectares
As described in this article, the – an area almost four times the size
Yaoundé process, the Central African of France (CBFP, 2006; ITTO, 2004).
Forests Commission (COMIFAC) and About 76 percent of the total forest area
the Congo Basin Forest Partnership is production forest (Table 1) (CBFP,
(CBFP) provide an enabling institutional 2006). Lying at the equator, the region
environment fostering regional coop- harbours among the richest concentra-
eration in forest conservation and rural tions of terrestrial biodiversity in the
development based on effective land-use world. Although records are incomplete,
planning. The core of the Convergence the Congo Basin is known to be home to
Plan endorsed by COMIFAC countries in over 10 000 species of plants, perhaps 80
2002 – the road map for conservation ini- percent of which are endemic. The region
tiatives in the Congo Basin – is land-use supports the world’s largest assemblage
planning in 12 priority landscapes, which of tropical forest vertebrates: about 1 000
are large ecosystems with consistent bird species (16 threatened, 36 percent
biological and socio-economic features. endemic) and some 400 mammals which
These landscapes were selected using an include 23 threatened species such as
ecoregional planning approach based on western and eastern gorillas, chimpan-
TABLE 1. Total forest area and proportion of production forests in the Congo Basin
Country Total forest Production forest
(million ha)
Leonard Usongo is Senior Conservation (million ha) (% of total)
Biologist, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
&HQWUDO$IULFD5HJLRQDO3URJUDPPH2I¿FH Cameroon 19.6 12.0 61
(CARPO), Yaoundé, Cameroon. Central African Republic 6.3 3.5 56
Jonas Nagahuedi is Executive Secretary, Central
Congo 22.3 13.0 58
African Forests Commission (Commission des
forêts d’Afrique Centrale, COMIFAC), Yaoundé, Democratic Republic of the Congo 108.3 98.0 83
Cameroon.
Equatorial Guinea 1.5 1.5 79
Adapted from a paper presented at the symposium Gabon 22.1 17.0 77
“Our Common Ground: Innovations in Land Use
Total 180.5 137.0 76
Decision-Making”, 8–9 May 2007, Vancouver,
Canada. Source: CBFP, 2006.
Democratic
Republic of
the Congo 2 345 410 62 660 551 3.07 6.43 47 50 3 52 86 66
Equatorial
Guinea 28 051 540 109 2.05 4.55 42 56 4 50 89 86
Gabon 267 667 1 424 906 2.13 4.74 42 54 4 55 55 63
zees, bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees) (Table 2). All countries in Central have a largely interdependent social rela-
and forest elephants (WWF, 2002). Africa except Gabon (which has rela- tionship with the Bantu made complex
The Congo is the world’s second richest tively high urbanization and per capita by ethnic rivalries.
river system for fish (700 species) and income) have high population growth Bantu farmers practice slash-and-burn
is distinguished by exceptional levels rates and a predominantly young popu- subsistence agriculture; forest is felled
of endemism in both fish and molluscs. lation. Low literacy rates and lack of and burned, providing nutrients for the
The Congo Basin forests also provide education, particularly among women, crops. In addition to food crops, many
valuable global ecological services by are recognized factors in the high fertil- farmers maintain small plots of cocoa
absorbing and storing carbon dioxide, ity rates and are critical issues facing grown under shade. Cocoa is grown for
thereby helping to slow the rate of global both conservation and human develop- export and its production is thus linked
climate change. ment in Central Africa. High population to world market prices.
The Congo Basin contains four of Afri- growth rates ultimately also affect the All the nations in the region are depend-
ca’s freshwater ecoregions identified environment. ent on extractive industries (oil, min-
by the World Wide Fund for Nature Ethnically, the main tribal groups liv- ing, timber, wildlife and other non-wood
(WWF, 2008) as globally outstanding ing in the Congo Basin are Bantu groups forest products [NWFPs]) for a large per-
for their high diversity of freshwater and pygmies. Baka, BaAka and Bakola centage of their gross domestic product
species. Between 75 and 95 percent of pygmies were formerly hunter-gatherers (GDP), almost all their foreign exchange
the rainfall in the Congo Basin is esti- but are now becoming increasingly set- and much of their tax revenues. Well
mated to come from recycled water gen- tled, both through their own choice and capitalized and technically competent
erated by evapotranspiration within the because of government policies. They multinational corporations dominate
region. In this feature the region differs
dramatically from other major tropical Baka pygmies,
indigenous
watersheds of the world; the Amazon hunter-gatherers
Basin, for example, recycles only about in the forests of
50 percent of its water (WWF, 2002). southeastern
Cameroon, are
For this reason, central African forests increasingly
are probably more sensitive and less becoming settled
resilient ecologically than other tropical
moist forests.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT
Central African nations rank among
the lowest in the world on most human
welfare indicators and among the high-
D. ROUGE
most extractive industries except arti- percent of national GDP. Export of pri- Wildlife killed as food in Central Africa
sanal gold and diamond mining. mary wood products from Cameroon, the amounts to 1 million tonnes each year
The region’s forests are a major source Central African Republic, the Congo, (Eves et al., 2002). Bushmeat cheaply
of local and national economic growth the Democratic Republic of the Congo provides a varied source of high-quality
with revenues generated from logging, and Gabon generated US$995 million protein. It contributes between 30 and
mining, hunting, fishing and trade in in 2003 (ITTO, 2004). 80 percent of the protein consumed by
other NWFPs. The timber industry is Wildlife also provides important rev- forest-dwelling families in the Congo
an important source of national rev- enue and employment, in particular for Basin. Furthermore, bushmeat hunting
enue and employment in all countries rural communities. In most of Central is a low-risk economic activity requir-
in Central Africa and will be a major Africa, the rural revenue produced by ing almost no capital investment and
determinant of the future state of forests both legal and illegal trade in bushmeat producing very quick financial returns.
in the region (Brunner and Ekoko, 2000). is probably equivalent or even superior Therefore sustainable village hunting
Timber exports contribute at least 40 to that produced by the logging industry. has an important role in alleviating
poverty among the most economically
1
Future biodiversity threat vulnerable people.
TABLE 3. Indicative list of funds mobilized by donors to support implementation governance and sustainable management
of COMIFAC’s Convergence Plan since the launch of the Congo Basin Forest of natural renewable resources. Its main
Partnership focus is to support a network of well-man-
Donor Funding Purpose aged national parks alongside sustain-
(million US$)
ably managed surrounding forest areas
France 30 Protected areas, trust funds, sustainable
forest management
that include logging or mining conces-
sions, agricultural lands and community
Germany >35 Protected areas, trust funds, sustainable
forest management, community forests. The programme also provides
development assistance to surrounding local com-
Italy 60 Debt cancellation munities that largely depend on forest
Netherlands 30 Community development, livelihoods, resources for their survival. CBFP is the
capacity building, natural resource
management
highest-funded environment programme
European Union 45 Sustainable forest management
in the world, with contributions from
bilateral and multilateral donors, inter-
United States 128 Implementation of landscape programmes
national conservation organizations and
World Bank 25 Natural resource management, especially
targeting protected areas and promoting research institutions (Table 3).
sustainable use To ensure better coordination and
Global Environment Facility (GEF) 17 Land-use planning in TRIDOM landscape implementation of the CBFP programme,
United Nations Educational, 8 World Heritage programmes COMIFAC has established and coordi-
5EKGPVKſECPF%WNVWTCN1TICPK\CVKQP nates the following specialized regional
(UNESCO)
structures, which also bring together
Conservation NGOs 120 Protected areas, trust funds, sustainable
forest management, community other technical partners:
development • the Conference on Central African
Source: Rough estimates from project documents gathered 2002–2007. Moist Forest Ecosystems (CEFDHAC),
dealing with management of consul-
protected areas. Governments recognize ered with full responsibility to coordi- tative processes within subregional and
traditional use rights, encouraging the nate all conservation initiatives in the national fora;
definition of regimes for collaborative Congo Basin. The treaty also provides a • the Agency for the Development of
management and benefit sharing with strong legal framework for negotiating Environmental Information (ADIE),
communities. with bilateral and multilateral funding for the management and dissemina-
agencies to establish long-term funding tion of environmental information to
REGIONAL COORDINATION mechanisms for these initiatives. all stakeholders;
The Yaoundé Declaration of 1999, signed The highest governing body for the • the Organization for the Conserva-
by Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo Basin collaboration is the Heads tion of African Wildlife (OCAW),
Chad, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and of State summit, programmed once every which addresses biodiversity conser-
Gabon, provides an institutional frame- five years. The Council of Ministers vation and combats poaching across
work for collaboration on cross-border under COMIFAC is convened every national borders;
forest issues, creation of protected areas two years. COMIFAC has a regional • the African Timber Organization
and development and implementation of secretariat in Yaoundé. (ATO), which covers issues related
sustainable forest management. A regional umbrella structure, the to forest economics, forest certifica-
In May 2000, the signatory States Congo Basin Forest Partnership, brings tion and trade in forest products;
established the Central African Forests together governments, non-governmen- • the Network of Protected Areas in
Commission (Commission des forêts tal organizations, research institutions Central Africa (RAPAC), which
d’Afrique Centrale, COMIFAC) to and universities, donor agencies, the pri- provides linkages for management
direct, coordinate, harmonize and moni- vate sector, indigenous forest peoples’ of national protected areas.
tor forest and environment policies and groups and civil society to implement
initiatives in the subregion. In 2005, the Congo Basin conservation initia- IMPLEMENTING CONSERVATION
these six countries plus Angola, Burundi, tive. Endorsed at the World Summit for COMIFAC supervises implementation
Rwanda and Sao Tome and Principe Sustainable Development in 2002, the of the Convergence Plan, which sets con-
signed a treaty which transformed partnership promotes economic deve- servation priorities for the Congo Basin.
COMIFAC into a legal entity empow- lopment, poverty alleviation, improved The plan includes six strategic axes:
xharmonization of forest and taxation are established through a participatory of conservation, whereby policies and
policies; land-use planning process involving the conservation practices are harmonized
xknowledge of natural resources; government forest administration, local to ensure effective management of rep-
xmanagement of ecosystems and re- communities, private-sector partners resentative assemblages of genes and
forestation; such as logging companies and non- species within a particular ecosystem.
xbiodiversity conservation; governmental organizations (NGOs). Coordination of transboundary pro-
xsustainable valorization of forest Four international conservation NGOs grammes is regulated by agreements
resources; provide technical assistance to national signed by member countries; they are
xdevelopment of alternative economic governments in developing the land-use endorsed by national parliaments of
activities and reduction of poverty. plans. WWF, for example, leads in seven member countries and thus legally recog-
The Convergence Plan focuses on 12 of these areas, focusing its work on par- nized. The Governments of Cameroon,
priority landscapes (Figure 2), many ticipatory land-use planning involving the Central African Republic and the
of which cross national borders. They consultations with all stakeholders to Congo, for example, signed an agreement
were selected based on sound scien- map out multiple-use zones and impor- establishing the Sangha Tri-national
tific research and knowledge of species tant conservation areas within a network transboundary area (4.5 million hec-
endemism, biodiversity uniqueness, eco- of protected areas. Sustainable natural tares) and arranging for its collaborative
system resilience, threats and socio-cul- resource use by local communities and management – an important step towards
tural factors, including relations between stakeholders such as logging or mining managing poaching and illegal logging
indigenous forest communities and their companies is promoted in zones sur- in the subregion.
environment. More than 150 scientists rounding conservation areas, to ensure The land-use planning process of
from different disciplines and organiza- that local communities have access to the Sangha Tri-national landscape has
tions participated in Congo Basin–wide natural resources and also benefit from resulted in the establishment of core
surveys and data analysis which led to the forest revenues. protected areas covering 780 500 ha with
selection of these priority landscapes. The transboundary landscape model surrounding multiple-use zones making
In these priority landscapes, commu- was developed using a planning approach up about 3.7 million hectares (Figure
nity forest areas and other use zones that focuses on the ecoregion as the unit 3). Broad management guidelines are
being developed for the different forest
2 domains. The multiple-use zones include
Priority landscapes in the Congo Basin community wildlife hunting areas and
forest areas reserved for community
forestry. Some of the communities, in
(8) Chad southeastern Cameroon for instance,
(6)
generate significant incomes from
(10) leasing community hunting areas for
Central
Cameroon
African trophy hunting as well as through sale
(1) Republic
(2) of wood from community forests. The
(3) Sangha land-use planning model will
(5) Democratic be replicated in other selected priority
Equatorial Republic landscapes in the Congo basin.
