Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
J.R. Frutos‡
FEMTO-ST Institute, LPMO Department, 25044 Besançon, France
The control of turbofan intake duct flow separation and the subsequent control of
compressor face distortion have the potential to achieve a relaxation of the maximum
crosswind constraint at take off. Wind tunnel tests have been conducted using a 10% axis-
symmetric scale model. Air jets, simulating micro-electrical mechanical actuators, have
been implemented at the intake lip to reenergize the boundary layer locally. Improvements
in distortion of up to 40% could be achieved at a 10% engine bleed.
Nomenclature
at = average speed of sound at the axial position of minimum area , m/s
Ah = duct area at leading edge, m²
At = duct area at the axial position of minimum area, m²
Aw = cross-sectional area of wind tunnel working section, m²
A∞ = area of captured stream tube, m²
Cp = local pressure coefficient at model surface = Pstatic /(1/2ρ(M ta t )²)
CR = contraction ratio = Ah /At
d = radial distance from windward wall along the duct centerline, m
D = diameter of the duct at compressor face, m
Dh = diameter of the intake duct at the leading edge, m
DC(60) = distortion parameter = (P f - Pθ=±30° )/Pf
mjet = mass flow through air-jet vortex generators, kg/s
mengine = mass flow through intake, kg/s
Mj = average Mach number of an individual air jet at the orifice exit
Mt = average Mach number at the axial position of minimum area
Pa = ambient pressure, N/m²
Pf = mean total pressure at the compressor face, N/m²
Po = discrete averaged total pressure reading at the compressor face, N/m²
Pstatic = discrete static pressure measured at the model surface, N/m²
Psup = differential supply pressure for air-jet vortex generators, N/m²
Pθ = mean total pressure at the plane of the compressor face included by the angle theta, N/m²
Re = nacelle Reynolds number = (ρ ∞U ∞ Dh ) µ
s = surface distance from the leading edge along the internal duct, m
smax = surface distance from leading edge to compressor face, m
V∞ = average free stream speed, m/s
*
Postgraduate Research Student, Goldstein Aerodynamics Research Laboratory / School of Engineering, Email:
sascha.d.erbsloeh@stud.man.ac.uk, MAIAA
†
Lecturer, Department of Aerospace En gineering, Email: w.j.crowther@man.ac.uk, MAIAA
‡
Postgraduate Research Student, Institut FEMTO-ST, Laboratoire de Physique et Metrologie des Oscillateurs , jean-
renaud.frutos@lpmo.edu
1
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
Vt = average air speed at the throat, m/s
β = angle of attack of intake model to the free stream, degrees
µ = average viscosity of air, kgm-1s -1
ρ∞ = average free stream air density, kg/m³
θ = angle defined in the plane of the compressor face, degrees
I. Introduction
T he work presented in this paper is part of the AEROMEMS II research project sponsored by the European
Union and a number of principal European aerospace contractors. It comprises of academic and industrial
partners specialized in a variety of disciplines including, micro machining and micro fabrication, experimental and
computational fluid dynamics, turbo fan manufacture and flight vehicle systems integration. A key attribute of the
present work is the close collaboration between micro manufacturing and systems engineering with wind tunnel
investigation studies. Information flow in both directions ensures that the micro-electrical mechanical systems
(MEMS) being developed are fit for purpose and also that experiments are based on technology that is achievable
within the next year.
This paper focuses on the application of MEMS flow control on a Pitot type intake system for a pod mounted
high bypass turbofan engine typical for a transonic passenger airliner. The target flight condition is take -off with a
high cross wind component. Presently, under these conditions, it is often necessary to limit the engine thrust such
that major separation on the windward intake lip is avoided and the fan face total pressure distortion is kept within
acceptable limits. Clearly, this has an adverse affect on the aircraft take-off performance, with available thrust at
brake release being significantly reduced under high crosswind conditions. The intake design is hence compromised
due to this off design point in the sense that the inlet lip has a larger leading edge nose radius than required at cruise
condition.
