Electron density measurements of a DC helium discharge via

microwave interferometry

Taylor Ratliff† , Matt Hoklas

Spring 2011, Dr. Hoffman

March 7, 2011

Abstract
The free electron density of helium plasma in a DC discharge tube was measured via microwave
interferometry, wherein the phase shift of 9 GHz microwaves passing through the plasma is mea-
sured. From the measured phase shift the plasma frequency and therefore electron density can be
calculated from established theory. Measurements were taken of the plasmas resulting from initially
room temperature helium gas, with initial pressures of 1 − 5 T orr, and DC currents of 10 − 90 mA.
The apparatus was calibrated with several materials of known dialectric constant.

1. Introduction
Plasma, often referred to as the fourth state of matter occurs when electrons are heated to the point
where some fraction or all of the atoms are ionized. Because of their relatively small mass and there-
fore short timescale of response, electron behavior often characterizes a plasma. In this experiment
we measure the free electron density in a helium plasma via microwave interferometry.
Microwaves which pass through the plasma incur a phase shift. The signal is split into two
waveguides, one which interacts with the plasma and another with a variable phase shifter, and then
recombined so that the interference can be observed. The phase shift in the plasma is measured by
finding the equivalent phase shift in the second waveguide. From basic plasma theory the plasma
frequency ωp = ne2 /0 m and therefore electron density n can be calculated from the phase shift.
Helium initially at room temperature and pressures of 1 − 5 T orr was brought to the plasma
state in a DC discharge tube. When a voltage of ≈ 1kV is applied across the discharge tube of
length 20 cm, the few initially free electrons are accelerated between collisions to beyond 25 eV , the
ionization threshold for helium. The mean free path can be calculated with

1
λ= √ 2 )
≈ .03 cm. (1)
( 2 π nHe rHe

A cascade then occurs until a nearly steady state is reached. One limitation arises as equilibrium is
never reached in the experiment as the temperature would damage the discharge tube.
†
Email address: taylor.ratliff@gmail.com

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 As shown in Fig. 1 below, the plasma tube or other sample is inserted into a microwave waveguide
through an attached brass tube or “choke”. The geometry is optimized to prevent loss of microwave
power and to maximize the effective length of interaction, Lef f .

Figure 1: The waveguide and tube for holding the sample.

The resulting phase shift is given by

ω ωp2
∆φ = η L
2 + ω 2 ) eff
(2)
c 2 (νee

where νee is the electron collision frequency, and η is a coefficient due to the geometry. Here the
approximation νee = 0 is made, which is valid for P < 10 Torr as νee << ω. Future experiments
should note that above 10 Torr measuring the attenuation of the microwave signal may result in a
more accurate measurement of free electron density. Further discussion of the apparatus geometry
and a derivation of the formula for the phase shift can be found in Ref. [1]. We note this derivation
differs from the formula presented in the previous report by Kurt Lorenzen [3].

2. Apparatus and Procedure

In Ref. [1] the coefficient η is calculated from the geometry of the apparatus. In this experiment
higher frequency, and thus shorter wavelength microwaves are used, and assumptions regarding the
relationships between the choke diameter, waveguide size, and plasma tube diameter are violated.
We therefore determine η by measuring phase shifts from several rods of known diameter and index
of refraction. This process was referred to as calibration in previous reports.
The apparatus can be viewed as two nearly separate systems. The microwave interferometer
is shown in Fig. 2. Also shown is the plasma tube and high voltage power supply. A table of
components is also listed below. The klystron generates 9 Ghz microwaves, which are modulated by
a square wave. This signal is sent through the waveguide, which splits into two segments, with the

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upper segment containing the sample. Attenuators are present on each segment so that the amplitude
of each signal can be matched, allowing for nearly complete destructive interference when the signals
are out of phase. It is clearly easiest to use the point of fully destructive interference as the reference.
The recombined signal is then viewed on an oscilloscope. By manually changing the phase of the
signal in the lower segment with the phase shifter, a measurement of the phase change caused by
introduction of the sample can be taken.

Figure 2: The electrical system and microwave interferometer.

To calibrate the interferometer the phase shifts of several materials of known index index of
refraction are measured. Rods of delrin, nylon, and teflon are located with the experiment for this
purpose. As the index of refraction for solid density materials can be much larger than that of air or
tenuous plasma, a phase shift of several cycles can occur. The total phase shift must be measured, so
the samples must be introduced slowly into the choke. The author notes a modification made to the
samples, the introduction of a tapered end, to make this measurement easier. For measurement of the
plasma the phase shift is measured between the gas state and plasma state, with the glass plasma tube
present for both measurements. This prevents confounding the shifts associated with the introduction
of the glass tube, and introduction of the plasma.

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 The second system of the apparatus is the vacuum and helium injection system, which is nec-
essary for the creation of the low pressure plasma, and is shown in Fig. 3 below. A vacuum pump
is used to bring the system to low pressure, i.e. less than 1 T orr, before helium is introduced. It
is recommended this process be repeated several times to eliminate contaminants from the plasma
tube. An oil manometer can be used to measure the pressure, however the convection gauge associ-
ated with the vacuum pump also serves this purpose in a more convenient way. In either case, leaks
are inevitable in the system which contains many components not designed for a vacuum system.
The seal for the plasma tube (V4) is quite good however, and therefore the pressure should be read
from the convection gauge at the instant (V4) is closed. We note the valve numbering scheme here is
consistent with the previous report by Carl Stolle [2], but not with the report by Kurt Lorenzen [3].

Figure 3: The vacuum system and helium gas injection system. Note the microwave system is not shown for clarity.

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 Table 1: Equipment Used

Item Make Model

klystron Sperry 2K25

klystron power supply HP 715A
vacuum pump Welch DuoSeal 1402
convection gauge Terranova 906A
phase shifter HP X885A
wavemeter -
high voltage DC power supply Spellman LA 6-100
phase shifter -

Below is the enumerated procedure used for measurement. Steps marked with * are only neces-
sary for measurements of the plasma, and may be omitted for measurements of solid samples. The
manometer is not used in this procedure in preference of the convection gauge. See previous reports
for procedure for use of the manometer to measure pressure.

1. Before beginning, consider the following precautions: The high voltage power supply is capa-
ble of killing you. Treat it with respect, verify connections often and the whether the supply is
on or off. A simple mistake is to assume the power is off because no plasma is present in the
tube. Do not allow the plasma tube to overheat. Excess heat allows current to move through
the glass, especially where the glass is in contact with metal. This causes pitting, leaks, and
eventually the fracture of the plasma tube. Do not exceed the maximum current of the power
supply, which occurs well below the maximum voltage.
2. Turn on the klystron power supply and plug in the cooling fan. The klystron takes 30-45
minutes to reach a steady output signal.
3. Turn on the oscilloscope and verify a square wave signal is observed. The automatic adjustment
on the laboratory oscilloscopes should be sufficient to view the signal.
4. Adjust the wavemeter to maximize the output signal, then make fine adjustments such that a
“clean” square wave is observed.
5. Remove any sample from the choke.
6. *Place the plasma tube in the choke.
7. *Check that the cooling air tube is connected to the waveguide at the choke, and that the rubber
stopper is attached to the other side. This forces the cooling air to travel the length of the choke,
cooling the plasma tube.
8. *Check that the high voltage power supply is OFF and connect the power supply to the plasma
tube as in Fig. 2.

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 9. Zero the phase shifter by adjusting the phase until a minimum is achieved on the oscilloscope. It
may be necessary to iteratively adjust one of the attenuators and the phase shifter until minimal
signal is achieved. To zero the phase shifter tighten the knob on the lower right - this prevents
the actual phase shift from changing - then set the dial to zero and loosen the knob.
10. *Check that the vent and valve 7 are closed, and open valves 1-7.
11. *Turn on the vacuum. A small amount of smoke from the pump is normal upon turning it on,
but shut the pump down immediately if the smoke does not immediately stop. The pressure in
the system should drop to 10 − 100 mT orr.
12. *Close the knob on the vacuum pump, valve 1, and introduce a small amount of helium by
quickly opening valve 7 a small amount. It may be necessary to introduce helium in the tube
between the tank and valve 7 by opening and then closing valve(s) 8. Do not exceed atmo-
spheric pressure in the system.
13. *Repeat the previous two steps several times to reduce trace contaminants.
14. *Bring the system to the desired helium pressure (1 − 10 T orr), and simultaneously close
valve 4 and take record the pressure.
15. *Turn on the cooling air by locating the nozzle on the far side of the lab (follow the clear tube
running overhead).
16. *Check that the connections to the high voltage power supply are firmly attached to the plasma
tube, and that the phase shifter is properly zeroed.
17. For solid samples: Insert the sample slowly, counting the number of oscillations of amplitude
on the oscilloscope.
18. *Set the knob on the high voltage power supply to zero, turn on the switch, then press the DC
button. Slowly increase the voltage until the helium gas transitions to a plasma, then decrease
the voltage to a point where the plasma persists. Maintaining too high a voltage will overheat
the plasma tube.
19. The presence of plasma or other sample will have caused a phase shift and some attenuation.
Adjust the phase shifter and attenuator until fully destructive interference is achieved. Record
this phase shift.
20. *Vary the current on the high voltage power supply and repeat the previous step.
21. *Turn off the power supply after finishing the measurements for this initial pressure. Do not
leave the helium in the plasma state for more than a few minutes to prevent overheating.
22. Repeat the relevant process for other samples *or plasma pressures.
23. Return the system to atmospheric pressure by opening valves 1-5 sequentially.

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3. Analysis

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electron plasma density ne (cm−3) ( x 1010)

9 1.3 Torr
8 3.5 Torr
7 4.4 Torr
6

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DC Current (mA)

Figure 4: Plasma electron density v. DC current for three initial helium pressures.

Given the time constraints imposed by having to repair the plasma tube, and (possibly excessive)
caution taken after damaging it, relatively little data was taken. Nonetheless, the data shows a clear
increase in the plasma electron density with current. The electron density also appears to scale
linearly with initial helium pressure, which by the ideal gas law is proportional to the helium density.
The measured electron densities were on the order of 1011 cm−3 . Given the helium density of
≈ 1016 cm−3 , this represents a degree of ionization on the order of 10−5 , which is representative of
similar experiments.
The coefficient η was determined to be .22 ± .09. Analysis of calibration data is available upon
request, but for the sake of future experimenters’ independence it is omitted here. We note however
the importance of calibration, which here accounts for a relative error of .4.
Other sources of error include the inability to obtain an equilibrium current or temperature in the
plasma tube, which makes consistent measurement difficult. Future experimenters are encourages
to average several measurements, or perhaps compare measurements of increasing v. decreasing
current. The error associated with measuring the phase shift is also problematic, as complete in-
terference appears to occur over a range of ≈ 5 degrees. Previous experiments used an amplifier
between the detector and oscilloscope [2], but it has since malfunctioned and been discarded.

4. Conclusion
In this experiment we successfully measured the electron density of a helium plasma for varying DC
currents and initial helium pressures via microwave interferometry. Basic plasma physics relates the

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induced phase shift to the electron number density via the plasma frequency and dispersion relation.
The electron density was found to be of order 1011 cm−3 for initial helium pressures of 1 − 5 T orr
and DC currents up to 90 mA. This corresponds to a 10−5 degree of ionization, and is consistent with
other experiments. Changes were made to the apparatus, such as the introduction of a tapered end of
the rods for calibration, replacement of worn vacuum tubes, and discarding of the broken amplifier
and thermocouple gauge. A new equation is presented for the relationship between phase shift and
plasma frequency, which is taken from Ref [1], a valuable reference for future experimenters. It is
also suggested future experimenters improve upon the calibration technique, error in determining
phase shift, and compensation for lack of thermal and electrical equilibrium.

References
[1] J. Ingraham and S. Brown, Plasma Diagnostics, Technical Report 454, MIT-1842-36 (1966).
[2] Carl Stolle, Using Microwave Interferometry to Determine Plasma Density, Senior Lab Report,
(Fall 2009).
[3] Kurt Lorenzen, Microwave Determination of Electron Density in Plasma, Senior Lab Report,
(Fall 2010).
[4] J. D. Huba, NRL Plasma Formulary (2009).
[5] P. M. Bellan, Fundamentals of Plasma Physics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2006).