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Received: 2 April 2007 Returned for revision: 9 May 2007 Accepted: 21 May 2007 Published electronically: 17 August 2007
† Background Considered only in terms of tolerance of, or sensitivity to, desiccation (which is an oversimplification),
orthodox seeds are those which tolerate dehydration and are storable in this condition, while highly recalcitrant seeds
are damaged by loss of only a small proportion of water and are unstorable for practical purposes. Between these
extremes, however, there may be a gradation of the responses to dehydration – and also to other factors – suggesting
perhaps that seed behaviour might be best considered as constituting a continuum subtended by extreme orthodoxy and
the highest degree of recalcitrance. As the characteristics of seeds of an increasing number of species are elucidated,
non-orthodox seed behaviour is emerging as considerably more commonplace – and its basis far more complex – than
previously suspected.
† Scope Whatever the post-harvest responses of seeds of individual species may be, they are the outcome of the
Key words: Cryostorage, desiccation sensitivity, ecology, evolution, genetic resources, hydrated storage, metabolic
activity, mycoflora, recalcitrant seeds.
IN TROD UCT IO N harvest, the period for which they can be stored without
deterioration is predictable under defined conditions of
Seed storage is imperative, not only to provide good-quality
low temperature and relative humidity that will maintain
planting material from season to season, as well as intersea-
low water (moisture) content. Storage longevity of orthodox
sonal food reserves and feedstock, but also in the long term
seeds increases logarithmically with decreasing water
as base and active collections conserving genetic resources.
content (Ellis and Roberts, 1980), although there appear
Given appropriate facilities, storage for all these purposes
to be limits of dehydration below which no further advan-
can readily be achieved – but only if the seeds exhibit
tage is gained (e.g. Ellis et al., 1990b), and, in fact, if
orthodox post-harvest physiology (Roberts, 1973).
exceeded, may be damaging (e.g. Walters, 1998; Walters
Developing orthodox seeds acquire the ability to tolerate
and Engels, 1998; reviewed by Berjak, 2006) [note,
desiccation relatively early, preceding the final develop-
however, that there is not unanimity about this (e.g. Hong
mental phase on the parent plant, i.e. maturation drying,
et al., 2005)]. Even under ideal conditions, however, ortho-
by some time (Bewley and Black, 1994; Vertucci and
dox seeds have finite life spans, although these are a matter
Farrant, 1995; Kermode and Finch-Savage, 2002). A spec-
of many years to decades or centuries, depending on the
trum of protective mechanisms and processes has been
species (Walters et al., 2005).
identified, which together confer the property of desiccation
Recalcitrant seeds, in contrast, are characterized by post-
tolerance (reviewed by Pammenter and Berjak, 1999;
harvest life spans of the order of days to months, or, for tem-
Berjak, 2006), although the modes of their operation and
perate species, perhaps a year or two, as long as such seeds
interaction remain largely conjectural (Berjak et al.,
will tolerate low (not sub-zero) temperatures (e.g. Chin
2007). As long as orthodox seeds are of high quality after
and Roberts, 1980). Besides producing short-lived seeds,
* For correspondence: E-mail berjak@ukzn.ac.za many of the recalcitrant-seeded species are threatened
# The Author 2007. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Annals of Botany Company. All rights reserved.
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214 Berjak and Pammenter — Seed Recalcitrance
indications, and analysing several of the parameters across related to the water concentration at which viability was
104 tropical forest species from 37 families deriving from lost. This highlights an important generalization, first
Panamá, Daws et al. (2006a) developed a reliably predic- noticed in work with A. marina (Berjak et al., 1984), i.e.
tive model based on just two of the traits, seed mass and that the more rapidly water can be lost, the lower is the
seed coat/coverings ratio (SCR, i.e. the ratio of seed cover- water content reached before intracellular damage
ings:mass). Desiccation sensitivity was found to be signifi- becomes limiting. (The important ramifications of this
cantly related to relatively low SCRs, typified by large seed will be elaborated below.)