Guinea
(8) of the Congo
Another vast priority landscape is
(12)
Gabon Congo the Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-national
transboundary area (TRIDOM), which
involves 14.5 million hectares of forests
(4) (7) in six protected areas in Gabon, Cam-
eroon and the Congo. The agreement
(11)
pertaining to this landscape, which con-
1. Sangha Tri-national 7. Mont Fouari tains ecologically rich protected areas
2. Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-national 8. Estuaire du Rio-Muni at its core, was signed in 2005.
3. Minkébé-Mengamé 9. Boumbadjida-Binder-Lerelam
4. Mayumba-Conkouati 10. Bili Uere-Bangassou Transboundary agreements provide the
5. Campoma'an_Campo 11. Mayombe institutional framework for enhanced
6. Zakouma-Manovo-Gounda-St Floris 12. Lac Tela-Lac Tomba
cooperation in key conservation activi-
ties such as surveillance, research and these, about 4.5 million hectares are forest effective conservation of biodiversity,
monitoring, park management and par- protected areas (889 782 ha in Cam- given increased pressures due to unsus-
ticipatory management involving local eroon, 1 million hectares in the Congo, tainable exploitation practices in the
communities in villages across borders. 515 000 ha in Equatorial Guinea and multiple-use zones that surround them.
Each transboundary programme has a more than 2 million hectares in Gabon). Large blocks of natural habitat, on the
technical committee bringing together Cameroon and Gabon have carried out order of millions of hectares are needed
protected area authorities of the countries UEKGPVKſETGXKGYUQHVJGKTPCVKQPCNRTQ- to maintain viable species populations
involved. Transboundary committees tected area networks and have approved for resilience to large-scale disturbances
work in collaboration with national gov- new networks as a result. such as climate change. The large land-
ernments and COMIFAC for programme scape conservation approach adopted in
coordination and implementation. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND the Congo Basin is aimed at effective
5KPEGVJGſTUV;CQWPFÃUWOOKVKP LESSONS LEARNED management of a network of protected
more than 6.5 million hectares of new Isolated pockets of protected areas and areas along with promotion of sustain-
protected areas have been created. Of forest patches alone do not allow for able use of natural resources in surround-
ing forests for economic development,
3
livelihood support and the well-being of
Sangha Tri-national landscape, with core
protected area and multiple-use zones surrounding local communities.
Success in managing large-scale and
complex initiatives that cut across
international boundaries and national
Yokadouma priorities depends on an enabling institu-
Nola tional environment, which must address
national sensitivities and the geopolitical
context in the subregion. The COMIFAC
treaty signed by Central African leaders
addresses some of the geopolitical and
Dzanga
strategic issues, forging cooperation and
Dzanga- the commitment of member countries
Sangha
National Park
to work together. COMIFAC is now a
legal entity empowered by the govern-
Sanghe ments to take decisions and formulate
Lobeke Nouabale Ndoki regional policies to promote sustainable
National Park National Park
management of natural resources in the
Congo Basin. The treaty is also an impor-
tant benchmark towards harmonization
of regional forestry laws, policies and
governance systems.
The Yaoundé process has been a
Ouésso
catalyst for regional cooperation and
more efficient management of natural
resources in the Congo Basin. Both the
commitment of Central African leaders
and support from the international con-
Cameroon Central servation community have been critical
African
Republic in its success. The existence of a Congo
Congo Basin treaty has stimulated bilateral and
multilateral funding agencies to com-
0 25 50
mit funding for the Congo Basin basket
km fund.
One of the unique characteristics of the
Core protected area Sangha Tri-national landscape Yaoundé process and Congo Basin con-
0DNLQJVXUHWKDWELRIXHOGHYHORSPHQWEHQH¿WVVPDOO
farmers and communities
O. Dubois
T
Some suggestions on how to he quest for sustainable bio- Biofuel development is also strongly
achieve biofuel development fuel systems has increased tre- influenced by current global trends such
that favours sustainable rural mendously over the past few as transition to market economies, glo-
livelihoods. years. Concerns about potential nega- balization, high and volatile fossil fuel
tive effects, such as deforestation and prices and rising concerns about climate
competition between food and biofuel change. Yet biofuel development should
production, have led to the demand be geared to people’s livelihoods as well
for sustainability instruments such as as to global and national energy needs.
standards, criteria and indicators to be Livelihoods are sustainable (Ashby and
applied through mandatory regulations Carney, 1999) when they:
and/or voluntary schemes such as cer- xare resilient in the face of external
tification. shocks and stresses;
To ensure that biofuels contribute to xare not dependent on external support
the Millennium Development Goals, (or if they are, this support should
and in particular to the first goal on itself be economically and institu-
food security and poverty reduction, tionally sustainable);
it is important to ensure that biofuel xmaintain the long-term productivity
development at least does not harm, of natural resources;
and preferably favours, the livelihood xdo not undermine the livelihoods
strategies of small-scale producers and of, or compromise the livelihood
communities in rural areas. This article options open to, others.
addresses what it takes to achieve biofuel The article briefly discusses gover-
development that favours sustainable nance mechanisms that can ensure that
rural livelihoods. small farmers and communities in rural
Biofuel systems are complex because: areas do not lose out from the implemen-
xthey are inherently composed of three tation of biofuel schemes.
quite diverse components – feed-
stock (raw material) supply, conver- SUSTAINABILITY IN UNCERTAIN
sion technology and energy use; TIMES AND CHANGING
Olivier Dubois is Senior Rural Institutions xthese components are influenced ENVIRONMENTS
2I¿FHUDQG&RRUGLQDWRURIWKH%LRHQHUJ\*URXS simultaneously by environmental, Biofuel systems can be developed in
Environment, Climate Change and Bioenergy
economic and social factors; diverse land-use situations (Figure 1).
Division, Natural Resources Management and
Environment Department, FAO, Rome. xthey can serve various purposes, Conventional management methods are
from national energy supply to com- efficient in differentiating these land
Adapted from the author’s paper “How
munity-level energy autonomy; uses according to physical criteria.
good enough biofuel governance can help
rural livelihoods: making sure that biofuel xthey function at different scales, However, actual land uses change not
development works for small farmers and from large-scale to decentralized only according to physical factors but
communities”, an unpublished background paper
village-based schemes. also because needs change as demands
for FAO’s State of Food and Agriculture 2008.
TABLE 1. )LYHSRVVLEOHWUDMHFWRULHVRIIRUHVWFRYHULQFRPHDQGSRSXODWLRQ
Trajectory Agricultural rent curve Managed forest rent Forest cover Poverty and population Location of identifying
curve trend trend characteristic
+PVGPUKſECVKQPYKVJ Shifts up because of Is everywhere Deforestation Landowners prosper, Peri-urban, good soils,
deforestation increasing urban or dominated by continues labour demand probably high-input agriculture
(e.g. soybean areas in international demand agricultural rent and stabilizes increases, wages and/or and higher population
Brazilian savannah) for improved tenure at low forest workforces increase, with density
cover possible urban labour
growth
+PVGPUKſECVKQPYKVJ Shifts up because Shifts up because of Decreases, Landowners prosper, Peri-urban, medium to
reforestation of increasing urban increased demand, then rebounds labour demand increases good soils, medium- to
(e.g. woodlots) demand, increasing exhaustion of mined and wages and high-input agriculture
returns and improved sources and demand workforces increase and medium to high
tenure for environmental population density
services
Abandonment with Shifts up because Shifts up because Decreases, Poverty decreases Likely on marginal
regrowth of increasing urban of improved tenure then rebounds because of out-migration lands: hillsides and/or
(e.g. forests in Europe demand, then down and increased semi-remote forested
and the United States) because of rising demand for wood land, or where
wages and environmental population density is
services low
Abandonment and Shifts up and down Never surfaces, Decreases Out-migration without Marginal lands, not
irreversible degradation because of land either because of towards zero poverty alleviation near cities; nutrient-
(e.g. Imperata degradation high costs or tenure poor soils, slopes or
grasslands in or irreversibility of JKIJN[ſTGRTQPGNCPFU
Southeast Asia) degradation grasslands in forest
biomes
Deforestation and Shifts up because Shifts down because Decreases Larger but poorer Probably not near
pauperization of failing wages of soil degradation, towards zero population cities; anomalously
and increasing food and disputes over high population density
demand land tenure increase given remoteness and
agroclimate
2
Possible approaches
to the implementation
of policies for
sustainable biofuel National, small-scale end use International end-use
development
Standardization of
Mandatory Government
biomass standards on
regulation
international level
Most of the current work on instru- rectly, especially for biofuel projects The following ingredients seem essen-
ments for sustainable biofuel develop- based on agriculture, although this tial for successful community biofuel
ment is driven by voluntary initiatives is usually limited in small-scale development projects that fulfil local
(see Box below). These will have to be schemes and depends on the degree needs (UNDP, 2000; Forsyth, 2005):
backed by the power of law and enforce- of mechanization of production and xparticipatory approaches involving
ment to have some chance of mitigating processing operations in large-scale a broad cross-section of the commu-
negative impacts of biofuel develop- schemes; nity, including the poorest groups;
ment. In many countries the judicial xprovision of an alternative to other xinclusion of production and supply
process is slow. Legal costs are often forms of agricultural production, of biomass as an integral part of the
beyond the capacities of weaker groups thus contributing to income diver- project (because the entire biofuel
in rural areas such as small-scale farmers sification; chain affects the local community)
and indigenous people, and enforcement xincreased local revenue genera- and sensitivity to other possible uses
of their rights may be hindered by links tion. of feedstock (e.g. as food, fodder,
between powerful investors and political However, it is a challenge to develop soil amendment or fertilizer, con-
elites (UNDP, 2007). biofuel systems that will truly satisfy struction material);
local needs and contribute to poverty xminimized transaction costs, as de-
COMMUNITY BIOFUEL SYSTEMS reduction and food security. For exam- scribed above;
Biofuel has significant potential to pro- ple, the connections among employment, xassurance mechanisms, such as con-
mote rural development (Box opposite), GPXKTQPOGPVCNKORCEVUCPFDGPGſEKCTKGU tracts and understandings, to keep
especially when it uses locally produced of the energy produced are strictly local the community and private biofuel
feedstock, through: and could be made clear to everyone, but processors together in partnership;
xwider and more on-demand avail- this rarely happens when planning and xfostering of a local institution to take
ability of energy, with all its related implementation are supply driven and responsibility for design, implemen-
services for local development (for top-down. Moreover, rural energy should tation and ongoing management of
households, communities and pro- be part of a much broader development the project;
duction purposes); approach if it is to have positive and xappropriate financial mechanisms.
xjob creation, both directly and indi- sustainable impacts on the rural poor. Getting the financial mechanisms
right is especially crucial and com-
plex when dealing with the rural poor.
Example of a multistakeholder process: the Roundtable on Subsidies should be transparent and
Sustainable Palm Oil guidance for smallholders linked to the economic development
they are supposed to promote (UN-
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) (see www.rspo.org) is a global association
Energy, 2007).
of organizations promoting open dialogue throughout the palm oil supply chain, involv-
ing oil-palm growers, palm-oil processors and traders, consumer goods manufacturers,
WHAT CAN GOVERNMENTS DO TO
retailers, banks and investors, environmental and nature conservation non-governmental
SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE BIOFUEL
organizations (NGOs) and social and development NGOs.
