UNIT 6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES '

Structure
6.1 Introduction
Ohlcc~~\c\
6.2 Second and Third Order Derivatives
6.3 nth Order Derivatives.
6.4 Leibniz Theorem
6.5 Taylor's Series and Maclaurin's Series
6.6 Summary
6.7 Solutions and Answers

6.1 INTRODUCTION
r
In the first block you have differentiated a number of functions. You know that the
derivative f' of a differentiable function f is again a function and is called the derived
function off.

We have already seen in Unit 3 that the concept of differentiation was motivated by some
physical concepts (like the velocity of a moving particle) and also by geometrical notions
(like the slope of a tangent to a curve). The second and higher'order derivatives are also
s~milarlymotivated by some physical considerations (like the acceleration) and some
geometrical ideas (like the curvature of a curve). which we shall study in the remaining
units of this block.

We shall introduce higher order derivatives in Sec.1 and 2. Leibniz Theorem which is
glven in Sec.4 gives us a formula for finding the higher derivatives of a product of twn
functions. In the later sections, we shall study some useful formulas, called seties
expansions. The significance of these expansions will become clearer in Unit 14.

Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to.
calculate higher order derivatives of a given function f
use the Leibniz formula to find thc nth derivatives of products of functions
expand a function using Taylor's Maclaurin's series.

6.2 SECOND AND THIRD ORDER DERIVATIVES

Consider the function f(x) = x4. You know that f'(x) = 4x3. Now, this f' is again a
polynomial function and hence, can be differentiated (see Example 5, Unit 3). We shall
denote the derivative off' by f". Thus,

f"(x) = 12x2.This f"(x) is called the second derivative of the function f a t the point x. It
d2y
is also denoted by -7 (read as d square y by d x square) or yz or f(2'or D ~ ~ .
..A dx
Let us differentiate f". We get f'"(x) = 24x, where f"' denotes the derivative off", or the
d3y
third derivative off. Other notations for f"'(x) are - or y3 or f'3' or D3y.Differentiating
dx
d4y
f"', we get the fourth derivative of f, f'4' (x) = --- = y4 = 24.
1 dx4
Thus, repeatedly differentiating (if possible) a given function f, we get the second, third.
fourth, ..... derivatives off. These are called the higher order derivatives off.
1
dny
If n is any positive integer, then the nthderivative off is denoted by f'"' or by - (read as
dxn
d n y by d x n) or bv v, or Dny.
Drawing Curves
Such equations involving the
derivativesare known as differential
equations.
.Recall (Unit I ) that
Note that in the notation f'"' the bracket is necessary to distinguish it from f", that is, f
raised to the power n.'~hisprocess of differentiating again and again, in succession, is
called successive differentiation.
We have already seen that there are functions f that are not differentiable. In other words
f' need not always exist. Similarly even when f' exists it is possible that f" does not exist
(see Example 3 near the end of this section). In general, for each positive integer n there
are functions f sbch that f'" exists, but f'""' does not exist. However, many functions that
we consider in these sections possess all higher derivatives.
A twice differentiable function is a function f such that f" exists. Let n be a positive
integer. A function f such that f'"' exists is called an n-times differentiable function. Iff'")
exists for every positive integer n, then f is said to be an infinitely differentiable function.
Now we give some simple examples of higher defivatives.
Example 1 If we are given that the third derivative of the function
f(x) = ax3 + bx + c has the value 6 at the point x = 1, can we find the value of a'!
Here, f(x) = ax3 + bx + c
Differentiating this we get
Differentiating this again, we get
ft'(x) = 6ax
Differentiating once again, we get
F3) (x) = 6a
Taking the value at x = 1,
P3)(I) = 6a
It is given that fO' (1) = 6. C
Thus 6a 2'6. Therefore a = 1.
+ +
Example 2 If y = 2 sin x 3 cos x 5, let us prove that y2 y = 5. +
+
HOW,y = 2 sin x 3 cos x f 5
yl = 2 cos x - 3 sin x y2 = - 2 sin x - 3 cos x
. y2+y=-2sinx-3cosx+2sinx+3cosx+5=5
The example below gives a function f for which f' exists but does not exist.
Example 3 Consider the function f(x) = x 1x1 for all x in, R.
The function f(x) can.be rewritten as
At points other than 0 we have
f'(x) = 2x if x > 0
f'(x) = - 2x if x < 0
At x = 0, the right derivative off,
the left derivative off,
Therefore ((0) = 0.
Thus, f'(x) = 2 1x1 for all x in R.
We have already seen in Ejtample 7, Unit 3 that the absolute value function 1x1 fails to be
A:FFa-s.r+;nC.ln nt CI T h ~ r o f n r nf' i c nn+rliffprentiahle a t x = 0. That is. ft2)(0)
does not exi- '
 Try some exercises before going any further. Higher Order'Derivatives