size coupled with thin coverings. The predictive value of Differences in the lowest ‘safe’ water content which recal-
the SCR model was convincingly demonstrated when citrant seeds will withstand are not confined to disparate
Daws et al. (2006a) applied it further to seeds of 28 genera, but have also been noted for different species of indi-
African species and ten species from Europe, showing in vidual genera. For example, Quercus alba seeds are more
all cases that the prediction was in agreement with pub- desiccation sensitive than those of Q. nigra (Connor and
lished data on the responses of the seeds to dehydration. Bonner, 1996), and there are differences between seeds of
While the original categorization of seeds according to species of Baccaurea (Normah et al., 1997). A thought-
their post-harvest (storage) responses embodies the idea provoking finding is that seeds of different species of a
of two distinct groupings – orthodox and recalcitrant single genus may be differently categorized, as exemplified
(Roberts, 1973) – a further category, describing post-harvest by species of Acer and Coffea (Hong and Ellis, 1990), and
physiology as being intermediate, was later introduced (Ellis substantiated for Coffea spp. by Eira et al. (1999) who
usually (but not invariably) coincides with natural resulting in their poor quality, which includes lowered
shedding. However, desiccation sensitivity increases mark- resistance to fungal establishment. (This proposal is based
edly as germinative metabolism progresses, macroscopi- on the assumption that the late-season fruits are derived
cally imperceptibly, to the stage of the onset of mitosis from flowers produced late in the season, which our
and extensive vacuolation of the embryo cells (Farrant casual observation suggests to be the case for A. marina.)
et al., 1986; Berjak et al., 1989). This inexorable progress Interseasonal variation among seeds of the same species
of germinative metabolism – which occurs with no require- may be similarly rationalized, but in some cases there are
ment for additional water – sooner or later (depending on remarkable differences. For example, C. sinensis seeds har-
the species) will culminate in radicle protrusion, and is vested in consecutive seasons from the same provenance
one of the major factors hampering short- to medium-term showed embryonic axis water concentrations as disparate
storage of recalcitrant seeds, as will be discussed later. as 2.0 + 0.3 to 4.4 + 2.4 g g21 for harvests in different
Other confounding issues include the fact that axes and years (Berjak et al., 1996). As mentioned above, recalcitrant
storage tissues seldom (if ever) have the same water concen- seeds generally will entrain germination at the shedding
trations, as shown for A. hippocastanum (Tompsett and water content, and thus will germinate under storage con-
Pritchard, 1993). Working with Araucaria hunsteinii, ditions not allowing dehydration. However, in one particular
Pritchard et al. (1995) reported that in these gymnosper- season, Q. robur seeds harvested from the same tree as pre-
mous seeds too, there is uneven water distribution viously and subsequently had lower than usual water con-
between the component tissues. Most frequently, axes are tents, and did not germinate in storage (Finch-Savage
maintenance of desiccation tolerance in orthodox seeds. for a range of recalcitrant-seeded species, Faria et al. (2004)
The individual components of the suite, and their inter- concluded that the majority of cells appear to be arrested in
actions, have been extensively reviewed (Pammenter and the G1 phase of the cell cycle, thus the more vulnerable 4C
Berjak, 1999; Kermode and Finch-Savage, 2002), and phase would be avoided when the seeds are shed and at the
will thus only be outlined here, with information where greatest risk of dehydration.
further data have been forthcoming, or contradictory
opinions expressed, particularly in relation to the situation
Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants
in recalcitrant seeds.