DEVELOPMENT?
The focal activity of RSPO has been the development of practicable principles and
The role of government can include, for
criteria for production of sustainable palm oil. Its strengths include its transparent,
example (ESMAP, 2005; Dubois and
KPENWUKXGEQPUGPUWUDCUGFRTQEGUUCPFKVUTCRKFRTQITGUUKPFGXGNQRKPICPFſGNFVGUVKPI
Lowore, 2000):
the principles and criteria.
xproviding an overall strategic vision
To encourage the engagement of smallholders, smallholders’ organizations, non-com-
for biofuel development;
pany extension services and growers’ associations, RSPO formed a Smallholder Task
xdeveloping a series of policies relat-
Force which works to:
ed to biofuel development (Table 2),
• ensure that the association’s materials are translated into the major languages of the
including incentives and removing
main countries where smallholders engage in oil palm cultivation;
disincentives – although to date the
• carry out diagnostic surveys of smallholder issues and views;
effect of most biofuel policies on
• test the RSPO principles and criteria with smallholders;
consumers’ food surplus situation
• hold open consultations;
and on greenhouse gas reduction
• propose revised principles and criteria to RSPO.
remains uncertain;
Source: Vermeulen and Goad, 2006; RSPO, 2007. xproviding guidance in such areas
recognition; Incentive – tax or subsidy Excise tax credit for renewable energy, carbon tax, subsidies for
ƀGZHWGNXGJKENGURTKEGUWRRQTVUCPFFGſEKGPE[RC[OGPVUVCTKHHU
xprotecting against pressures from or subsidies on imports/exports
other economic sectors;
xproviding and maintaining basic Direct control Renewable fuel standards, mandatory blending, emission control
UVCPFCTFUGHſEKGPE[UVCPFCTFUCETGCIGEQPVTQNSWQVCUQP
infrastructure to support biofuel import/export
product development and market-
Enforcement of property rights Cap and trade
ing; and trading
xproviding formal rules for conflict Educational and informational Labelling
resolution if local rules are insuf- programmes
ficient; Improving governance %GTVKſECVKQPRTQITCOOGU
xlinking different decision-making Compensation schemes Payment for environmental services
levels;
Source: Rajagopal and Zilberman, 2007
Macqueen, 2005) is also applicable to sus- of biofuel systems should be an impor- xcontinuous potential for negotia-
tainable biofuel development (Figure 3). tant principle of biofuel policies and tion of the terms and conditions of
The lower tiers (basic policy and insti- practice, and a major component of inter- the collaborative natural resource
tutional elements) push, while the higher national biofuel aid programmes. How- management agreement, particularly
tiers (more sophisticated mechanisms ever, in other natural resource sectors concerning the “four Rs” – rights,
that generate demand) pull, for sustain- (e.g. forestry) and rural development, responsibilities, returns and mu-
able biofuel development. Elements in the initial enthusiasm for this principle tual relationships – of stakeholders
the lower tiers are more numerous and has been tempered by experience and (Mayers, 2005);
often more fundamental to progress. recognition of the challenges it presents xexperimentation and monitoring of
The pyramid’s foundations are less – providing a lesson for biofuel develop- collaborative management involv-
directly controlled by biofuel stakehold- ment. These challenges include: ing rural people, and development
ers, but it is crucial that these stake- xpolitical and institutional issues un- of mechanisms that allow lessons
holders understand the constraints and derlying natural resource manage- from experimentation to feed into
opportunities emanating from beyond ment; the policy-making process;
the biofuel sector to enable them to argue xthe importance of context; xlong-term and demand-driven do-
their case and influence those with the xthe difficulty of reducing specificity nor support to help in financing the
power to improve the foundations. to the community level because ru- transaction costs of this learning
Taking the construction analogy fur- ral populations are often composed process;
ther, Mayers, Bass and Macqueen ( 2005) of many separate groups, people xa flexible and iterative approach, fol-
suggest five “plumbing and wiring sys- use natural resources in different lowing guidelines not blueprints.
tems” as necessary complements to the ways, and external actors influence Ultimately, policy implementation,
building stones: the local rules of resource use and institutions and stakeholders’ roles in
xinformation (access, coverage, qual- management. biofuel development are all embedded
ity, transparency); xinstitutional transition in natural re- in the local political and cultural context.
xparticipatory mechanisms (represen- source management, often including Policies may address the issue of what is
tation, equal opportunity, access); weakened traditional rules, increas- needed at the natural resource level, but
xfinances (internalising externalities, ing privatization and non-enforce- it is the interactions between the assets,
cost efficiency); ability of formal rules. needs, institutions and relationships that
xskills (equity and efficiency in build- A multiple strategy is therefore determine how policies are to be imple-
ing social and human capital); required, combining: mented. This is therefore the level where
xplanning and process management xnational guidelines that clearly re- capacity development should be given
(priority-setting, decision-making, cognize the key role of communities priority. The argument about ways to
coordination and accountability). and small farmers in achieving simul- implement biofuel development usually
The involvement of local communities taneously better biofuel development concerns stakeholders’ assets and enti-
and small farmers in the co-management and sustainable rural livelihoods; tlements, and other local institutions, but
TABLE 3. Matrix comparing the environmental, agronomic, socio-economic and policy/institutional aspects of alternative
land-use systems
Land-use systems Global environmental concerns Agronomic Smallholders’ socio-economic Policy and
sustainability concerns concerns institutional issues
Carbon Biodiversity Plot-level production Potential Employment Production incentives
sequestration (above- sustainability RTQſVCDKNKV[ (average labour at private prices
(above-ground, ground) (overall rating) (returns to land) input) (returns to labour)
(time-averaged) (plant species (US$/ha) (days/ha/year) (US$/day)
(tonne/ha) per plot)
Forests
Complex agroforests
Simple agroforests
Crop-fallow rotations
Continuous annual
crops
Grassland, pastures
Source: Palm et al., 2005
3
Illustrative pyramid
of necessary
governance elements
for sustainable biofuel
development
Other elements
Further elements
for improved
biofuel development
Extension
Promotion of sustainable biofuel development to
consumers and other stakeholders
Instruments
Coherent set of “carrots and sticks” for
implementing sustainable biofuel development in place
(including capacities and checks and balances)
Policies
Biofuel policies, standards and legislation for sustainable
biofuel development agreed and in place
Roles
Stakeholders roles (rights, responsibilities, returns and relations)
and institutions in biofuel development negotiated and developed
Foundations
Tenure rights, market conditions, constitutional guarantees, market and
investment conditions, mechanisms for engagement with extrasectoral influences and
recognition of lead biofuel institutions (in government, civil society and private sector)
progress often hinges on the quality of Ashby, C. & Carney, D. 1999. Sustainable and environment in the tropical forests.
local stakeholders’ relationships, local livelihoods: lessons from early experience. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank.
politics and culture, and the influence of London, UK, Department for International Dubois, O. 2003. Trade-offs between
outside pressures, in short the balance Development (DFID). conservation and development in forestry
of different interest groups. X Bass, S., Hawthorne, W. & Hughes, C. – Setting the stage and some guiding
1998. Forests, biodiversity and livelihoods: principles. Voluntary Paper for the XII
linking policy and practice. Issues paper for World Forestry Congress, Quebec City,
DFID. London, UK. Canada, 21–28 September 2003.
Bass, S., Thornber, K., Markopoulos, Dubois, O. & Lowore, J. 2000. The journey
M., Roberts, S. & Grieg-Gran, M. towards collaborative forest management
Bibliography 2001. %GTVKſECVKQPŏU KORCEVU QP HQTGUVU in Africa: lessons learned and some
stakeholders and supply chains: instruments navigational aids: an overview. London,
Abramovay, R. & Magalhães, R. 2007. for sustainable private sector forestry UK, IIED.
The access of family farmers to biodiesel series. London, UK, International Institute Energy Sector Management Assistance
markets: partnerships between big for Environment and Development (IIED). Program (ESMAP). 2005. Advancing
companies and social movements. São Available at: www.iied.org/pubs/pdf/ biofuel for sustainable development –
Paulo, Brazil, University of São Paolo. full/9013IIED.pdf guidelines for policy makers and investors.
Available at: www.regoverningmarkets. Chomitz, K.M. 2006 At loggerheads? 3 Vols. Washington, DC, USA, World
org/en/global/innovative_practice.html Agriculture expansion, poverty reduction Bank.
Forsyth, T. 2005. Partnerships for at: www.policy-powertools.org/Tools/ modernised biomass energy for sustainable
technology transfer – how can investors Engaging/docs/pyramid_tool_english.pdf development. New York, NY, USA.
and communities build renewable energy in Palm, C.A., Vosti, S.A., Sanchez, P.A. & UNDP. 2007. Human Development Report
Asia? Sustainable Development Programme Ericksen, P.J., eds. 2005. Slash-and-burn 2007/2008. Fighting climate change:
$TKGſPI2CRGT5&2$2.QPFQP7- agriculture: the search for alternatives. human solidarity in a divided world. New
Chatham House. New York, NY, USA, Columbia University York, NY, USA.
Fuels from Agriculture in Communal Press. UN-Energy. 2007. Sustainable biofuel: a
Technology (FACT). 2007. Rural Rajagopal, D. & Zilberman, D. 2007. framework for decision makers. New York,
GNGEVTKſECVKQPKP/CNKŌ2TQLGEVFGUETKRVKQP. Review of environmental, economic and NY, USA, United Nations.
Internet document. Available at: www.fact- policy aspects of biofuels. Policy Research Van Dam, J., Junginger, M., Faaij, A.,
fuels.org/en/FACT_Projects/Mali Working Paper 4331. Washington, DC, Jürgens, I., Best, G. & Fritsche, U.
Mayers, J. 2005. The four Rs. Power Tools USA, World Bank. 2006. Overview of recent developments
Series. London, UK, IIED. Available Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil KPUWUVCKPCDNGDKQOCUUEGTVKſECVKQP2CRGT
at: www.policy-powertools.org/Tools/ (RSPO), Task Force on Smallholders. written in the frame of International Energy
Understanding/docs/four_Rs_tool_ 2007. RSPO principles and criteria Agency (IEA) Biofuel Task 40.
english.pdf for sustainable palm oil production. Vermeulen, S. & Goad, N. 2006. Towards
Mayers, J., Bass, S. & Macqueen, D. 2005. Consolidated 2nd draft: Guidance on better practice in smallholder palm oil
The pyramid: a diagnostic and planning smallholders. production. Natural Resource Issues Series
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A study recently published by the International on the policy scenario. It has also been pre-
What effect will Institute for Environment and Development dicted that even with modest greenhouse gas
biofuels have on (IIED) and FAO, Fuelling exclusion? The bio-
fuels boom and poor people’s access to land
regulations, 1.5 billion hectares, equivalent to
current total global farmland, could be under
forest land and poor (L. Cotula, N. Dyer and S. Vermeulen, 2008) biofuel crops by 2050.
examines the implications of the spread of How much land is available to meet these
people’s access to it? commercial planting of biofuel crops for land needs? A large proportion of the world’s land
use and access in producer countries. The surface is unsuitable (too dry, cold, steep
authors note that higher crop yields per unit and/or nutrient poor) for cultivation. The Global
area and more efficient processing alone can- Agro-ecological Assessment estimated that
not be expected to supply the rapidly growing worldwide 2.5 billion hectares are “very suit-
demand for biofuel feedstock (raw materials). able” or “suitable” for cultivation, and a further
The following are some of the observations 784 million hectares are “moderately suitable”.
made or cited in the study. In Asia, Europe and North America, almost the
Large-scale conversion of forest and con- entire cultivable area is either under cultiva-
servation areas to biofuel crops are predicted. tion or under forest in which cultivation would
Indeed vast land use changes from forest have “severe environmental consequences”.
to cash crops have already occurred. The In these regions, expansion of biofuel crops
authors cite the spread of oil palm in Indonesia, can only come about as a substitution for
for example, which has resulted in the clear- other crops or through expansion into for-
ance of 18 million hectares of forest over the est areas.
past 25 years, although only 6 million hectares Thus about 80 percent of the world’s reserve
were planted to oil palm by 2006. agricultural land is Africa and South America,
According to the International Energy where total cultivable land is estimated to be
Agency, in 2006 an estimated 14 million hec- 807 million and 552 million hectares respec-
tares of land were used for the production tively (all three suitability categories minus
of biofuels and by-products, approximately land under forest). About 227 million and 183
1 percent of globally available arable land. At million hectares of this land, respectively,
the global level, projected growth in biofuel are already under cultivation. However, the
production to 2030 could require from 35 mil- authors note that if land under shifting cultiva-
lion to 54 million hectares of land (2.5 to 3.8 tion and fallow systems is not already included
percent of available arable land) depending in these measurements, the total “cultivated”
land in Africa could be as much as 1 135 million
hectares – well above the alleged available
reserves. Despite high levels of uncertainty,
it is clear that reserves of land with high agri-
cultural potential are extremely limited. About
half of the cultivable land reserves are in
just six countries: Angola, Argentina, Bolivia,
Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo and the Sudan.