E E 1) Find the second derivatives of the following functions.

a) f(x) = x3 - 4
b) y = e2'

1 *
E "'
E 2) Find f ( s/4) for the following functions.
a) f(x) = sec x
+
b) f(x) = sin 2 x cos 2 x

E E 3) Prove that thekollowing functions satisfy the differential equations shown against
them.
a) y = sin x ; Y4 =Y
(b) y = c ~ xs ; (y212 + (yd2 = 1
I Drawing Curves
E E 4) Find the value of integer k in each of the following
a) f(x) = sin k x and f'*' ( r / 6 ) = 2 0
+
b) f(x) = xk+ kx2 1 and f'?' (1) = 12

6.3 nth ORDER DERIVATIVES

Let n be a natural number. We have already defined the nth derivative of a function in
Sec.2.
When a function f is given by a formula, it is often necessary to express its nthderivative
also by a formula using f and n. Usually, one can guess q"' after working out f"', f"' and
fI3'. However, a rigorous proof would require an application of the principle of
mathematical induction.
In the examples below we shall derive formulas for the nthderivative of various functions.
Study them carefully as we shall be using them in later sections.
But, first let us recall the principle of mathematical induction.
If (P,) is a sequence of propositions (sthtements) satisfying
i) PNis true (usually N = 1).
ii) The truth of P, implies the truth of P,+I,i 2 N.

then P, is true for all n 2 N.

We shall apply this principle in the examples that follow.
Example 4 We shall prove w e that the nthderivative of the plityntxnial function xmis
dnxm
- = (m(m - 1) .....(m - n + l ) x m - " , i f n Im,and
dyn 0, if n > m
Let us denote by P, the statement

dnxm
- = (m0, if(mn -> 1)m...... (m - n + 1) xm-"if n Im
dy"
Note that the product m (m - 1) ..... (m - n + 1) has n factors. When n = 1, only one
factor, namely, m is taken.
(
dxm
Thus P I - = mxm-'
dy
Suppose we have proved for some n that P, is true. This means that the nth derivative of
-
xmis

m (m - 1) ..... m (m - n + l):xm-" if n Im, and is

=I Oifn > m.
--
 +
Then the n lthderivative of xmis Higher Order Derivatives
= the derivative of the nthderivative of xm
+
m (m - 1) ..... (m - n 1) (m - n) xm-"-I if n <m When n = m, the n"' derivative is

I
= Oifn=m
Oifn>m.
constant, because xm " = x" = I;
+
therefore the (n 1)'"erivative is
zero.

Check that the conditions "n = m

I
orn>rn"and"n+ I 2 m " a r e
equivalent.