Of late there has been a particular focus on free radicals,
reactive/active oxygen species (ROS/AOS) and antioxidant
Intracellular physical characteristics
systems implicated in the acquisition and maintenance of
The first set of major components of the suite involve desiccation tolerance in both seeds and vegetative tissues
intracellular physical features (Pammenter and Berjak, of resurrection plants. One of the most intriguing aspects
1999). These include minimization of vacuolation; protec- of ROS to have emerged recently is their dual role in intra-
tion of the integrity of the DNA; and orderly dismantling cellular signalling as well as intracellular destruction
of cytoskeletal elements. Both orthodox and recalcitrant (reviewed by Laloi et al., 2004; Foyer and Noctor, 2005;
seeds (except those of A. marina) deal with the potential Suzuki and Mittler, 2006). Formed when high energy
problem of volume reduction by the accumulation of space- state electrons are transferred to molecular oxygen (O2),
as thioredoxins and glutaredoxins (Dietz, 2003). In this Late embryogenic accumulating/abundant proteins (LEAs)
regard, Rinne et al. (1999) conjectured that enzyme activity
Together with sucrose, LEAs have been the focus of
continues to occur in dehydrin-associated areas of greater
much recent attention in the context of the acquisition
water activity in the otherwise dehydrated cells of buds,
and retention of desiccation tolerance in orthodox seeds
and Leubner-Metzger (2005) has shown localized
(e.g. Buitink et al., 2002; Kermode and Finch-Savage,
b-1,3-glucanase activity in the inner testa to be instrumen-
2002; Berjak, 2006; Berjak et al., 2007). These proteins
tal in after-ripening in air-dry tobacco seeds. A similar
(of which six groups have been identified on the basis of
argument may be advanced for the activity of other
particular peptide motifs) generally lack cysteine residues,
enzymic, as well as non-enzymic, antioxidants (Bailly,
are composed predominantly of charged and uncharged
2004) in localized regions of greater water activity within
polar amino acid residues and, with the exception the
intracellular glasses in dehydrated seeds (see below).
Group 5 LEAs, are highly hydrophilic and heat stable
Unlike the situation in orthodox seeds during the latter
(Cuming, 1999). Although that author has indicated that
stages of development, in recalcitrant seeds metabolism is
the evidence for LEAs being involved in desiccation toler-
sustained at measurable levels. When water is lost, and
ance derives from ‘correlative and circumstantial evidence
especially when dehydration proceeds slowly, metabolism
rather than by direct experimental demonstration’ and this
is considered to become unbalanced. This can result in con-
is still the current situation (Berjak et al. 2007), the basis
siderable intracellular damage (termed metabolism-linked
of the evidence is convincing: The appearance of LEAs is
damage) and death of seeds/embryos at surprisingly high
associated with orthodox seed maturation, as it is with the
of protection suggested for LEAs would be operative. The recalcitrant embryos of A. marina were found to accumulate
situation regarding the occurrence of LEAs in recalcitrant substantial amounts of sucrose and stachyose (Farrant et al.,
seeds is equivocal, as they have been found to occur in a 1993b), and sucrose accumulation was found to accompany
range of species from different habitats, while apparently dehydration in the less recalcitrant embryonic axes of
being absent from others. Group 2 LEAs (dehydrins) have C. sinensis (Berjak et al., 1989). Similarly, Q. robur
been identified in recalcitrant seeds of some temperate embryos, which are relatively more desiccation tolerant
trees (Finch-Savage et al., 1994; Gee et al., 1994), other than those of A. marina, accumulate sucrose and raffinose
temperate species and some of tropical/sub-tropical prove- concomitant with the later stage of reserve accumulation
nance (Farrant et al., 1996), and in grasses typified by (Finch-Savage et al., 1993; Finch-Savage and Blake,
Porteresia coarctata, Zizania spp. and Spartina anglica 1994), while embryos of Q. alba have a high sucrose
(Gee et al., 1994). However, no dehydrin-type LEAs content (Connor and Sowa, 2003). From a wide-ranging
could be demonstrated in seeds of ten tropical wetland survey of sucrose accumulation among both orthodox and
species (Farrant et al., 1996). Those investigations were, non-orthodox seeds, it appears that a variety of recalcitrant
however, constrained, as analysis was for dehydrin-type, seeds accumulate substantial quantities of sucrose relative
Group 2 LEAs only, and consequently should be extended to oligosaccharide (Steadman et al., 1996). However, as
to the other groups of LEAs unique to seeds. Based on was pointed out for the LEAs, the sucrose cannot play a
the conjecture about LEA functionality in desiccating/ part in protecting against desiccation damage as conjectured
desiccated orthodox seeds, it is difficult to envisage a func- for orthodox seeds: upon drying in the natural environment,
contents of approx. 0.3 g g21 coincide with a marked short-term storage, or non-lethal dehydration. It was found
increase in cytomatrical (cytoplasmic) viscosity, indicative that when DNA fragmentation was induced by radiation,
of glass formation (Buitink and Leprince, 2004), but newly harvested A. marina embryos were capable of
under the slow drying conditions which would prevail repair, but that this ability was increasingly compromised
in the natural environment, recalcitrant seeds die at if the embryos had first been dehydrated (Boubriak et al.,
far higher water contents (Pammenter et al., 1998; 2000). From Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) analyses
Pammenter and Berjak, 1999; Walters et al., 2001, 2002). of membrane lipids, Connor and Sowa (2003) showed that
It may, however, be possible that transient intracellular after initial dehydration of Q. alba acorns, on rehydration
glasses can be formed as a consequence of flash drying a reversible shift occurred between the gel and liquid crys-
(Berjak et al., 1990) excised embryonic axes, which is a talline phases, but that this ability declined in line with
procedure intrinsic to the cryopreservation protocol for declining seed viability. Those authors also showed that
germplasm conservation of recalcitrant-seeded species protein secondary structure was irreversibly affected by
(see below). dehydration.