Most policies advocate planting of biofuel
crops on “marginal” lands. If the above-
mentioned “moderately suitable” lands are
considered marginal, the world has 610 mil-
lion hectares of unforested marginal land.
Another estimate gives the total global area
of degraded land, defined as formerly for-
ested tropical lands not currently used for
agriculture or other purposes, as 500 million
hectares (100 million each in Asia and South
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America and 300 million in Africa). Current ing; husbands might appropriate land from article, see the full text of Fuelling exclusion?
abandoned agricultural land could be 386 their wives if it is uesd for cash crops rather The biofuels boom and poor people’s access
million hectares globally. than subsistence; and fallow periods may to land, available at: www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/
Several governments have taken steps to be shorter, meaning less land for communal 12551IIED.pdf
identify idle, underutilized, marginal or aban- livestock grazing.
doned land and to allocate it for commercial In large part the impact of biofuels on land
biofuel production. In Indonesia, for example, access is likely to result from increased land
the Department of Agriculture has reported values and the potential for higher economic
that there are approximately 27 million hec- returns. The authors note that although much
tares of “unproductive forest lands” that could of the impact will be exclusionary and negative,
be offered to investors and converted into biofuel cultivation may also strengthen land
plantations. However, there are likely to be access for some poor land users, by renewing
major obstacles to commercial production people’s interest and investment in land and
of biofuels on marginal lands, and overuse encouraging small-scale farmers to seek more
of marginal land can result in long-term or secure tenure over their land resources. For
permanent ecological damage such as sali- example, in South Africa women have planted
nation or severe erosion. Use of these lands tree crops for future biofuel use specifically
also has social implications. In many cases, to secure their claims over land contested by
the livelihoods of poor and vulnerable groups their late husbands’ families.
depend on lands perceived by governments A range of policies and processes can
or private operators as marginal (e.g. for influence linkages between biofuels and
crop farming, herding and gathering of wild land access – international (international
products). In India, for instance, jatropha commodity prices, trade barriers for biofu-
is widely planted on “wasteland” that rural els), national (policy and legal frameworks
people rely on for fuelwood, food, fodder, on biofuels and on land tenure) and local
timber and thatch. (balancing of traditional and formal land
The tenure status of such lands may be rights). Some of these (e.g. national policies
complex, with governments asserting land- to promote expansion of export-oriented
ownership but exercising little control at local feedstock plantations or power asymmetries
level, and local groups claiming resource between current small-scale land users and
rights based on customary tenure systems prospective large-scale interests) may exac-
that may not be legally enforceable. In south- erbate loss of land access by poor people
western China, for example, where provin- and small-scale land users. However a
cial governments plan to expand jatropha to growing assemblage of good practices and
1 million hectares of “barren” land over the innovative business approaches seeks to
next decade and a half, possibly as much promote more equitable and sustainable
as three-fourths of this land is owned not land management.
by the State but by village collectives, with Civil society also has a role in protecting the
use rights granted to individual households. environment, land rights and human rights
Most private investment in biofuels has so from possible misuse associated with biofu-
far been limited to State-owned land, but els. In Uganda, allocation of national forest
the ambitious targets for scaling up jatropha reserves in Bugala and Mabira to foreign
production are likely to result in problems of plantation companies for establishment of
land availability and extension of cultivation palm-oil and sugar-cane plantations elicited
to collective lands. demonstrations in Kampala, court cases led
Besides direct impacts on land tenure, by non-governmental organizations, a sugar
production of biofuel crops may have more boycott, petitions and a mobile-phone mes-
subtle implications for access to land-based saging campaign. The Ugandan Government
resources. For example, substitution of a subsequently withdrew plans to convert the
biofuel crop for a food crop might exclude Bugala forest reserve to sugar cane.
landless people from post-harvest glean- For the sources of information cited in this
Unasylva 230,
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7RZDUGVFHUWL¿FDWLRQRIZLOGPHGLFLQDODQGDURPDWLF
plants in four Indian states
P. Bhattacharya, R. Prasad, R. Bhattacharyya and A. Asokan
T
An innovative attempt to create he safety and affordability of India has a rich tradition of medicinal
a standard for certifying forest- natural products as medicines, plant use and conservation supported by
based medicinal and aromatic food, cosmetics and pesticides socio-cultural practices such as worship
plants (MAPs) by adapting has led to a resurgence of interest in of plants and animals and protection of
global norms for national-level medicinal plants. Globally, wild or natu- sacred groves. However, indiscriminate
implementation. ral resources meet 70 to 90 percent of collection of MAPs from wild sources
the market demand for medicinal and has depleted these resources. Mean-
aromatic plants (MAPs), also ensuring while, privately driven exploitative
the livelihoods of millions of rural peo- marketing has deprived MAP gather-
ple (Prasad and Bhattacharya, 2003). ers of their due remuneration (Verma,
However, the recent increment in com- 1998). Although forests have a vital role
mercial demand is a threat to natural in the national economic scenario, until
MAP resources if they are not managed to recently MAPs (and non-wood forest
safeguard their regeneration. The threat products [NWFPs] in general) received
is further intensified by forest degrada- little attention in forest-based strategic
tion, land conversion, anthropogenic dis- planning and development.
turbances and other factors. Cultivation /#2EGTVKſECVKQPEQWNFJCXGRQVGPVKCN
and domestication of wild plants is often HQTCFFTGUUKPIVJGUGRTQDNGOU%GTVKſEC-
suggested as a way to meet the growing VKQPECPDGDTKGƀ[FGſPGFCUCOCTMGV
market demand and also to create a bal- based incentive for good management
ance between the use and conservation of RTCEVKEGU(QTGUVEGTVKſECVKQPQTKIKPCNN[
MAPs, but for many species knowledge dealt mainly with timber production, but
and practices are not yet advanced enough it has increasingly addressed NWFPs as
to bridge the gap between demand and they have gained in economic importance
supply, and it may not be economical to (Brown, Robinson and Karman, 2002).
develop these practices. Furthermore, &KTGEV DGPGſVU QH /#2 EGTVKſECVKQP
there are indications that some wild include secured future availability of the
materials may have greater amounts of resources through sustainable collec-
active constituents than their cultivated tion, improved quality leading to a price
counterparts (Schippmann, Leaman and premium, and market expansion through
Cunningham, 2006). international acceptance. These lead to
Traditional users have emphasized KPFKTGEVDGPGſVUUWEJCUEQPUGTXCVKQPQH
good collection, storage and maintenance biodiversity, respect for traditional rights
practices to ensure the quality of medi- CPFRTCEVKEGUKORTQXGFDGPGſVUJCTKPI
cine prepared from plants. However, with (which can enhance the returns of gather-
expansion of the pharmaceutical industry ers and thus motivate them to conserve,
and growing preference for herbal and manage and collect MAPs responsibly,
organic products, the rapid depletion and also to comply with policy and law)
of natural MAP resources necessitates and socio-economic development. In
3URG\XW%KDWWDFKDU\D5DP3UDVDG5DMDVUL
Bhattacharyya and Aparna Asokan work at the international and national regulations UJQTV/#2EGTVKſECVKQPECPDGPGſVPQV
International Centre for Community Forestry, and guidelines to guarantee that sustain- only forest populations that rely on MAPs,
Indian Institute of Forest Management, Nehru able practices are followed. but also a wider group of stakeholders
Nagar, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
ICCF, IIFM
(Orissa Gazette, 2002).
As a conservation framework, Mad- Participatory
hya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh initiated Most of the states have a transit per- assessment of
medicinal gum yielding
a Peoples Protected Area approach to mit system. Transit permits help forest
tree, Madhya Pradesh
involve local people in protection and departments record outgoing forest pro-
conservation of valuable forest resources ducts and collect tax revenues from trad- areas; however, few of these studies
in resource-rich areas, with benefit shar- ers. They also support sustainable forest apply improved technologies for ground-
ing (Chhattisgarh Forest Department, management by providing valuable infor- based or aerial mapping and documenta-
2007). In Madhya Pradesh a rotational mation on forest product collection and tion, and few involve local stakeholders
ban is implemented on different products commercialization. In Madhya Pradesh, in a truly participatory way. Although
in different areas to promote resource however, minerals, wildlife, tendu patta biodiversity and vegetation mapping has
conservation. However, it is not clear (Diospyros melanoxylon or Indian ebony been carried out through remote sensing
how these provisions are being imple- leaves), sal (Shorea robusta) seeds and in all four states, these maps are not used
mented at the field level, as monitoring kullu (Sterculia urens) gum are the for strategic planning or implementation
results are not available. Uttarakhand only NWFPs subject to transit permits of MAP conservation activities (Bhat-
has adopted a unique strategy for sci- (Madhya Pradesh Gazette, 2005). tacharaya, 2006).
entific management of MAPs involving Threat status assessment of prioritized
rapid inventory and mapping of MAPs WILD AREA CONSERVATION AND species has been reported from Madhya
following division of each forest range MANAGEMENT Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (Ved et al.,
into three separate management units for Most forest management plans, work- 2003), but study of the ecology of MAP
conservation (no commercial extraction ing plans or microplans address forest species and the impact of overharvesting
allowed), development (intensive man- resources as a whole. While they gen- JCUDGGPKPUWHſEKGPVVQEQPVTKDWVGOWEJVQ
agement and cultivation) and sustain- erally include MAPs as a category, conservation and management planning.
able harvesting (Planning Commission, MAP-specific planning is rare (Misra State forest departments and medicinal
Government of India, 2006). and Jain, 2003) – although the national plant boards have a significant role in
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Chhat- government recently initiated a process conservation and management of medic-
tisgarh have systems for registering to incorporate MAPs in the Forest Work- inal plants in forest areas, undertaking
collectors. One district of Chhattisgarh ing Plan Code for better management at in situ and ex situ conservation projects.
has made an attempt to issue identity the forest management unit level (Bhat- Statewide and local organizations have
cards to MAP collectors through village tacharya, 2008). undertaken cultivation-based conserva-
Joint Forest Management Committees State and local organizations have tion initiatives such as nursery develop-
(Katiyar, 2007). mapped resources in some MAP-rich ment and herbal gardens, but these need
to be strengthened through development standardized rules for quality control are district of Madhya Pradesh, where sata-
of people’s awareness, incentives and generally lacking. war (Asparagus racemosus) is one of the
market linkages. State initiatives tend to Lack of nearby storage facilities often main sources of income for villagers.
be hindered by personnel and manage- compels primary collectors to sell their The committee is responsible for sata-
ment deficiencies and failure to monitor materials directly to local agents or trad- war collection, storage and marketing,
and assess their results. ers, and improper maintenance practices and its profits are distributed among the
during storage shortens shelf life and collectors (Bhattacharya, 2006).