I
t
This means that the truth of P, implies the truth of P.+I. Therefore, by the principle of
mathematical induction, P, is true for all n L 1. Hence our result is true for all natural
numbers n.
I
1 Remark 1 When n = m, the nthderivative of xmis
If
I
+
= m (m - 1) .....(m - n 1) xm-"= m (m - 1) .,...3.2.1. This is the same as m!.
I I
Example 5 If f(x) = In (1 + x), let us find f'"' (x).
. 1
Differentiating f(x) = In (1 + x), we get f'(x) = -.
I
l+x
1
Differentiating again, f'2' (x) = -
+ x12 (1
2
Differentiating once again, f(3'(x) =
(1 + x)3
Can you guess f'"' (x) now? If you have guessed correctly, you must have arrived at these
conclusions.
i) The denominator off'"' (x) is (1 + x)".
ii) Its sigh is positive or negative according as n is odd or even.
iii) Its numerator has (n - l)! Do not think that it is merely (n - 1). There is a
factorial symbol too. To be convinced of this, calculate f'4' (x) and see.
(- I)"-' X (n - I,)!
Therefore our guess is fn'(x) = ..... (1)
(1 x)" +
This guess remains t o be proved. A proof is necessary because there could exist many
other formulas for f'"'(x) that coincide with the correct answer when n = 1 , 2 or 3. For
example, if we omit the factorial symbol, we get one such formula. But we have already
mentioned that this formula does not hold for f'4'(x). So, let's try to prove (1).
We first note that it is true for n = 1, 2 and 3 as we have seen in the beginning.
Assume that it is true for n = m, that is,

Differentiating this we get,

ffm+l'(x)= (- ~ ) ~ - l . ( -
m l)!
-m - (- I)"'-' (- 1) X m (m - l)!
(1 + x)"" +
(1 x)m"

- (- 1)"' (m)! -
- (- l)m+i-l(m 1 + - I)!
(1 + x)"" (1 + x)""
This proves the guess for n = m -f 1. Thus, assuming the truth of the formula (I) for
+
n = m, we arrive at the truth of this formula for n = m 1. Therefore by the principle of
mathematical induction, our suessed answer is correct for all positive integers n.
Thus, when f(x) = In (1 + x).
Drawing Curves E E 5) If y = (1 + x)', where r is a real number, find y, where n is a natural number
(n < r).

Example 6 If f(x) = cos 2x, let us use the principle of mathematical induction to find a
formula for f'"' (0).
We first find f'"' (x) when n = 1,2, 3,4.
We have f(x) = cos 2x.
Diffe~entiatingthis successively, we get
f'''(x) = - 2 sin 2x
f'='(x) = - 4 COS 2x
f'3)(x)= . 8 sin 2~
f ' 4 ) ( ~=) 16 cos 2~

We see that in the formula for f '"'(x), we have to have .

i) a sign (positive or negative),
ii) a coefficient (some power of 2), and
- iii) a trigonometric function (sin 2x or cos 2x)
We observe that the first two terms carry negative sign, the next two carry positive sign,
the next two negativeand so on.
We also observe that sin and cos occur alternately. Theretc..re our guess is
- 2" sin 2x if n is of the form 4k +1
- 2" cos 2x if n is of the form 4k 2
f ' n ) ( ~=
) ..... (2)
2" sin 2x if n is of the form 4k +3
2" cos 2x if n is of the form 4k
\
Real\ that We can also wrlte this in a compact form as
cos (B + r/2)= - sln 0
cos ( 1 T ) = - cos e
+
f'")(x) = 2" cos (2x n7r/2) ..... (3)
cos (b a/2)= sin 0 You can easily check that (2) and (3) are equivalent by putting n = 4k + 1,4k + 2,
u - d l I'1 A L :.. /l\1x7- -Lall ---..- Fn--..ln /l\
We have already seen that it is true for n = 1,2, 3 and 4. Suppose it is true for n = m, Higher Order Derivatives
that is,
+
f'"'(x) = 2" cos (2x mn/2). '3

Differentiating this we get,

( ~-
f ( m + ~ )= +
) y + l sin (2x m ~ / 2 ) + +
cos (Zx (m I ) n/2)
+
= cos (Zx mn/2 + n/2)
or, f("'+" (x) = 2"'+' cos [2x + (m + 1) n/2] - +
= sin (2x mn/2)