The primary goal of the present work is to develop an active system for controlling inlet separation and hence
fan face total pressure distortion. The system needs to be active in the sense that it can be activated on demand on
take-off, however, at all other times has minimal impact on overall intake performance. The implementation of a
flow control system may benefit the inlet design either by relaxing the cross wind at take off constraint, i.e. allowing
a higher cross wind with the same geometry, or to allow a smaller leading edge nose radius with the same critical
cross-wind component.
So far several flow control methods have been considered for intake systems. The effect of inlet lip geometry 1-8
has been studied thoroughly and several fluidic flow control methods have been reported. Many methods explored
are based on mechanical alterations to the lip geometry, e.g. blow in doors as on the Harrier or variable chin inlet lip
deflection as found on the Eurofighter Typhoon.9-11 Another class of methods is based on tangential blowing at the
highlight or in the diffuser.12-15 There is also considerable work at present considering the use of flow control to
manage the flow in ‘S’ ducts typically found on low observable applications and is normally focused on reducing
swirl as well as reducing the total pressure distortion due to flow separation.9,10,16 Renewed interest has been shown
to implement the S-Duct for an immersed inlet system on the blended wing configuration. 17,18 Though fluidic flow
control methods have been proven successful in wind tunnel investigations none have found application on modern
civil turbofan engines operating at present.
2
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
II. Aim
The goal of the present investigation is to provide a flow control system that enables relaxation of the maximum
cross wind at take off constraint for civil turbofans. The system should be such that there is minimal cruise drag
penalty due to the integration of the MEMS actuators . The flow control system should be reactive in that it can be
turned on when required and ideally part of a closed loop system that actively detects separation and initiates an
appropriate control response automatically.
3
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
In the AEROMEMS II project significant effort is underway to realize robust MEMS devices with an ongoing
discussion between the demonstration projects and the manufacturing side to ensure realistic actuation and sensing
equipment that will be able to provide the necessary velocity ratios or sensitivity. Fluidic vortex generators were
chosen for the actuator type with a mechanism embedded giving a pulsating flow. Micro fluidic experiments have
also been carried out to measure the jet velocities achievable through various orifice shapes and dimensions for
varying pressure differences 28 and supporting CFD studies and theoretical modeling have been completed. Special
consideration was on developing electrostatic actuation as it offers good scaling properties to small dimensions, high
energy densities and relative ease of fabrication as previous electrostatic actuators were manufactured during the
AEROMEMS I project.29
Operating conditions and dimensions of orifices used in this project are expected to be achievable by MEMS
actuators within the next year.
Figure 9: Static pressure distributions for separated (β=90°) and attached duct flow (β=30°) at Mt =0.6
and V ∞=18m/s
5
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
Figure 10: Static pressure distribution at different circumferential positions; M t=0.6, β=90°,
and V ∞=18m/s
6
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
a) b)
Figure 12: Averaged total pressure map at the compressor face; a) turbulent lip separation for
unactuated model, DC(60)=0.023; b) single array of counter-rotating vanes, DC(60)=0.015;
M t=0.6, α=90°, and V∞ =18m/s; compressor hub not shown; free stream from left to right
1
d
∫ [P ] d D
1
DC 2 D = − o (1)
Pa D
0
The reduction in DC2D is shown in Fig. 14 for two different AOA and the trends displayed are typical for almost
all test cases in the sense that 2D distortion decreases nearly linearly for increased blowing pressure. This linear
behavior most probably indicates that a saturation of control effectiveness is not reached. This saturation seems to be
the case under a reduced free stream of 9 m/s as DC2D shows to have an increasing gradient with higher blowing
pressure. Figure 14 demonstrates that the reduction in distortion for Mt =0.3 is of the same order of magnitude. The
jet spacing was also changed to 20 jet diameters (10 mm) for the test case at β=90° and suggests that the same
control effectiveness may be achieved at half the mass flow rate, i.e. at twice the efficiency. Jet spacing and orifice
diameter are the two geometrical parameters which may be changed with relative ease and within practical
constraints. Figure 15 hence highlights how the efficiency of actuation may be raised through optimizing one of
these parameters. In comparison to a counter-rotating VG array the jet array resulted in a control effectiveness of the
same order of magnitude. A t low AOA the VGs were more effective and produced a lower distortion.
7
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
Figure 13: Change in Centreline Total Pressure loss with increasing supply pressure for M t =0.6, β=90°,
and V∞ =18m/s
Figure 14: Improvement in 2D distor tion with increased differential blowing pressure for Mt =0.6 and
V ∞ =18m/s
8
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
Figure 15: Improvement in 2D distortion with increased differential blowing pressure for M t =0.3 and
V ∞=18m/s
VIII. Conclusion
An air jet array in its initial design phase has been able to reduce total pressure distortion by as much as 40% at
the compressor face at 10% engine bleed. Its effectiveness was compared vane vortex generators and the
improvement in distortion was shown to be of the same order of magnitude. This suggests that relaxing the cross
wind at take off constraint is feasible with an air jet array placed at the leading edge.
IX. Acknowledgments
The AEROMEMS II project is a collaboration between BAE SYSTEMS, Dassault, Airbus Deutschland GmbH,
EADS-Military, Snecma, ONERA, DLR, LPMO, Manchester University, LML, Warwick University, TUB,
Cranfield University, NTUA, and Auxitrol. The project is funded by the European Union and the project partners.
The authors would like to acknowledge the dedication and hard work of the technician team at the Goldstein
laboratory of the University of Manchester.
9
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
References
1
Albers, J.A., Miller, B.A., “Effect of subsonic inlet lip geometry on predicted surface and flow mach number distributions”,
NASA, Lewis Research Centre, Cleveland, Ohio, August 7, 1973, 501-24
2
Jakubowski, A.K., Luidens, R.W., “Internal cowl-separation at high incidence angles”, AIAA 13th Aerospace Science
Meeting, Pasadena, California, January 20-22, 1975
3
Chou, D.C., Luidens, R.W., Stockman, N.O., “Prediction of boundary layer flow separation in V/STOL engine inlets”,
Journal of Aircraft, Vol.15, No.8, pp. 474-481, August 1977
4
Potonides, H.C., Cea, R.A., Nelson, T.F., “Design and experimental studies of a type A V/STOL inlet”, Journal of Aircraft,
Vol.16, No.8, August 1979
5
Vial, W.S., “Aerodynamic considerations for engine inlet design for subsonic high bypass fan engines”, SAE Transaction,
66073, pp. 520-525, 1967
6
Potonides, H.C., “Development of an inlet for a tilt nacelle subsonic V/STOL aircraft”, ASME Gas Turbine Conference,
London, 1978, April 9-13, Paper No. 78-GT-121
7
Mattingly, J.D., Heiser, W.H., Daley, D.H., Aircraft Engine Design, AIAA Education Series, AIAA, New York, 1987,
pp. 354-393
8
Oates, G.C., Aircraft Propulsion System Technology and Design, AIAA Education Series, AIAA, Washington, 1989,
pp. 243-251
9
Seddon, J., Goldsmith, E.L. Intake Aerodynamics, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge, UK, 1993
10
Seddon, J., Goldsmith, E.L., (Editors), Practical Intake Aerodynamics , Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge, UK,
1993
11
Latham, E., Gawienowski, J., Merriwheather, F., “Investigation of inlet concepts for maneuver improvement at
transonic speeds”, NASA TMX 73, 1977, NASA Ames Research Centre
12
Burley, R.R., Hwang, D.P., “Investigation of tangential blowing ap p lied to a subsonic V/STOL Inlet”,
Journal of Aircraft, Vol.20, No.11, 1982, pp. 926-934
13
Miller, B.A., “A novel concept for subsonic inlet boundary-layer control”, AIAA Journal, Vol.15, No.4,
April 1977, pp. 403-404
14
Gregory, N., “On the static performance of two-dimensional intakes with momentum injection in the form
of boundary-layer control by blowing”, Aeronautical Research Council, Reports and Memoranda, No.3656, 1971
15
McGregor, I., “Some application of boundary layer control by blowing to air inlets for VSTOL aircraft”,
AGARD Manual, 1971
16
Gridley, M.C., Walker, S.H., “Inlet and nozzle technology for 21st century fighter aircraft”, ASME International Gas
Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, ASME, Birmingham, UK, June 10-13, 1996
17
Dagett, D.L., Kawai, R., Friedman, D., “Blended wing body system studies: boundary layer ingestion inlets with active
flow control”, NASA/CR-2003-212670, The Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, Washington, December 2003
18
Berrier, B.L., Allan, B.G., “Experimental and computational evaluation of flush-mounted, S-duct inlets”, 42nd AIAA
Aerospace Science Meeting and Exhibition, AIAA, Reno, US, January 5-8, 2004
19
Barberopoulos, A.A., Garry K.P., “The effect of skewing on the vorticity produced by an airjet vortex generator”, The
Aeronautical Journal, March 1998, pp. 171-177
20
Zhang, X., Collins, M.W., “Nearfield evolution of a longitudinal vortex generated by an inclined jet in a turbulent
boundary layer”, ASME Journal of Fluids Engineering, Vol. 119, December 1997, pp. 934 -939
21
Suzuki, T., Nagata, M., Shizawa, T., Honami, S., “Optimal injection conditions of a single pulsed vortex generator jet to
promote cross-stream mixing”, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Vol. 17, 1998, pp. 139-146
22
Raghunathan, S., Benard, E., O’Rourke, M.J., Healy, M., “The concept of passive vortex control jets for shock boundary
layer interactions”, CEAS Aerodynamics Research Conference, RAeS, London, June 10-12, 2002
23
Bray, T.P., Garry, K.P., “On the velocity profile of inclined jets in a boundary layer for vorticity production”, Proc. Instn.
Mech. Engrs., Vol. 214 Part G, 2000, pp. 55-64
24
Glezer, A., Amitay, M., “Synthetic jets”, Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 34, 2002, pp. 503-529
25
Warsop, C., “AEROMEMS – An investigation into the viability of MEMS technology for boundary layer control”, AIAA
Applied Aerodynamics Conference, AIAA, June 28–1 July,1999, Collection of Technical Papers (A99-33352 08-02)
26
C. Warsop, "Current Status and Prospects for Turbulent Flow Control", Proceeding of the CEAS/Drag Net European Drag
Reduction Conference, 19-21 June 2000, Potsdam, Germany, Published by Springer 2001, Notes on Numerical Fluid Mechanics.
Vol. 76, Aerodynamic Drag Reduction Technologies, pp 269-277, ISBN 3-540-41911-0
27
Ho, C.M., Tai, Y.C., “Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and fluid flows”, Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics,
Vol. 30, 1998, pp. 579-612
28
Frutos, J.R., Bailly, Y., Girardot, L., De Labachelerie, M., Guermeur, F., “Investigation of micro jet flows in Micro
Electrical Mechanical Systems (MEMS)”, Proceedings of PSFVIP-4, June 3-5, 2003, Chamonix, France, F4076
29
C. Edouard, “Conception et réalisation de micro actionneurs pour le contrôle d’écoulement fluidique”, PhD dissertation,
University of Franche Comte, Besançon, France, December 6, 2001
10
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics
30
Hurd, R., “Subsonic p itot intakes – high-speed high-incidence performance”, Rolls-Royce (Bristol) Report PD
2029, 1976
31
Gould, D.G., The use of vortex generators to delay boundary layer separation”, Laboratory Report LR-183, National
Aeronautical Establishment Canada, Ottawa, 1936
32
Lin, J.C., Howard, F.G., “Small submerged vortex generators for turbulent flow separation control”, J. Spacecraft, Vol. 27,
No.5, Sept.-Oct. 1990, pp. 503-507
33
Gad-el-Hak, M., Bushnell, D.M., “Separation control: Review”, ASME Journal of Fluids Engineering, Vol. 113, March
1991, pp. 5-29
34
Lin, J.C., “Review of research on low-profile vortex generators to control boundary-layer separation”, Progress in
Aerospace Sciences, Volume 38, 2002, pp. 389-420
35
Allen, D., Almond, H., Logan, P., “A technical comparison of mi cro electro-discharge machining, micro-drilling and
copper vapour laser machining for the fabrication of ink jet nozzles”, Proceedings of SPIE, Design, Test, Integration and
Packaging of MEMS/MOEMS, Vol. 4019, 2000, p p . 531-540
11
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronaut ics