Responsible collection and use may diminish the quality of the material. Pricing strategy for MAPs is another
practices However in some areas of Chhattisgarh point of concern because of the unstable
Despite awareness of the importance of and Madhya Pradesh local MAP stor- nature of demand-based supply, quality
sustainable harvesting, many collectors age facilities have been established and and availability of material. At present,
adopt destructive harvesting practices, have improved economic returns for the pricing is mostly controlled by traders with
compelled to do so by poor economic collectors. PQTGICTFHQTDGPGſVUJCTKPI5QOGRTQ-
conditions, population pressure, con- Documentation related to collection, ducts (e.g. tendu patta) are nationalized,
sequent resource use competition and storage and traceability of MAP materi- which means the State has a monopoly
market demand for MAPs. Research als is still rare. on collection and trade; the government
organizations (e.g. the Tropical Forest organizes competitive sale through public
Research Institute and State Forest $GPGſVUJCTKPICPFNKXGNKJQQFUGEWTKV[ CWEVKQPCPFVJGRTQſVKUFKUVTKDWVGFCOQPI
Research Institute, Jabalpur; the Founda- An effective marketing strategy is the the gatherers. Uttarakhand is experiment-
tion for Revitalising Local Health Tradi- most important requirement for deve- ing with organized collection and open
tion, Bangalore; and the Indian Institute lopment of the MAP sector in India. auction of some non-nationalized medici-
of Forest Management, Bhopal) and local Powerful private traders’ networks often nal plants, offering 94 percent of the auc-
agencies are working to systematize hinder development in this field. Lack VKQPRTQſVVQVJGEQNNGEVQTUŏQTICPK\CVKQPCU
sustainable harvesting techniques and of state support or an organized sys- royalties. In Orissa, village councils have
methods through field research and capa- tem enables the spread of these traders’ the power to set the minimum procure-
city building programmes for collectors, influence even in remote areas. Most ment price for the 69 registered NWFPs.
traders and forestry field staff, but their stakeholders would prefer to see this Stakeholders have expressed concern that
research findings are poorly dissemi- problem addressed through a facilitat- government monopoly can be detrimental
nated and therefore not widely imple- ing marketing framework rather than to local collectors and enterprises (FGLG-
mented (Prasad, Kotwal and Mishra, through regulation. Several organi- India, 2008).
2002; Bhattacharya and Hyat, 2004; zations (e.g. Madhya Pradesh Minor Market information and documentation
Lawrence, 2006). Although governmen- Forest Produce Federation, Madhya lack reliability because traders are not
tal and non-governmental organizations Pradesh Forest Department, Uttarakhand legally required to provide trade-related
regularly conduct awareness and training Forest Development Corporation, CG information to state forest departments
workshops on sustainable harvesting of MFP Federation, Chhattisgarh Forest and communities. The lack of a transpar-
MAPs, these efforts do not appear to have Department) have undertaken initiatives ent and accessible information system
translated into sustainable harvesting to facilitate market access, for example hampers collectors in negotiating bet-
practices in the field. by forming cooperatives and organizing ter prices (Karki and Rawat, 2004). A
Collectors pay little attention to qual- opportunities to bring together buyers system of voluntary disclosure whereby
ity and continue to collect prematurely and sellers such as fairs and exhibitions. traders and industry provide trade infor-
since the currently used grading system Stakeholders have also proposed the mation (including source of raw material
(mostly controlled by traders) and mar- development of an electronic market- and purchase and sale price) to the state
ket demand put a price even on inferior ing and information system, a concept forest department has been suggested
material (Durst et al., 2006). Quality which is being taken up by the National but may not be practicable under India’s
control in local and regional markets is Medicinal Plant Board. socio-economic conditions. Some recent
weak, relying mainly on personal experi- Although individuals are still the prev- interventions have been introduced to
ence, and often fails to exclude adultera- alent collectors in many areas, coopera- trace the product inflow in the market:
tion. Although chemical analysis of raw tives and federations are now becoming xThe Chhattisgarh Medicinal Plant
material is gaining wider acceptance, important at the state level and facilitate Bill calls for registration of all me-
lack of local facilities restricts its imple- benefit sharing. A good example is the dicinal plant traders and makes it
mentation at the field level. Manuals or Village Satawar Committee in Sheopur mandatory for them to submit the
&ULWHULDDQGLQGLFDWRUVIURPGUDIW0$3FHUWL¿FDWLRQVWDQGDUG
Criteria Indicators
1.1 Use/tenure rights are well established by 1.1.1 Collectors have a clear right to access, use and manage MAP resources traditionally in
appropriate government order and compliance known forest areas
KPVJGſGNFGPUWTGF
1.1.2 a. Existence of traditional management practices or written documents such as micro
plan, working plan, etc.
b. Availability of the respective orders at local level
1.1.3 Compliance of government orders
1.3 Registration of collectors, collection agents, 1.3.1 Provisions for registration by village councils, Joint Forest Management Committees,
intermediaries and traders are mandatory in the Panchayat, Biodiversity Management Committee
area
1.3.2 Provision for periodic inspection of registration
1.3.3 Availability of registration document with all necessary details (personal information,
collection details, etc.) at the local level
1.4 Regulation of forest-based MAP transit (by 1.4.1 Appropriate legal instrument for regulation of harvesting period, quantity and transit of
transit pass or other means) is required wild MAPs
1.4.2 Availability of detailed information on MAPs to be transported
2.1.3 Plan is in parity with other management plans of the adjacent or overlapping area(s), if
existing
2.1.4 Periodical review of the plan
2.1.5 Local level availability (in local language) and compliance with the plan
2.2 Inventory, assessment and monitoring of MAP 2.2.1 Local-level inventory of MAP resources
resources are planned for better management
2.2.2. Conservation status assessment of socio-economically important MAPs
2.3 Sensitive species and habitat conservation 2.3.1 Maximum conservation measures for species (i.e. in situ, ex situ) are taken into
plan is prepared to identify synergies consideration
2.3.2 Habitat/ecosystem conservation planning with due emphasis on livelihood issues exists
2.4 Conservation strategy and action plan is in 2.4.1 Peoples Protected Areas, ex situ conservation, herbaria, seed material, etc.
place to maintain germplasm
(continues)
(continued)
Principle 3: Responsible collection and use
practices
3.1 Good collection practices are followed +FGPVKſECVKQPQHURGEKGUVQDGEQNNGEVGFCPFTGIWNCVGFQTFKUEQPVKPWGF
a. Endangered or critically endangered species: no collection
D8WNPGTCDNGURGEKGUOCPCIGOGPVUVTCVGIKGUCTGFGſPGFCPFTGEQOOGPFGFHQT
implementation
c .Threatened species and other categories: regulated collection
3.1.2 Detailed map of collection sites
3.1.7 Local level availability of and compliance with the collection instructions
3.2 Collection intensity and species regeneration 3.2.1 Baseline information is prepared on population size distribution, structure (age classes) in the
are studied thoroughly before the limit is set collection area, habitat details (topography, geology, soil, etc.)
#IGCPFUK\GQHRNCPVUHQTEQNNGEVKQPKUFGſPGF
GIRNCPVFKCOGVGTFKCOGVGTCVDTGCUVJGKIJV
JGKIJVƀQYGTKPICPFHTWKVKPI
3.2.3 Maximum allowed frequency of collection of prioritized species does not exceed the rate of
replacement (regeneration)
3.3 Quality assessment of the collected material 3.3.1 Quality of collected material determined by nationally/internationally accepted standards
3.3.3 Information on availability of quality assessment and testing facilities at the local/
regional level
3.4 Storage, maintenance and traceability of 3.4.1 Adequate storage facility created or exists in nearby dry area (warehouse is spacious,
collected raw material follow standard practices ventilated; pest free and clean; collected material is placed in an orderly manner)
%QNNGEVGFOCVGTKCNUCTGRTQRGTN[NCDGNNGFYKVJFGVCKNU
NQECNCPFUEKGPVKſEPCOGQH
the material, part collected, place and date of collection, collector’s code, date and time of
storage, sealing date, etc.)
3.4.3 Storage register is maintained and updated regularly
2TKPEKRNG$GPGſVUJCTKPICPFNKXGNKJQQF
security
4.1 Processing and value addition of NWFPs/MAPs 4.1.1 Skill upgrading at the local level
CTGUVTGPIVJGPGFCPFFKXGTUKſGFVQDQQUVNQECN
economy 4.1.2 Availability of storage and processing facilities
.QECNCXCKNCDKNKV[QHOKETQſPCPEGOKETQETGFKV
involving gatherers, field foresters, local to improve practices in line with well- Bhattacharya, P. 2006. Final report on
traders, researchers and NGOs. Third, defined environmental and social param- science and technology application
the framework was refined in regional eters as well as international norms. for enhancement of rural livelihoods:
workshops. It is now being implemented Drug manufacturers and exporters are community based sustainable management
in the field in different parts of India the major consumers of wild raw materi- and cultivation of satawar (Asparagus
including the four project states. als; government initiatives are necessary racemosus) in Chambal Ravine of Sheopur
This standard would be used to cer- to encourage them to use certified raw District of M.P. Bhopal, India, Indian
tify both sustainable collection practices materials which may lead to a reputation Institute of Forest Management (IIFM).
and the area where resources are being for good resource management. Bhattacharya, P. 2008. Proceedings
extracted sustainably. Certification Considering the varied interests of of National Workshop on Integrating
would be carried out by independent multiple stakeholders, institutions that Medicinal, Aromatic and Dye Plants
agencies for greater market advantage, have been established to organize the in Forest Working Plan. Bhopal, India,
but internally communities (e.g. Joint MAP sector need to take a multidi- IIFM-ICCF.
Forest Management Committees and mensional approach to planning and Bhattacharya, P. & Hyat, S.F. 2004.
village governments) and local forest management, competitive marketing Sustainable NTFP management for rural
department units would have to show that strategies and flexible policies. Legal development: a case from Madhya Pradesh,
they satisfy the requirements of sustain- collection, resource management, raw India. International Forestry Review, 6(2):
able management of MAP resources as material quality, market facilitation, 161–168.
part of working plan prescriptions. traceability and transparency, should Brown, L., Robinson, D. & Karman, M.