So here again we see that the truth of the formula (3) for n = m implies its truth for
n=m+l.
Therefore by the principle of mathematical induction, we see that the guessed,formula for
fIn'(x) is true for all natural numbers n.
Now substitute x = 0. We obtain
f'"'(0) = 2" cos n r / 2
This is the required answer.
We can also use this method to Drove a general result about the nth derivative of a s3m of
two functions.
Example 7 If fand g are two functions from R to R and if both of them are n-times
differentiable, we can prove that
(f + g)'"' = f'"' + g'n'.
We shall prove this result by induction.
+
When n = 1, this means (f g)' = f' g' +
This has already been proved in Unit 3.
+
Suppose (f g)'"' = f'"' +
g'"' is true.
Differentiating this we get
[(f + g)('n)]' = [f(") + g'"'l' = [f(""]' + [g("'y \

This is the same as

(f + g)(m+l)= f(m+l) + g ( m + l )
~ h u the +
s result is true for n = m 1. Therefore by the principle of mathematical
induction
+
(f g)'n' = f'"' +
g'"' holds for all natural numbers n.
..
Remark 3 Similarly one can prove that
(cf)'"' = c. f'"' holds for all natural numbers n and all scalars c. This fact combined with
Example 7 can be restated in the "linear algebra terminology" as :
The collection of n-times differentiate functions is a vector space under usual operations.
'
Try to solve these exercises now.
E 6) Find the nlh derivative of the following functions :
a) x-(f + b)'
b) f(x) = (ax + b)"
c) f(x) = ex
d) f(x) = ekx
Drawing Curves

E E 7) If f(x) = sin x, prove that f'"'(x) = sin [x + nn/2] holds for every natural number
n.

E +
E 8) If y = sin (ax b), prove that for every positive integer n, we have
+ +
y, = an sin [(nn/2) ax b]
E E 9) Prove that the n'h derivative of the polynomial hdction Higher Order Derivatives
+ + + +
f(x) = ao a ~ x azxZ ... a d is the constant function n! an.

E E 10)If y = cos x and if n is any positive integer, prove t6St

[ynlZ + [yn+112= 1.

6.4 LEIBNIZ THEOREM

In Unit 3 we have proved some rules regarding the derivatives of the sum, scalar multiple,
product and quotient of two differentiable functions. These were
+
(f g)' = f' g' +
(cf )' = cf'
+
(fg)' = fg' gf'
gf' - f i
(f/g)' = (g(x) # 0 anywher- in the domain)
g2
In the last section we have seen (Example 7 and Remark 3) that the first two rules can be
extended to the nthderivatives iff and g are n-times differentiable functions. In this section
we are going to extend the product rule of differentiation. We shall give a formula for the
nth derivative of the product of two functions.
The product rule for two functidns u and v can also be written as u, dQlotu tbe # order
+
(uv), = U l V uv, derivatl"~of u.
Now we look for a similar formula for (uv)z, (uv),, etc.
' and r In. This
But first let us recall the meaning of the notation C(n,rJ, where n and r E 2
C(n,r) stands for the number of ways of choosing r objects from n objects. Sometimes it is
. . .. n- ,". .
 Drawing Curves Also recall the formulas
n!
i) C(n,r) =
I
r! (n - r)!
ii) C(n,O) = C(n,n) = 1
iii) C(n,r) = C(n,n - r)
iv) C(n,r) + C(n,r + 1) = C(n + 1, r + 1)
I
These are combinatorial identities, true for all positive integers r and n with r In.
I
Theorem 1 (Leibniz Theorem) Let n be a positive integer. If u and v are n times
differentiable functions, then
(uv), = C(n,O) u.v + + + +
C(n,l) U,-IVI C(n,2) u.-~vz ..., C(n,n) uv,
1 Leibniz had stated this result in his +
The pattern in the formula for (uv), can be compared with the expansion of (X y)". The
first article on differential calculus coefficients are binomial coefficients and they appear in the same order as those in the
I

I
...h:-' -.v nublishr$ ;q 1684. +
expansion of (x y)". The order of the derivative of u goes on decreasing one at a time,
and the order of the derivative of v goes on increasing one at a time. The number of terms
i s n + 1.