Endogenous amphiphilic substances. Implication of amphi-
Other factors that may contribute to desiccation tolerance philic substances in membrane stability in the dry state
was briefly reviewed (Pammenter and Berjak, 1999) as a
Lipid composition. This may contribute to desiccation toler- possible factor in desiccation tolerance. Golovina et al.
ance in orthodox seeds and its lack in recalcitrant types. For
to separate the endogenous factors involved in desiccation [e.g. H. brasiliensis (Normah et al., 1986); Q. rubra
tolerance is that its acquisition overlaps with other matu- (Pritchard, 1991); E. capensis (Pammenter et al., 1998);
ration processes and with the development of dormancy Aquilaria agallocha (Kundu and Kachari, 2000); Wasabia
where this occurs. Studies of viviparous mutants and spp. (Potts and Lumpkin, 2000); A. heterphyllus (Wesley-
those characterized by impairment of the maturation Smith et al., 2001a); and T. occidentalis (Ajayi et al.,
process in maize (VP series mutants) and Arabidopsis 2006)]. Rapid dehydration facilitates axis viability
(LEC1, LEC2, FUS3 and ABI3) have indicated both retention well into Hydration Level III, and occasionally
ABA-independent and -dependent pathways of gene regu- just into Level II (Vertucci and Farrant, 1995), at which
lation to be involved (e.g. Bray, 1993; Kermode, 1990, extreme, generally lethal damage is associated with slow
1995; Kermode and Finch-Savage, 2002; Bartels, 2005; water loss.
Vincente-Carbajosa and Carbonero, 2005). It is not that flash drying renders recalcitrant axes
Current understanding of the control of seed maturation desiccation tolerant: on the contrary, they will rapidly
and acquisition of desiccation tolerance in Arabidopsis lose viability at ambient or refrigerator temperatures if
thaliana suggests that LEC1, LEC2, FUS3 and ABI3 are allowed to remain at the low water contents attained.
the four ‘master genes’ involved, with the latter three What flash drying does achieve is the rapid passage
being implicated in desiccation tolerance (To et al., through the intermediate water content ranges at which
2006). Another pivotal factor is ABA which, in the aqueous-based metabolism-linked damage occurs, i.e. the
context of seed development, is probably best known for time during which unbalanced metabolism occurs and
reducing the water loss tolerated (Berjak et al., 1984, 1989; (Bharuth et al., 2007). However, the nature of the chilling
Farrant et al., 1986). injury is still under investigation.
There is, however, a lower water content limit below Although it has been sporadically suggested that lower-
which recalcitrant axes will not survive; this generally is ing recalcitrant seed water content to levels permitting
at or near the level at which all the remaining water is struc- basal metabolism but precluding germination in storage
ture associated. Damage ensuing when structure-associated might be a means to extend their longevity, this, in fact,
water (also termed non-freezable water, because of its has proved to be deleterious to both life span and quality.