The Ministry of Environment and be the thrust areas for future research 2002. The Forest Stewardship Council and
Forests, the Government of India and and development. Traditional practices PQPVKODGTHQTGUVRTQFWEVEGTVKſECVKQPC
the National Medicinal Plant Board have key importance in the setting and discussion paper. Oaxaca, Mexico, Forest
have initiated a process for ensuring acceptance of standards. Certification is Stewardship Council.
that certification can be implemented a participatory process and so is standard Brunori, A.09(2EGTVKſECVKQPNon-
in the Indian context, while including setting. Both primary collectors and end Wood News, 15: 22.
options for further improvement and users have responsibilities in developing Chhattisgarh Forest Department. 2007.
development. Wide stakeholder con- standards and complying with them. Special projects: Peoples Protected Area
sultation and awareness raising on the The development of standards and their (PPA). Internet document, available at:
positive and negative aspects of MAP application for certification are quite cgforest.nic.in/ppa_new.htm
certification are required before it can be different matters. Group or phased cer- Chhattisgarh State Minor Forest Produce
implemented. The various stakeholders tification is recommended to help stake- (Trading and Development) Co-operative
are expected to report on the applicability holders eventually meet certification Federation Ltd (CG MFP Federation) &
of the elements of the draft standard on requirements and provide the detailed Chhattisgarh Forest Department. 2003.
the basis of available field data and on documentation needed. The gap between The Raipur Report – Chhattisgarh Forest
the information collection required to existing practices and the use of standard Department led Non-Wood Forest Produce
show compliance with the standard. parameters may seem wide, but a phased Certification Initiative. Available at:
Most stakeholders have identified the adoption of good practices or “good EIHQTGUVPKEKPPYHRAEGTVKſECVKQPAJVO
costs of certification and the require- steps” will help to narrow it. X Durst, P.B., Mckenzie, P.J., Brown, C.L.
ments for documentation as major & Appanah, S. 2006. Challenges facing
constraints. The study therefore con- certification and eco-labelling of forest
cluded that a certification system should productsindevelopingcountries. International
emphasize field inspection and verifica- Forestry Review, 8(2): 193–200.
tion rather than requiring cumbersome European Medicines Agency (EMEA).
documentation. Bibliography 2006. Guideline on good agricultural and
The authors would welcome construc- collection practice for starting materials
tive feedback. American Herbal Products Association of herbal origin. London, UK. Available
(AHPA) & American Herbal at: www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/
CONCLUSION Pharmacopoeia (AHP). 2006. Good hmpc/24681605en.pdf
MAP certification is a new and still agricultural and collection practice for Forest Governance Learning Group
emerging concept in India. Despite the herbal raw materials. Silver Spring, (FGLG) India. 2008. Non timber forest
rich tradition of MAP use, it is necessary Maryland, USA, AHPA. products and forest governance: a synthesis
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Indian Institute of Forest Management 2NCPVU
+55%/#2 8GTUKQP Bonn, Rastogi, A. & Pant, R. 2004. (5%EGTVKſECVKQP
(IIFM). 2007. Regional dialogue: Germany, Federal Agency for Nature feasibility assessment report, Himachal
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O
Corporate social responsibility ver time, society’s expecta- expectations of business are tied together,
practices should address tions of businesses as respon- but in different ways. In some countries,
sustainability issues important to sible social institutions have regulations shape societal perceptions,
local stakeholders – issues that are increased and evolved. The idea that while in others societal expectations
EHVWLGHQWL¿HGORFDOO\ business has some social responsibility influence the regulatory framework.
is not new, but corporate social responsi- The legal requirements that business
bility (CSR) has drawn increased atten- must meet can also differ a great deal
tion in the past decade, partially as a from one society to another. Such dif-
result of corporate scandals arising from ferences in legal requirements may lead
a misalignment between industry’s judg- multinational companies to move their
ment regarding its responsibilities and operations to locations with less stringent
the concomitant judgment of society. environmental and social regulations
Another factor explaining increased – a phenomenon known as “industrial
attention to CSR is the advent of glo- flight” or “race to the bottom”.
balization, a phenomenon that connects There is no single commonly accepted
global corporations with local communi- definition of CSR. The World Business
ties across the globe, with notable social Council for Sustainable Development
implications. (2000) integrated aspects of the con-
Societies conceptualize CSR differ- cept of sustainable development in its
ently depending on the socio-economic definition, “the continuing commit-
context. At one extreme are societies ment by business to behave ethically
– usually with a high level of economic and contribute to economic development
development and strong democratic tra- while improving the quality of life of
ditions – that expect business to be a the workforce and their families as well
vehicle for sustainable development. At as of the local community and society
the other extreme are societies – usu- at large”. Since the post-Rio world has
ally less economically developed – that increasingly been converging around a
expect business to be a purely economic sustainable development mandate, this
activity that provides jobs and fulfils definition has gained increasing recog-
other economic functions. Societal nition. Corporate definitions of CSR
expectations of business responsibili- reflect a similar approach. For example,
ties broaden as a society passes through Stora Enso (2008), one of the leading
5DMDW3DQZDUis Assistant Professor of Business the phases of economic development and forest products companies, maintains
and Social Responsibility, Department of as its population increasingly seeks to that its CSR principles “cover issues
Business and Economics, Northland College, meet not only physical but also social including human rights, labour rights,
Ashland, Wisconsin, United States.
Eric Hansen is Professor of Forest Products and personal-growth needs. ethical business practices, communica-
Marketing, Department of Wood Science and The regulatory framework surround- tions and community involvement”.
Engineering, College of Forestry, Oregon State ing business organizations and society’s In an economically globalized world,
University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States.
Because of the
costs involved,
smaller companies in
developing countries
may pay less attention
to CSR concerns
such as worker safety
(furniture production,
New Delhi, India)
D. STALLCOP
corporations are subject to global expec- (GRI; see www.globalreporting.org) legislative requirements. As such, these
tations, and a globally accepted and includes sector supplements addressing reports do not show the companies to be
broad concept like sustainable deve- the unique needs of specific sectors as making any extralegal commitments to
lopment fits well with the economic, part of its Reporting Framework. How- help society and the environment.
social and environmental responsibili- ever, there is no such supplement for the In addition, most of the companies
ties of global corporations. Accordingly, forestry sector. that publish sustainability reports are
the triple bottom line approach to CSR The wood products sector operates headquartered in developed countries. In
(Elkington, 1997) suggests that a busi- under more intense public scrutiny developing countries much attention has
ness organization must strive to bal- than other extraction-based industries focused on the social and environmental
ance these three areas of responsibility. (Bhambri and Sonnenfield, 1988; Nasi, aspects of forestry practices, but less
Because of its alignment with the con- Nasi and Zyglidopoulos, 1997) because information is readily available regarding
cept of sustainable development, this wood comes from forests and forests the social and environmental perform-
approach is widely applied around the are commonly seen by the public as ance of forest products manufacturers.
world. Associating CSR with sustain- natural places that should be relatively Additionally, there is more literature
able development has become so com- untouched by humans. Forest certifica- pertaining to CSR practices of large com-
mon that CSR reporting is often called tion and eco-labelling are two important panies than of small ones. In India, for
sustainability reporting. concepts to ensure that wood is sourced example, some large paper companies,
This article suggests an issues manage- from sustainably managed forests. But such as Ballarpur Industries and Star
ment methodology that can help compa- CSR can go further. Papers, place emphasis on their social
nies in the wood products sector better Of the 100 largest forest products com- responsibility, yet the state of CSR is
manage their CSR focus. panies in the world, 61 are reported to largely unexamined in the thousands of
have produced sustainability reports small sawmilling facilities. Because of
CSR IN THE WOOD PRODUCTS (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2007), and the costs, larger companies may engage
SECTOR the proportion is increasing. However, in CSR practices more often than smaller
Societal expectations of business differ most of the social (health and safety) and ones, which may for example give less
not only by country and culture but also environmental (air emissions) indica- attention to applying safety measures and
from one industry to another. Accord- tors that these companies use in their complying with existing environmental
ingly, the Global Reporting Initiative sustainability reports are already part of regulations.
It may be argued that different socie- issues is the first step. This can be done was conducted with faculty members
ties will take different routes to achiev- by interviewing key stakeholders to iden- dealing with forest products business
ing sustainability (Kennedy, 2007). In tify issues that they consider important from different United States universities.
the same vein, CSR programmes and and worthy of managerial attention. To After the second round, consensus was
standards should be defined locally. improve on this method, Panwar (2008) reached among participants regarding
Well-intended programmes may be proposed a second stage, a Delphi pro- six social and six environmental issues
perceived as company rhetoric if the cess – i.e. a process in which a group of that should be addressed by socially
local context is not given adequate consi- neutral and informed participants answer responsible forest products industries
deration. Illustrating the different CSR questions and give controlled feedback in the United States (see Box).
needs of different societies, Panwar and in an iterative process until agreement With modifications, this approach
Hansen (2007) presented separate sets is reached – to refine the list of issues could be used in other countries. The
of economic, social and environmental generated via interviews. A concise list issues management process can help
issues that stakeholders in the United will help those companies that desire to companies develop CSR programmes
States and India think forest products start implementing CSR in small steps. that are time and context relevant, while
manufacturers in their countries should A longer list is useful for companies simultaneously ensuring their legitimacy
address. that have already taken some initiatives as they are based on societal expecta-
Because societal expectations and the to adopt CSR and are ready to further tions rather than on negotiation among
regulatory framework governing busi- invest. powerful stakeholders, as is typically the
ness are linked as described above, in A research project at Oregon State case in the more prevalent stakeholder
countries that have higher standards University in the United States recently management approach.
of regulations (as well as compliance) used this approach to develop a set of
some issues may not be seen as part of issues that United States forest product FUTURE OF CSR IN FORESTRY
a CSR portfolio. For example, worker companies must address in order to be Societies interact with nature in different
safety and working conditions are not socially responsible. Panwar (2008) con- ways, and commercialization of forest
considered important issues for United ducted 13 interviews with key stake- resources has already had a tremendous
States forest products companies from holders including representatives from impact on the way many forest-based
a CSR perspective, whereas they might non-governmental organizations inter- communities interact with nature. Thus
be important in other societies that have ested in the forest sector, government it is important that CSR practices be
either weak regulations governing work- officers in the federal Forest Service, based on input from local stakehold-
ers’ conditions or ineffective compliance political office holders, representatives ers rather than importing regulations
with regulations that are in place. Child of industry associations and university from outside. Experts in forestry, busi-
labour may be an issue in developing extension officers that routinely interact ness, sociology and anthropology can
countries; while legislation aims to abol- with industry. In all, 12 social and 20 help develop CSR programmes suited
ish it, a socially responsible company environmental issues were identified for local contexts. This is especially
might go further, for example by giving for attention. In order to make this list important for nature-based sectors such
children opportunities for skills develop- concise, a two-round Delphi process as forestry and forest products since
ment training or formal education.
A WAY FORWARD: ISSUES Issues for socially responsible forest products industry in the United
MANAGEMENT FOR FOREST 6WDWHVLGHQWL¿HGWKURXJKDQLVVXHVPDQDJHPHQWSURFHVV
PRODUCTS COMPANIES
A company interested in embracing CSR SOCIAL ISSUES ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
is confronted with a choice of approaches • Encourage public scrutiny of environ- • Promote sustainable forestry practices
and methods, for example stakeholder mental and land management practices • Increase the use of renewable resources
management (focusing on those groups • Invest in surrounding communities • Adopt environmentally sound purchas-
that are affected by or can affect a com- • Promote responsible consumption ing policies
pany’s decisions), corporate social per- among consumers • Mitigate global warming
formance (focusing on outcome) and • Stem declining employment in the sector • Reduce overall energy consumption
issues management (focusing on prob- • Engage with surrounding communities • Improve waste management
lems rather than groups). • Improve industry’s public image
In issues management, identification of
Corporate social
responsibility for
successful business:
an example from
Latin America
ARAUCO
Programmes of the Arauco
P. Hurtado Although there is no universally recognized Education Foundation
include a mobile library to
definition of corporate social responsibility
encourage children to read
(CSR), the concept reflects a view of business
that encompasses respect for ethical values, natural forest, which Arauco strictly protects
persons, communities and the environment. and conserves in cooperation with local com-
CSR is a combination of policies, practices munities, environmental organizations and
and programmes that are incorporated into government departments responsible for
business operations, support the decision- the sector. Certain parts of the holdings are
making process and are rewarded by the administered as private parks open to the
leadership. public, areas of high environmental value
In the past ten years, many businesses and protected zones dedicated to biodiversity
have recognized, with support from empirical conservation.
studies, that incorporating socially responsible As part of Arauco’s commitment to sustain-
practices and policies has positive effects on able development, the company’s corporate
returns. Pressure from consumers, suppliers, policy involves transparent long-term rela-
communities, investors, activist organizations tions with local inhabitants, self-sufficiency
and others has also prompted companies in electricity produced from forest biomass,
and corporations to adopt or expand CSR the conservation of areas of high environ-
efforts. Forest enterprises in Latin America mental value, support for public education
are sensitive to this reality. The practices of and adoption of the best technology available
the Chilean company Arauco illustrate how worldwide.
the concept of CSR can become part of cor- With regard to relations with the local com-
porate philosophy. munity, the inhabitants of more than 100
Arauco is one of the foremost forest enter- municipalities and departments are part of
prises in Latin America in terms of the area the Arauco community. The company helps
and yield of its plantations and its produc- to promote local development by generating
tion of kraft cellulose (3 million tonnes per employment; boosting trade, production, con-
year), sawnwood (3.6 million cubic metres per sumption and local entrepreneurship; improv-
year) and panels (2.6 million cubic metres per ing infrastructure; and fostering recreation and
year). It markets its products in more than 60 social development in the local community.
countries and provides employment to more The company helps to improve the quality of
than 35 000 people in Argentina, Brazil, Chile public education through the Arauco Educa-
and Uruguay. tion Foundation, which by 2007 had supported
The company’s competitiveness is based 4 000 teachers and more than 70 000 pupils
on its forest assets, 1.48 million hectares in 20 towns and 470 schools. And as part of
of forest land in the four countries where it efforts to mitigate climate change, Arauco
operates: 932 000 ha of pine and eucalyptus issued and sold 482 129 carbon reduction
plantations, 302 000 ha of natural forest and certificates in 2007, each corresponding to
Patricio Hurtado is a consultant, FAO Regional 244 000 ha allocated for other uses. More 1 tonne of CO2 per year.