Remark 4 We omit the proof of this theorem and merely indicate how this can be pfoved
by induction on n. Firstly, when n = 1, the above formula is the same as the already
known product formula, and therefore is true. Assuming that it is true for n = m, we can
prove it for n = m +
1, by applying the product rule for each term of the expansion of
(uv), and by using the combinatorial identities mentioned. (See E 17) for more details.
We start with a simple and direct application of the formula.

Example 8 If f(x) = x sin x, let us find the fourth derivative of f, using Leibniz Theorem.
We first observe that for n = 4, the Leibniz Theorem states
+ +
( u . v ) ~= C(4,O) U ~ V+ C(4,l) U ~ V I C(4,2) ~ 2 ~ C(4,3)
2 u1v3 + C(4,4) UV4
+ + + +
= U ~ V 4 ~ 3 ~ 6 ~1 2 ~ 4 U2 I V ~ U V ~ .

In this problem we take u = x and v = sin x, so that f = uv

We have u = x v = sin x
UI = 1 v1 = COS X
u2 = 0 = u3 = u4 v2 = - sin x
v3= - c o s x ,

v4 = sin x

Substituiing these in the above formula, we get

f'4' = ( u v ) ~ + + + 4 (-
=0 0 0 cos X) + 1.x.sin x
= x sin x - 4 cos x
What happens if we attack the same problem directly without the use of Leibniz
Theorem? We have
f(x) = x sin x
Differentiating this, we get
+
f'(x) = x cos x sin x (by product rule)
Differentiating once again, we get
+
fO'(x)= x (- sin x) 1 cos x cos x +
=2~0sx-xsinx
Differentiating once again, we get
+
f'"(x) = - 2 sin x - (x cos x sin x)
= - 3 sin x - x cos x
Differentiating once again,
+
f'4'(~)= - 3 cos x - [x (- sin x) cos x]
=rcinr -4rncr
I w e notice that we obtain the same answer. In this direct method, we had to apply the
product formula four times, once for each differentiation.
It is clear that when we want the nthderivative for bigger values of n, Leibniz theorem
provides an easier method to write down the answer, avoiding the dificulty of repeatedly
applying the product formula.
Higher Order Derivatives

Example 9 If y = (sin-'x)', prove that

(1 - x2) yn+2- (2n + 1) xyn+1- nZy, = 0 for each positive integer n.
Differentiating both sides of y = sin-'^)^, we get
2 sin-'x
Y' = ,/g
Squaring and crossmultiplying we get
(1 - x2) y 1 2 ="4 sin-'^)^ = 4y
I Differentiating once again, we get
2 (1 - x2) y,y, - 2xyi2 - 4 y, = 0
Dividing throughout by 2 y I gives us
(1 - x )2 y 2 - x y l - 2 = 0
i Differentiating n times, using Leibniz Theorem for each of the first two terms we get
- {xyn+l+ C(n,l) yn) = 0
I

b
(1 - x2) yn+2 - C(n,l) ~xY,, - C(n,2) 2 y.
L
That is,
t ) - (2n -I-1) X Y ~ + I- nZyn= 0
-(I - M ~yn+2
The following exercises will give you some practice in applying Leibniz Theorem;

E E 11)State Leibniz Theorem when n = 5. That is,

(u.vJ5 = ? --

E E 12)Prove that when n = 1, Leibniz Theorem reduces to the product rule of

differentiation.

$11 E
E 13)Find the third derivative of sin'x using Leibniz Theorem. Find the same dlrectly also

I
.it

?$jj and verify that you obtain the same answer.

...
y.I
-<!:
* ,c

..r ~, .,
8

. .
El E 14)If f(x) = x ex,find the sixth derivative of f, using Leibniz formula.

E E 1S)Find the nthderivative x31nx

E E 16)If y = eaxxaprove that

+
y'") = ea" [anx2 2 nan-'x + n(n - 1) a"-']
E E 17)a) Write down Leibniz formula for (u.v), ~ i ~ h Order
e r Derivatives

b) Differentiate it term by term and obtain

(uv),+I = C(m,O) u,+lv + C(m,l) (u,vl + urn-IVZ)+ ..... + C(m,m) uv,+~.
c) Deduce that
( u v ) ~ +=
I C(m,O) u,+lv + +
[C(m,O) C(m,l)] u,vl [C(m,l) + +
+ + +
C(m,2)] urn-lvz ..... [C(m,m - 1) C(m,m:)] u ~ v , C(m,m) + UV,+I.

d) Deduce from (c) the Leibniz formula for (uv),+~.

E E 18) Using Leibniz Theorem and induction, prove that

(xn)'"' = n! for all natural numbers n.

6.5 TAYLOR'S SERIES AND MACLAURIN'S SERIES .

In this section we obtain series expansions for many important functions. For this, we use
higher derivatives.
You must have come across the following series :
i) Exponential Series :

ii) I .ogarithinic Series :

Drawing Curves iii) Ge0metri.c Series :

iv) ~inomial'series:
..
(1 + x)'= 1 + rx + r(r - 1) x2 + ..... provided 1x1 < 1
We observe that each of them is of the form
f(x) = a. + + + +
+ a, x + a2x2 a3x3 ..... a.xn ....,where 80, al, a2, ....,an,.... are
some constants.
We ask ourselves the questions; Is there anything else common to these four examples? Is
it possible to express a,a,, ..., a,, ... in terms of the function f? Our answer is : Yes. In all
these examples,

In other words, the series is d the form

Brook Taylor (1685-173 1) and
Colin Maclaurin ( 1698- 1746) were
both disciples of Newton, Taylor
first published his series in a paper
in 1715. Maclaurin used Taylor's
series as a fundamental tool in his
work on calculus,
We shall prove this for the above four instances, in the examples worked out below. This
expansion is called Taylor's series for f around zero. It is also known as Maclaurin's
series for f. The name "Taylor's Series for f around zero" suggests that there may be a
Taylor's series for f around xo(xo # 0). But in this course we shall restrict ourselves d l y to
the series around zero. This series expansion makes sense only when f is infinitely
differentiable at zero. It is valid for many important functions (though not for all functions).
You will learn more about the validity of these series in the course on real analysis. In this
section, you should train yourselves to write down ~aclaurin'sseries for many functions.
We have said above that the function f should be infinitely differentiable, that is, it should
have derivatives of all orders. How do we check this condition? or
some functions it is not
difficult. For example, we have
dn nlr dn n' l ~
dxn
+
- (sin x) = sin (x - - (cos x) = cos (x - )'
2 dxn 2
+

dn
- (coshx)
dxn
= - (ex :) e-x = y1 [ex + (- l)ne-x]

- Icos hx, if n is even

(sin hx, if n is odd -

In these cases, we can say that the derivatives of all orders exist for all values of x and we
can confidently use Taylor's series.
 ~ p f 10e Let us verify that the known series expansion of ex is the same as its
Maclaurin's series.
Maclaurin's series for ex is

Where f(x) = ex
NOW.f(0) = eO= 1
~ l s o((x)
, = e". ((0) = 1.
In fact, we know that f'"'(x) = ex for all natural numbers n, which means f'"'(0) = e0 = 1
for all natural numbers n. Substituting these values of f(O), ((o), ....., f'"'(0) in Maclaurin's
series we get

which is the known expansion for ex.

Exsmple 11 Obtain Taylor's series for In (1 + x) around zero. Let f(x) = In (1 + x)
Then we have already seen in Example 5, that
(n - I)!
f ( y x ) = (- I)"-'
(1 x)" +
Therefore, f'"'(0) = ( - 1)"-' (n - I)!
--
.. f'"'(0) - (- l)"-l
n! n
Therefore ~ a ~ l o rseries
' s around zero is

We note that this is the same as the already known logarithmic series.
Example 12 Now let us write down Maclaurin's series (or Taylor's series around zero) for
l / ( l - x).
1 1
Let f(x) = l-x . Then f(0) = 1 - 0 = 1-

We can prove by induction that

n!
f(n)X = and therefore f'"'(0) = n!
(1 - x)"+~
l'herefore Maclaurin's series is

i Note that this agrees with what we already know, namely that the sum of the geometric
i + + + +
wries 1 x + xZ ..... xn ..... is 1/(1 - x).
k
t
Exrunple 13 Suppose we want to wnte down Taylor's series for (1 + x)' around zero,
where r is a fued real number.
Let f(%) = (1+ .')x Then f(0) = 1
f'(x)= r (1 + x)" ;((0) = r
f'?(x) = r(r - 1) (1 t x)" ;f"'(0) = r (r - 1)
Drawing Curves We can prove by induction that

Therefore Taylor's series around zero is

Note : This is the same as the binomial series that we already know. This expansion is
valid only when I x 1 < 1. The reason for this will be clear when you study the course
"Real Analysis". When r = - 1, this bihomial series becomes

Note that Example 12 follows from this on replacing x by - x throughout.

So far we have seen that the four known series occur as Taylor's series. In the next two
examples, we find that we can write down similar series even for functions like sin x and
COS X.

Example 14 Let us write down Maclaurin's series for the function sin x.
Let f(x) = sin x. Then we have already seen in E 7)
0 if n is even
1 if n is divisible by 4
- 1 otherwise

nr
f(n)
(01
-
- sin -5-
We see that, as n varies over 0, 1,2, 3, 4, $ 6 , 7 ....,
f'"'(0) takes the values 0, 1,0, - 1,O. 1, 0, - 1, .....
Therefore Maclaurin's series for sin x is
1 0 (- 1) 0
+
sin x = 0 - x - x2 -x3 + + +- x4 + --...
I! 2! 3! 4!

Example 15 To find Taylor's series for cos 2x around zero, let us write f(x) = cos 2x. We
have already seen in Example 6 that

Therefore, Taylor's series around zero is

Example 16 Suppose we want to

a) write down the first four terms of Maclaurin's series for tan x.
b) write down the first three non zero terms of this series.
Let f(x) = tan x. Then f(0) = 0
f8(x) = sec2 x, ((0) = 1
f"(x) = 2 sec2 x tan x, ('(0) = 0
+
f'3' (x) = 2 sec4x 4 sec2 x tan2 x
= 2 sec2 x (sec2x 2 tan2 x) +
~ " ( 0 )= 2 (1 0) = 2 +
 Therefore the first four terms of Maclaurin's series for tan x are given by Higher Order Derivatives

Hence Maclaurin's series for tan K is

x
+ 3 + ""'

Now, we want the next non-zero term.

We have f ( 4 ' ( ~=
) 16 sec4 x tan x + 8 sec2x tan3 x and
f ( 4 ) ( ~=) 0.
~ e xf("(x)
t +
= 16 sec6 x 64 sec4 x tan2 x + 24 sec4x tan2 x + 16 sec2x tan4 x
This means f'"(0) = 16.
Thus we have
2~~
+%+
x3
tanx=x+-
3
Example 17 If in Maclaurin's series for sin kx, the coefficient of x3 is given to be - 6 k,
let us find all possible values of k.
Maclaurin s~riesfor sin kx is given by
kx k3x3
sin kx = - - -
l! 3!
+....., since f (x) = k cos kx
f(*)(x)= - k2 sin kx
f ' 3 ) ( ~=) - k3 cos kx, where f(x) = sin kx

The coefficient of x3 is - (k3/6)

Therefore - (k3/6) = - 6k
This gives the equation k (k2 - 36) = 0
The roots are k = 0 , 6 or - 6.
Thris, 0, 6 and - 6 are all the possible values of k such that the coefficient of x3 in
Maclaurin's series for sin kx is - 6k.

E E 19)Write down Maclaurin's series for the following:

1

c) cos X
d) 1/(1-2x)
Drawing Curves

I:,
I"
E E 20) Write down the first three non-zero terms in Maclaurin's series of tbe following.
a) sin 3 x
I
b) In (1 - x) 1,

--

E E 21)Find the coefficient of x9 in Maclaurin's series for the functions.

a) cos 2 x

b) sin x
( + -1)
I E E 22)If Maclaurin's series for sin x is differentiated term by term, do you get Maclaurin's
series for cos x?
Higher Order Derivatives

E E 23)If Maclaurin's series for ex is differentiated term by term, we get the same series
again. Prove this.

E +
E 24)Consider the function y = a tan-' bx where a and b are fixed real numbers. We
+
are given that its Taylor's series around zero is 2 3 x - 9 x3 ...+
Find the values of a and b.
Drawing Curves E E 25)Find the coefficient of x3 in Taylor's series around zero for the function sin-' x.

Some General Remarks o n Taylor's and Maclaurin's Series

Though we have obtained infinite series for many functions, it is necessary to give a note
of caution. These infinite series need not be valid for all values of x, and as such, these
have to be used with care. In the course on real analysis,you will be able to study the
conditions under which these series are valid.

6.6 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have

1) introduced higher order derivatives,
2) derived a formula (Leibniz's Theorem) for the nthderivative ui a product of two
functions.
+ +
(Uv), = C(n, 0) u, v C(n, 1) u,-I V I C(n, 2) un-2 VI + +
..... C(n, n) u v,.
3) written Taylor's series around zero/Maclaurin's series of a number of functions by
using the formula

6.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

E 3) a) y = sin x =3 y4 = sin x = y
b) y = cos x *
yl = - sin x, y2 = - cos x, y3 = sin x
* + +
(y2)2 (y3)2= cos2 x sin2 x = 1.

E 4) a) f(x) = sin kx * f ' 2 ' ( ~=) - k2 sin kx

k Z 0, since 3 f1"(7r/6) = - k2sin k7r/6
k-0 *0=2fi
which is impossible.
Now, - k2 sin kn/6 = 2 6 *
sin k n/6 = - 2 6 / k 2
Since - 1 < sin k 7r/6 < 0, - T < k 7r/6 < 0
=3 k = - l o r - 2
Out of these, k = - 2 is the value which satisfies sin k 7r/6 = - 2 f i / k 2
 3! a"
6 , a) - (3 - n)!
-
(ax + b)3-n;n 5 3 Higher Order Derivatives

m! a"
b, -( (m - n)!
(ax + b)"-" if n Im

E 7) f(x) = sin x => f (x) = cos x, f" (x) = - sin x, cos x if n = 4 k + 1

-sin x if n = 4 k + 2
fI3'(x) = - cos X,f ' 4 ' ( ~=
) sin x and so on. So Our guess is that pP"'(x)= -cos x if n = 4k + 3
Now use tho principle of mathematical induction to prove that P)(x) = sin I sin x i f n = 4k
(x + "x ) as in Example 6.
2
E 10)y = cos x S y~ = - sin x, y2 = - cos x, y3 = sin x, y4 = cos x and so on.
+
y, = cos (x n.rr/2)
:t +yn+l= - sin(x
A
+
nn-/2)
if yn2 +
y.+12 + + +
= cos2 (X n ~ / 2 ) sin2(x n?r/2) = 1.

E 12)(u v)l = ul v +u VI which is the product rule of differentiation.

d3(sin2x)
dx3
d3
-
= --J (sin x. sin x) - cos x sin x - 3 sin x cos x
dx
- 3 sin x cos x - cos x sin x = - 8 sin x cos x
d
-(sin2x) = 2 sin x cos x
dx
d2
a - (sin2x) = 2(cos2 x - sin2 X)
dx2
d3
=+- - (sin2x) = - 8 sin x cos x
dx3

(- iln+lx3
E 15)
xn
[(n - l)! - 3 C(n, 1) (n - 2)! + 6C(n, 2) (n - 3)!

E 24) We take that tan-' bx a!w$ys takes values between -~ 2 +/2. Then, a = 2,
/ and
b=3