calorimetric properties) is removed is termed desiccation This has been shown to be the case for seeds of a range
damage sensu stricto (Pammenter et al., 1998; Pammenter of species (Corbineau and Côme, 1986a, b, 1988; Drew
and Berjak, 1999; Walters et al., 2001). A major difference et al., 2000; Eggers et al., 2007). In the cases of
between desiccation-sensitive and -tolerant seeds is that the T. dregeana (Drew et al., 2000; Eggers et al., 2007),
latter can lose a considerable proportion of the structure- T. emetica, S. cordatum and the gymnosperm,
associated water (Pammenter et al., 1993). Podocarpus henkelii (Eggers et al., 2007), not only did
seed storage life span decline in the ‘sub-imbibed’ con-
dition relative to that of seeds stored at the shedding
S TO R A G E OF R E CA L C I T R A N T SE E D S /
water contents, but fungal proliferation was exacerbated.
GER M PLA SM
The explanation may reside in the fact that, paradoxically,
Because recalcitrant seeds are not only hydrated, but also mild dehydration stress actually stimulates germination of
as a long-term means of conservation. Hence cryostorage – of the present review. However, for the interested reader,
generally in liquid nitrogen at – 196 8C or, less ideally, at the topic has been presented in somewhat more detail by
some temperature below –80 8C – presently appears to Berjak and Pammenter (2004).
offer the only option for long-term storage.
It would be ideal if whole seeds could be cryopreserved,
EVOLU T I ON ARY AN D E COLO GI CA L
although this is generally not possible because recalcitrant
CON S I DE R AT I ON S
seeds of most species are large, and at high water contents
when shed. As discussed above, large seeds cannot be dried Any review of recalcitrant seeds would be incomplete
rapidly, and slow dehydration to water contents commensu- without a consideration of the evolutionary and ecological
rate with efficient cooling (freezing) is lethal. However, for aspects of their biology. Seed desiccation sensitivity is
survival at cryogenic temperatures, water content must be uncommon: of the approx. 8000 species for which data
reduced to a level obviating lethal ice crystallization are available, .90 % can tolerate drying to low water con-
during cooling. While reduction of water content to, or tents (Flynn et al., 2006). Perhaps it is because recalcitrant
near to, the level where only non-freezable water is seeds constitute such a small proportion of the total that
present achieves this for orthodox seeds, there are only a seed ecologists and evolutionary biologists have, until
few documented cases of non-orthodox seeds transiently recently, almost ignored this group. Seed ecologists study
surviving such drastic levels of dehydration (reviewed by the composition and dynamics of soil seed banks, but
Berjak and Pammenter, 2004). rarely consider the water content of the seeds, whilst seed
and so sensitivity could have arisen, independently, a consequent on climate change that have developed special-
number of times (Dickie and Pritchard, 2002). If this is ized regeneration strategies, rather than re-acquired desicca-
the case, it has implications in terms of the presence (or tion tolerance.
lack thereof ) of some putative tolerance mechanisms in If desiccation sensitivity is a derived trait, there must pre-
recalcitrant seeds, and may be related to the considerable sumably be some selective advantage to losing tolerance.
interspecies variation that is observed. While it is easy to see that the loss of tolerance in mesic tro-
Seed desiccation sensitivity would be thought to place pical forest species may not be a disadvantage, it is, at first
constraints on the environments in which reproductive sight, more difficult to identify a selective advantage of sen-
success can occur, and so it is not surprising that most of sitivity. However, Pritchard et al. (2004b) and Daws et al.
the early reports on recalcitrance were of seeds native to tro- (2005) have noted a number of characteristics of tropical
pical mesic forests. However, as data have accumulated, it recalcitrant seeds that may confer advantages. These seeds
has become apparent that species producing recalcitrant are generally larger than their co-occurring orthodox
seeds are not confined to tropical forests, with such seeds counterparts, germinate more rapidly and invest less in pro-
being produced by species in temperate regions and tropical tection against predators. Large seeds would reduce the rate
and sub-tropical drylands. This accumulation of data is now of water loss and provide substantial reserves for rapid
permitting more rigorous ecological analysis, rather than establishment (or survival in a seedling bank); rapid germi-
simple records of habitat of the pertinent species. nation would lead to rapid establishment and the ability to
Tweddle et al. (2003) analysed a data set pertaining to acquire transiently available water close to the soil surface;
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