2I¿FHIRU/DWLQ$PHULFDDQGWKH&DULEEHDQ than 20 percent of its landholdings are thus
Santiago, Chile.
Unasylva 230,
213,
212, Vol. 59,
55,
54, 2008
2003
50
FAO FORESTRY
#UKC2CEKſE(QTGUVT[9GGM(QTGUVT[KPCEJCPIKPI
YQTNF
6JGſTUV#UKC2CEKſE(QTGUVT[9GGMQTICPK\GFKP*CPQK8KGV0CO
from 21 to 26 April 2008, was the region’s largest forest-related
event of the year. An expanded setting for the twenty-second
UGUUKQPQHVJG#UKC2CEKſE(QTGUVT[%QOOKUUKQP
#2(%VJG
week was organized with local, regional and international partner
institutions for wider participation. It was open to governments,
multilateral institutions and the public and attracted more than 600
RCTVKEKRCPVU6JGOGGVKPIKFGPVKſGFCPFCFFTGUUGFVJGKOOKPGPV
challenges of protecting and managing the region’s forest
resources in a rapidly changing global environment. It was hosted
jointly by the Vietnamese Government and FAO.
Plenary sessions focused on the three pillars of sustainable
FGXGNQROGPVUQEKCNGPXKTQPOGPVCNCPFGEQPQOKE6JGſTUV
organized by the Regional Community Forestry Training Center
HQT#UKC2CEKſEGZRNQTGFEJCNNGPIGUCPFQRRQTVWPKVKGUHQTRQQT
forest-dependent people. “Environment day”, prepared jointly by
FAO and the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR),
focused on climate change and forests. It considered forest’s
role in climate change adaptation and mitigation, institutional
arrangements and international agreements.
The session on economic aspects addressed trade, forest
law compliance and governance, highlighting the changing role
of forestry agencies. This session was led by the Asia Forest
Partnership, with support provided by the Nature Conservancy and
East Asia Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (Asia FLEG).
Special activites during the forest week included an essay
contest for young professionals, a photo contest and an
“information market” presenting forestry-related organizations,
projects and activities in the region and allowing organizations #UKC2CEKſERJQVQEQPVGUVYKPPGTő/[HQTGUVO[
to showcase their work through posters and displays. A daily home” by Eko Bambang Subiyantoro, Indonesia
newsletter introduced key participants, highlighted major events
and shared ideas generated during the conference. Several African and some Near East countries have high but
APFC is one of six FAO Regional Forestry Commissions. It offers WPTGCNK\GFRQVGPVKCNVQDGPGſVſPCPEKCNN[HTQOENKOCVGEJCPIG
a forum for member countries to share experiences in dealing with mitigation activities. The commissions recommended increasing
forestry challenges, advise FAO on regional forestry priorities and sharing of experiences from the Clean Development Mechanism
initiate joint action on key forestry issues. With 33 member countries, it is (CDM) in the region and engagement of the private sector in
the region’s most inclusive intergovernmental body dealing with forestry. climate change mitigation projects in forestry. They noted the
importance of addressing adaptation and mitigation opportunities
in a holistic way, recommending that countries incorporate
,QKPVOGGVKPIQHTGIKQPCNEQOOKUUKQPUHQT#HTKEC them into national forest programmes and link them with human
CPFVJG0GCT'CUV development needs.
+PHQTVJGſTUVVKOGVJG0GCT'CUV(QTGUVT[%QOOKUUKQP In the Near East, fossil fuels comprise the main energy source. In
(NEFC) and the African Forestry and Wildlife Commission (AFWC) Africa, more than 80 percent of wood is used for energy, primarily
held their biennial sessions jointly. Around 160 participants for cooking and heating. The strategic role of forests in setting the
including ministers, heads of national forestry and wildlife agencies energy agendas for the two regions was addressed during the
and representatives from non-governmental organizations and the course of the week. The commissions urged member countries to
private sector from over 50 countries met in Khartoum, the Sudan GXCNWCVGYKVJECTGVJGEQUVUCPFDGPGſVUQHKPXGUVKPIKPDKQGPGTI[
from 18 to 21 February to discuss urgent forest issues related to as such investments may compete with food production and
ENKOCVGEJCPIGDKQGPGTI[YCVGTTGUQWTEGUCPFYKNFſTGU increase deforestation.
FAO FORESTRY
Clean water is increasingly scarce in many parts of both regions. the national correspondent network as a dynamic meeting point
The commissions recognized the important linkages between for specialists in monitoring, assessment and reporting on forest
forests and water resources and the urgent need to use these resources.
to address many of the problems in both the forestry and water Ten proposed special studies were presented at the meeting,
sectors. Relevant initiatives were recognized, such as the Green and a Remote Sensing Task Force was convened with
Wall of the Sahara and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) representation from about 20 major forest countries.
supported integrated natural resources management project in the The linkages between FRA and other international reporting
Fouta Djallon Highlands, the great “‘water tower” of West Africa. processes were underlined through statements and presentations
#HTKECCPFVJG0GCT'CUVCTGſTGRTQPGTGIKQPUYJGTGJWOCP by the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), the
ECWUGUQHſTGCTGCORNKſGFD[ENKOCVKEEQPFKVKQPU#HTKECCEEQWPVU Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations
HQTCDQWVJCNHQHVJGCTGCDWTPGFD[YKNFſTGUVJTQWIJQWVVJGYQTNF Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the United
CPFCUINQDCNVGORGTCVWTGUTKUGVJGPGGFVQOCPCIGYKNFſTGU Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), the United Nations Economic
increases. Many countries in the regions lack adequate capacity Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the International Union for
CPFRQNKE[OGCUWTGUVQOCPCIGſTGGHHGEVKXGN[VJTQWIJOQPKVQTKPI the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Jena University, Germany.
early warning, preparedness, prevention and restoration. Regional follow-up meetings with countries will take place over
4GEQOOGPFCVKQPUHQEWUGFQPVTCKPKPIQHNQECNEQOOWPKVKGUKPſTG the subsequent 12 months to build capacity and review country
management, intersectoral approaches and enhanced regional data.
cooperation.
AFWC reviewed the role of wildlife and protected areas in the
sustainable development of Africa. Issues addressed included :+++9QTNF(QTGUVT[%QPITGUUWRFCVG
JWOCPYKNFNKHGEQPƀKEVVJGTQNGQHYKNFNKHGTGUQWTEGUKPHQQF The XIII World Forestry Congress, to be held from 18 to 25
security and poverty alleviation, multilateral environmental 1EVQDGTKP$WGPQU#KTGU#TIGPVKPCYCUQHſEKCNN[RTGUGPVGF
agreements, partnerships and communication and information at a high-level ceremony held in Buenos Aires on 8 October 2008.
exchange. The launching event was organized both to draw attention to the
The Near East Forestry Commission reviewed progress in congress at the national level and to call for the cooperation of the
ongoing efforts to develop Guidelines for Good Forestry Practices KPVGTPCVKQPCNEQOOWPKV[KPRTQXKFKPIſPCPEKCNUWRRQTVHQTEQWPVTKGU
in Arid and Semi-arid Zones, expected to be an important policy that need it.
tool in the region. The World Forestry Congress is the most important forestry
Special events included a tree planting ceremony and a study tour. meeting worldwide. The 2009 congress will have the theme
“Forests in development – a vital balance”. It will offer
TGRTGUGPVCVKXGUQHVJGRWDNKECPFRTKXCVGUGEVQTUVJGUEKGPVKſE
.CWPEJQHVJG)NQDCN(QTGUV4GUQWTEGU#UUGUUOGPV community, foresters, professionals and other interested parties
2010 an opportunity to address sustainable forest management from a
The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 (FRA 2010) global and integrated perspective.
was launched during a technical meeting of the FRA national The deadline for submission of voluntary papers, originally set
correspondents held from 3 to 7 March at FAO headquarters in for June 2008, has been extended to 31 December 2008. Papers
Rome. FRA 2010 will be the most comprehensive global forest must not exceed 3 000 words and must include an abstract of not
resource assessment ever undertaken, with several new initiatives NQPIGTVJCPYQTFU6JTGGVQſXGMG[YQTFUUJQWNFDGEJQUGP
including a remote sensing survey in which new and archival to identify the paper’s placement within one of the congress’s
satellite data will be used to produce global and regional tree- seven thematic areas (Forests and biodiversity; Producing for
cover maps and improved estimates of forest area and forest area development; Forests in the service of people; Caring for our
change.. forests; Forest sector: development opportunities; Organizing
Some 265 forest assessment specialists attended the technical forest development; People and forest in harmony).
meeting, including representatives from 154 countries and 14 Partners are welcomed to organize side events. The deadline
key forest-related organizations. The meeting presented the for proposals for side events is 30 November 2008. These events
URGEKſECVKQPUHQTVJG(4#RTQEGUUYJKEJYKNNEQPUKUVQHEQWPVT[ will offer participants a unique opportunity for wider discussion and
reporting, special studies and the remote sensing survey. National TGƀGEVKQPFKUUGOKPCVKQPQHOGUUCIGUPGVYQTMKPICPFRGTUQPCN
correspondents thoroughly reviewed the FRA 2010 reporting contact. Side events will be scheduled for a maximum of two
tables, discussed technical issues and provided feedback to the hours. Only one application per organizer will be considered.
FRA secretariat on the support needed to meet the FRA 2010 For complete guidelines on submission of papers and details
national reporting requirements. The gathering helped strengthen about the organization of side events (including costs and optional
FAO FORESTRY
WORLD OF FORESTRY
WORLD OF FORESTRY
system resilience, in particular for vulnerable forest ecosystems of the commitments of the Warsaw Conference. The work
such as low-lying forests in coastal areas (including small island programme has the following programme elements:
States), arid and semi-arid regions and high mountain forests in • Sustainable forest management and climate change;
least developed countries; • Wood mobilization and sound use of wood;
• understanding of the potential of forest genetic diversity to ad- • Multiple forest ecosystem services, including forests and water;
dress climate change, maintain forest ecosystem resilience and • Regional–global cooperation and partnership;
provide new sources of wood and non-wood forest products; • Cross-cutting activities.
