“TERM PAPER IN

MATHEMATICS”
TOPIC: optimization of maxima and
minima
SUBMITTED TO
MISS.CHEENA GUPTA
LECTURER, LPU

SUBMITTED BY:
Diwakar singh
ROLL R246B32
SECTION 246
Regd. No.10800771
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Mathematics has always been an interesting
subject to deal with, and it’s the pillar of
engineering. As being an engineering student I feel
it very interesting in dealing with the mathematical
project.
I have been allotted the project on “optimization
of maxima and minima”.
I feel very thankful to my mathematics teacher
Miss.Cheena Gupta whose able guidance helped me to
complete my project in time.
Secondly I would like to thank my parents, without
whom it has not been possible. Thank you Mom and
Dad.
My honour to the God almighty who gave me wisdom to
do everything..
Finally my deepest thanks to my friends who stand by
me in every turn of life.
 CONTENTS

1 Definitions

2 History

3 Graphical
representation

4 Finding maxima and

minima

5 Examples

6 Functions of more
variables
 Definitions
A real-valued function f' defined on the real line is said to have a local
maximum point at the point x∗, if there exists some ε > 0, such that f(x∗) ≥
f(x) when |x − x∗| < ε. The value of the function at this point is called
maximum of the function. ...

On a graph of a function, its local maxima will look like the tops of hills.

Similarly, a function has a local minimum point at x∗, if f(x∗) ≤ f(x) when |x −
x∗| < ε. The value of the function at this point is called minimum of the
function.

On a graph of a function, its local minima will look like the bottoms of valleys.

A function has a global maximum point at x∗, if f(x∗) ≥ f(x) for all x.

Similarly, a function has a global minimum point at x∗, if f(x∗) ≤ f(x) for all x.

Any global maximum (minimum) point is also a local maximum (minimum)

point; however, a local maximum or minimum point need not also be a global
maximum or minimum point.

Terminology: The terms local and global are synonymous with relative and
absolute respectively. Also extremum is an inclusive term that includes both
maximum and minimum: a local extremum is a local or relative maximum
or minimum, and a global extremum is a global or absolute maximum or
minimum.

Restricted domains: There may be maxima and minima for a function whose
domain does not include all real numbers. A real-valued function, whose
domain is any set, can have a global maximum and minimum. There may also
be local maxima and local minima points, but only at points of the domain set
where the concept of neighborhood is defined. A neighborhood plays the role
of the set of x such that |x − x∗| < ε. In mathematics, the domain of a function
is the set of all input values to the function. ... In mathematics, the real
numbers may be described informally as numbers that can be given by an
infinite decimal representation, such as 2. ... In mathematics, a set can be
thought of as any collection of distinct objects considered as a whole. ... This
is a glossary of some terms used in the branch of mathematics known as
topology. ...

A continuous (real-valued) function on a compact set always takes maximum

and minimum values on that set. An important example is a function whose
domain is a closed (and bounded) interval of real numbers (see the graph
above). The neighborhood requirement precludes a local maximum or
minimum at an endpoint of an interval. However, an endpoint may still be a
global maximum or minimum. Thus it is not always true, for finite domains,
that a global maximum (minimum) must also be a local maximum (minimum).
In mathematics, a continuous function is a function for which, intuitively, small
changes in the input result in small changes in the output. ... In mathematics,
a subset of Euclidean space Rn is called compact if it is closed and
bounded. ... The term interval is used in the following contexts: cricket
mathematics music time This is a disambiguation page &#8212; a
navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same
title. ... In mathematics, the real numbers may be described informally as
numbers that can be given by an infinite decimal representation, such as 2. ...
This is a glossary of some terms used in the branch of mathematics known as
topology. ...

Terminology: The term optimum can replace either one of the terms
maximum or minimum, depending on the context. Some optimization
problems (see next paragraph) search for a global maximum value while
others search for a global minimum value.
 Solving an Ancient
Optimization
problem

Euler said: “Nothing takes place in the world whose meaning is not that of
some maximum or minimum.” (Tikhomirov, 1990).

The study of optimization problems began approximately twenty-five

centuries ago and they are important in many areas of life today. These
problems provide excellent examples for the application of mathematical
concepts but relatively few students have the opportunity to solve “real
world” optimization problems. These problems have traditionally been
relegated to the calculus curriculum due to the level of analytic skills
required for solution.

Strategies that could be used for solving optimization problem are

sometimes neglected in favor of analytic methods. Many of these
strategies can be considered using the TI-NspireTM. The TI-NspireTM
allows students to investigate a problem through linked geometric,
algebraic, and numeric explorations and facilitates multiple
representations.

Heron of Alexandria was interested in all forms of measurement as well as

optics and mechanics. He considered this problem in the 1st century A.D.:
A and B are two given points on the same side of line L. Find a point D on
L such that the sum of the distances from A to D and from D to B is a
minimum Tikhomirov, 1990)

Problems of this type are still found in calculus texts. This is a modification
of one example: Town A is 14 kilometers from a river and town B is nine
kilometers from that same river. Town B is on the same side of the river
as town A. The river follows a straight path between locations O and C as
shown below. The distance from town A to town B is 13 kilometers. A
pumping station is to be built along the river to supply water to both towns.
Where should the pumping station be built so that the sum of the distances
from the pumping station to the two towns is a minimum?
Many calculus teachers find that even those students who are able to
successfully solve optimization problems seldom enjoy them – many are
put off by the tedious calculations needed to solve these problems.
Simpler geometric methods of solution may be neglected and Lagrange’s
approach is the only one found in many classrooms. “The methods I set
forth require neither constructions nor geometric nor mechanical
considerations. They require only algebraic operations subject to a
systematic and uniform course.” (Lagrange quoted in Tikhomirov, 1990)

Problem 1: An Investigative Method

As shown in Figure 1, information on the problem is provided on a model

of the problem is constructed (Figure 2). drag D and simply estimate the
best location for the pumping station (D).

Figure 1 Figure 2

find the distance from point O to point C (Figure 3). When they drag point
D on , the distances from A to D, from B to D, and the sum of the two
distances are displayed (Figure 4).

Figure 3 Figure 4
Students are asked to estimate the best location for the pumping station in
terms of the distance from point O to point C.

Problem 2: Heron’s Method

The problem posed by Heron concerned the physical behavior of light

rays. According to historians, the law of reflection of light was not new - it
was known to Euclid, Aristotle, and probably also Plato. Boyer and
Merzbach (1989) note that Heron gave a simple geometric argument in his
work on reflection (Catoptrics) to prove that the angle of incidence equaled
the angle of reflections. Kline (1959) stated that Heron used the “shortest
possible path” characteristic of light waves and congruent triangles in his
proof. Kline also noted that the shortest path requirement is found in many
other applications.

(Figure 5) provides directions with a different scale and a hint (Figure 6).
Point B’ is the reflection of point B about the line segment OC.

Figure 5 Figure 6

A line segment from point A to point B’ is drawn and the intersection point
of segments AB’ and OC is found and labeled (Figure 7). The distance
from point O to point D is measured (Figure 8).
 Figure 7 Figure 8

Problem 3: A Geometric Method

In problem 3, (Figures 9 and 10). Similar triangles may be used to solve

the problem.

Figure 9 Figure 10
GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION

Local and global maxima and minima for cos(3πx)/x, 0.1≤x≤1.1

In mathematics, maxima and minima, known collectively as extrema, are the
largest value (maximum) or smallest value (minimum), that a function takes in
a point either within a given neighbourhood (local extremum) or on the
function domain in its entirety (global extremum). Image File history File links
Extrema_example. ... For other meanings of mathematics or uses of math and
maths, see Mathematics (disambiguation) and Math (disambiguation). ...
Graph of example function, The mathematical concept of a function expresses
the intuitive idea of deterministic dependence between two quantities, one of
which is viewed as primary (the independent variable, argument of the
function, or its input) and the other as secondary (the value of the function, or
output). A... In mathematics, the domain of a function is the set of all input
values to the function. ...
•
FINDING MAXIMA AND
MINIMA
Finding global maxima and minima is the goal of optimization. If a function is
continuous on a closed interval, then by the extreme value theorem global
maxima and minima exist. Furthermore, a global maximum (or minimum)
either must be a local maximum (or minimum) in the interior of the domain, or
must lie on the boundary of the domain. So a method of finding a global
maximum (or minimum) is to look at all the local maxima (or minima) in the
interior, and also look at the maxima (or minima) of the points on the
boundary; and take the biggest (or smallest) one. In mathematics, the term
optimization, or mathematical programming, refers to the study of problems in
which one seeks to minimize or maximize a real function by systematically
choosing the values of real or integer variables from within an allowed set. ...
A continuous function in a closed interval has a minimum (blue) and a
maximum (red). ...

Local extrema can be found by Fermat's theorem, which states that they must
occur at critical points. One can distinguish whether a critical point is a local
maximum or local minimum by using the first derivative test or second
derivative test. Fermats theorem is a theorem in real analysis, named after
Pierre de Fermat. ... In mathematics, a critical point (or critical number) is a
point on the domain of a function where: one dimension: the derivative is
equal to zero or does not exist: it is points that are either stationary points or
non-differentiable points. ... In calculus, a branch of mathematics, the first
derivative test determines whether a given critical point of a function is a
maximum, a minimum, or neither. ... In calculus, a branch of mathematics, the
second derivative test determines whether a given stationary point of a
function (where its first derivative is zero) is a maximum, a minimum, or
neither. ...

For any function that is defined piecewise, one finds maxima (or minima) by
finding the maximum (or minimum) of each piece separately; and then seeing
which one is biggest (or smallest). In mathematics, a function f(x) of a real
number variable x is defined piecewise, if f(x) is given by different expressions
on various intervals. ...
Different strategies may be employed to solve the problem algebraically.
Students may find the slopes of segment AB and segment AD (or segment
DB’), set the two slopes equal to each other, and solve for x.

Examples

x3+3x2−2x+1
−4 ≤ x ≤ 2
• The function x2 has a unique global minimum at x = 0.
• The function x3 has no global or local minima or maxima. Although the
first derivative (3x2) is 0 at x = 0, this is an inflection point.
• The function x3/3 − x has first derivative x2 − 1 and second derivative
2x. Setting the first derivative to 0 and solving for x gives stationary points
at −1 and +1. From the sign of the second derivative we can see that −1 is
a local maximum and +1 is a local minimum. Note that this function has no
global maximum or minimum.
• The function |x| has a global minimum at x = 0 that cannot be found by
taking derivatives, because the derivative does not exist at x = 0.
• The function cos(x) has infinitely many global maxima at 0, ±2π, ±4π,
…, and infinitely many global minima at ±π, ±3π, ….
• The function 2 cos(x) − x has infinitely many local maxima and minima,
but no global maximum or minimum.
 • The function cos(3πx)/x with 0.1 ≤ x ≤ 1.1 has a global maximum at x =
0.1 (a boundary), a global minimum near x = 0.3, a local maximum near
x = 0.6, and a local minimum near x = 1.0. (See figure at top of page.)
• The function x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 1 defined over the closed interval
(segment) [−4,2] has two extrema: one local maximum at x = −1−√15⁄3, one
local minimum at x = −1+√15⁄3, a global maximum at x = 2 and a global
minimum at x = −4. (See figure at right)

Functions of more
variables
For functions of more than one variable, similar conditions apply.

The global maximum is the point at the top.

For example, in the (enlargeable) figure at the right, the necessary conditions
for a local maximum are similar to those of a function with only one variable.
The first partial derivatives as to z (the variable to be maximized) are zero at
the maximum (the glowing dot on top in the figure). The second partial
derivatives are negative. These are only necessary, not sufficient, conditions
for a local maximum because of the possibility of a saddle point. For use of
these conditions to solve for a maximum, the function z must also be
differentiable throughout. The second partial derivative test can help classify
the point as a relative maximum or relative minimum.
A Counter example

Counterexample described in the text

However, for identifying global maxima and minima, there are substantial
differences between functions of one and several variables. For example, if a
differentiable function f defined on the real line has a single critical point,
which is a local minimum, then it is also a global minimum (use the
intermediate value theorem and Rolle's theorem to prove this by reductio ad
absurdum). In two and more dimensions, this argument fails, as the function

shows. Its only critical point is at (0,0), which is a local minimum with f(0,0) = 0.
However, it cannot be a global one, because f(4,1) = −11