• forest governance for the conservation and sustainable use of The expert meeting was attended by 88 delegates representing
forest biodiversity. 31 European countries and the European Commission and 20
The decision on forest biodiversity taken at Bonn urged Parties observer countries and organizations.
to “address as a matter of priority major human-induced threats to
forest biodiversity, including unregulated and unsustainable use
of forest products and resources (including unsustainable hunting +7(41YQTMUJQRUQPUEKGPEGŌRQNKE[KPVGTHCEG
and trade of bushmeat, and their impacts on non-target species), In many countries, the recent shift in research priorities from
ENKOCVGEJCPIGFGUGTVKſECVKQPCPFFGUGTVETGGRKNNGICNNCPF biophysical to environmental and social research, with a focus
conversion, habitat fragmentation, environmental degradation, on poverty reduction, livelihoods and climate change issues, has
HQTGUVſTGUCPFKPXCUKXGCNKGPURGEKGUŒ been accompanied by attempts to improve interaction between the
Decision IX/5 also embraced SBSTTA recommendations science community and relevant policy-makers and stakeholders.
on ensuring that possible actions for reducing emissions from *QYGXGTTGUGCTEJGTUEQPVKPWGVQJCXGFKHſEWNV[TGCEJKPIRQNKE[
deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries makers effectively, especially in developing countries, because of
RTQXKFGDGPGſVUHQTHQTGUVDKQFKXGTUKV[GPUWTKPIVJCVRTQITCOOGU constraints related to governance structures, timing of information,
and measures taken for the conservation and sustainable use of communication skills and resources for professional staff of
forest biodiversity support efforts to eradicate poverty and improve science institutions such as science communicators and policy
livelihoods; addressing direct and indirect negative impacts that specialists.
biomass production and consumption for energy might have on For several years, the International Union of Forest Research
forest biodiversity; taking a precautionary approach to genetically Organizations (IUFRO) Special Programme for Developing
OQFKſGFVTGGUCPFDWKNFKPIMPQYNGFIGQPHQTGUVGEQU[UVGO Countries (SPDC) has been organizing regular training workshops
services and tools for securing them, such as payments for on the science–policy interface for forest scientists from developing
ecosystem services. countries. In 2007, for example, three such events entitled
“Working effectively at the interface of forest science and forest
policy” were held in Malaysia, Ecuador and Kenya. From 31 March
/%2('UGETGVCTKCVOQXGUVQ0QTYC[ VQ#RTKNUWEJCYQTMUJQRYCUJGNFURGEKſEVQOQWPVCKP
Norway has assumed the chair of the Ministerial Conference on forestry development, in conjunction with the International
VJG2TQVGEVKQPQH(QTGUVUKP'WTQRG
/%2('(QNNQYKPIVJGſHVJ Conference “Mountain Forests in a Changing World” in Vienna,
ministerial conference, held in Warsaw, Poland in November 2007, Austria (see below).
the secretariat moved from Poland to Norway. Norway will retain The overall objective of these workshops is to help researchers
the chair until after the next ministerial conference, probably within plan, conduct and organize research activities so that results can
HQWTVQſXG[GCTU more quickly and easily be transformed into usable information
MCPFE is a policy process for intergovernmental cooperation for problem-solving and policy-making. To this end, they aim
towards sustainable management of forests in Europe. At to improve the understanding of policy- and decision-making
ministerial conferences the ministers responsible for forests processes and the roles scientists can play in informing such
in Europe take decisions on common aspects of the highest processes.
political relevance regarding forests and forestry. The The workshops elaborate on best practices for science-policy
first conference was held in Strasbourg, France in 1990. interactions published by IUFRO in 2005 (see www.iufro.
Subsequent chairs have been Finland, Portugal, Austria and org/publications/series/occasional-papers [No. 17]), exploring
Poland. their adaptation to various backgrounds and contexts such as
The MCPFE Liaison Unit, now located in Oslo, is the international policy processes, national forest programmes and
EQQTFKPCVKPIUGETGVCTKCVQH/%2('+VKUCUGTXKEGQTKGPVGFQHſEG pro-poor policies at the local level.
to support the cooperation of the ministers responsible for forests Owing to keen interest from the forest science community in
in Europe. An Expert Level Meeting was held 7 to 8 May 2008 developing countries, additional workshops will be offered in the
in Oslo with a focus on the work programme for implementation future.
WORLD OF FORESTRY
BOOKS
&8&QPHQTGUVUCPFENKOCVGEJCPIG
Forests and climate change: a convenient truth. 2008. Rome, Forestry Commission, +PVTQFWEVKQPVQHQTGUVUCPFGPGTI[
UK & FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-006019-4. Forests and energy: key issues. 2008. FAO Forestry Paper No. 154. Rome, FAO.
Rainfall patterns are changing, sea levels are rising, glaciers are ISBN 978-92-5-105985-2.
retreating and Arctic Sea ice is thinning. The twentieth century Rising energy consumption and fossil fuel prices combined with
was possibly the hottest in the past thousand years. Forests and increasing concern over greenhouse gas emissions and energy
climate change: a convenient truth, a 17-minute video presentation import dependence are driving the research agenda for fossil fuel
produced by FAO and the Forestry Commission of the United alternatives for energy production. Forests are key in the global
Kingdom, shows how much forests can contribute to the mitigation quest for alternative energy sources. Woody biomass offers high
of climate change, stressing the importance of reversing forest NGXGNUQHGPGTI[GHſEKGPE[CPFNQYGTECTDQPGOKUUKQPUVJCPHQUUKN
loss. fuels. This publication considers the present and future contribution
The video reveals the tree as the perfect “machine” to soak up of wood in the production of bioenergy as well as the potential
and store carbon. It points out, however, that although forests effects of liquid biofuel development on forests.
store more carbon than all the world’s remaining oil stocks, Following an overview of global energy supply and demand with
continuing deforestation and forest degradation account for almost projections to 2030, the publication considers the contribution of
QPGſHVJQHVJGYQTNFŏUITGGPJQWUGICUGOKUUKQPUŌOQTGVJCPVJG wood energy within a broader discussion of the various bioenergy
entire global transport sector. Yet some regions have managed to ETQRUWUGFVQRTQFWEGſTUVCPFUGEQPFIGPGTCVKQPDKQHWGNU+V
reverse negative trends. CUUGUUGUVJGDGPGſVUQHFKHHGTGPVUQWTEGUQHDKQGPGTI[CPFVJG
A section entitled “Managing to mitigate” explains how society dangers of forest conversion. It also discusses market forces and
can combat climate change by conserving and managing existing ongoing technological innovations for wood energy production.
forests, by tackling causes of deforestation and by planting new Policy options and recommendations for bioenergy development
forests. The presentation stresses the use of wood as a renewable are provided, emphasizing the importance of integrated land
energy source and as a raw material, pointing out that wood use and the transfer of advanced wood energy technologies to
products store carbon for their entire lifetime, until they decay developing countries.
or are burned. A section on adaptation notes how the world’s This publication will be useful to both specialized and general
changing climate will affect the health and composition of forests audiences interested in learning more about the role of forests in
and stresses the importance of adapting and planning ahead for energy production. It is also available in Arabic, Chinese, French,
the changes. Russian and Spanish.
This informative DVD provides concise and accurate insight
into the many important services provided by forests and the
perilous implications if the current trend of forest loss continues. #RGTUQPCNHCEGVQHQTGUVOCPCIGOGPVKPVJG
With striking imagery and simple language, it is suitable for 2JKNKRRKPGU
classroom, conference hall and individual viewing by all who care Forest faces: hopes and regrets in Philippine forestry. 2008. RAP publication 2008/04.
about the future of the planet. The multilingual DVD includes the $CPIMQM6JCKNCPF(#14GIKQPCN1HſEGHQT#UKCCPFVJG2CEKſE'PXKTQPOGPVCN
presentation in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Science for Social Change (ESSC).
Spanish. An Italian version is also available on request (FO- Forest management in the Philippines has shown dramatic
publications@fao.org). successes and failures. A high rate of forest loss, together with
BOOKS
BOOKS
environmental considerations for paper products than for other forest characteristics (width, height, density and distribution of
wood products. Furthermore, while the use of renewable energy is vegetation) and the soil substrate. The diameter, height and
widely supported, most people think of renewable energy as solar, elasticity of the trees are also factors. Coastal trees and forests
wind and hydropower; the current and future role of wood energy may provide protection at lower costs than engineered coastal
is not well recognized, and awareness of how the use of wood and RTQVGEVKQPUVTWEVWTGUYJKNGUWRRN[KPICFFKVKQPCNDGPGſVUCPF
wood energy can contribute to mitigating climate change is not high. services.
The document ends with a broader look at the image of the This small publication presents the current facts surrounding
forest industry in Europe. Although the forest industry is not this topic. Although it cannot cover all of the issues related to
generally perceived as innovative or attractive for employment, on the establishment of coastal forests, the information it contains,
the whole it is deemed environmentally friendly. Perceptions vary integrated with economic, social and environmental considerations,
widely, however. may contribute to improved coastal tree and forest management
This publication gives insight into the areas where further worldwide.
communication efforts would be valuable for a better informed
public and better use of wood.
9JCVVTGGUOGCPVQRGQRNG
Between earth and sky: our intimate connection to trees. N. Nadkarni. 2008. Berkeley
6JG+PFKCP1EGCPVUWPCOKQHCRTGXGPVCDNG & Los Angeles, USA, University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24856-4.
BOOKS
6YQHQTGUVT[RCRGTUHTQOVJG%QPXGPVKQPQP
$KQNQIKECN&KXGTUKV[
Conservation and use of wildlife-based resources: the bushmeat crisis. 2008.
Diversity.
In some countries unsustainable hunting of tropical forest Cross-sectoral toolkit for the conservation and sustainable management of forest
wildlife for consumption as food, or bushmeat, is causing biodiversity. 2008. CBD Technical Series No. 39. Montreal, Canada, Convention on
critical biodiversity loss. This paper presents a summary of Biological Diversity (CBD).
existing knowledge on the crisis and puts forth policy options for #EVKXKVKGUKPOCP[UGEVQTUECPKPƀWGPEGHQTGUVDKQFKXGTUKV[6JKU
sustainable use of wild fauna. It also examines interactions with toolkit looks beyond the forest sector to suggest policy approaches
QVJGTUGEVQTURCTVKEWNCTN[HQTGUVT[CITKEWNVWTGCPFſUJGTKGU in agriculture, tourism, mining, land-use planning, energy and
Conservation and use of wildlife-based resources: the bushmeat ſPCPEGVJCVYKNNTGFWEGPGICVKXGEQPUGSWGPEGUQPHQTGUVUCPF
crisis makes clear the ecological importance of wildlife as well as forest biodiversity. Proposed tools include laws, codes of conduct,
the economic, nutritional, social and cultural value of bushmeat. incentives, policies and market-based instruments.
It probes the factors surrounding sustainable and unsustainable The publication demonstrates that opportunities for long-term
hunting, with special attention to impacts on livelihoods and economic development can be compatible with conservation of
consideration of alternative forms of protein. forest resources. The toolkit is intended to be updated regularly
The publication ends with lessons learned and recommendations and to become an Internet-based instrument. It is a work in
for action at different levels. It is intended to give impetus for progress; additional sectors such as transportation and health will
coordinated responses to the increasingly urgent bushmeat crisis eventually be included.
at international, national and local scales. The toolkit, offering practical and applicable policy guidance,
builds on previous work of CBD partner organizations including
FAO, the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and
the Global Environment Facility (GEF). It will assist countries to
devise appropriate policy responses to increasing pressure on
fragile forest resources.
2CTVKEKRCVQT[HQTGUVOQPKVQTKPI
Negotiated learning: collaborative monitoring in forest resource management. I. Guijt,
ed. 2007. Washington, DC, USA, Resources for the Future. ISBN 978-1-933115-38-2.
BOOKS
5WRRQTVHQTHQTGUVUKPFGXGNQROGPVEQQRGTCVKQP
Forests sourcebook: practical guidance for sustaining forests in development
cooperation. D. Chandrasekharan Behr, ed. 2008. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank.