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deriving meaning (reading comprehension). It is the mastery of basic cognitive processes to the
point where they are automatic so that attention is freed for the analysis of meaning.
Reading is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and
ideas. Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is
shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is
culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires continuous practices, development,
and refinement.
Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into
sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use morpheme,
semantics, syntax and context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers
integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema
(schemata theory).
Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or
pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the
visual notations.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Overview
• 2 Reading skills
○ 2.1 Skill development
○ 2.2 Methods
• 3 Assessment
○ 3.1 Reading rate
○ 3.2 Types of tests
• 4 Effects
○ 4.1 Lighting
• 5 History
• 6 See also
• 7 References
○ 7.1 Notes
○ 7.2 Bibliography
• 8 Further reading
• 9 External links
[edit] Overview
Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink or toner on paper, such as in a logo
of a reading book book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook, or of electronic displays,
such as computer displays, television, mobile phones or ereaders. Handwritten text may also be
produced using a graphite pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written or painted on an object.
Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging,
or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced
by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes
referred to as environmental print.
Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images
can be carved in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing
of a home appliance, or a myriad of other examples.
A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on
colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a
suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, not having to scroll horizontally is important.
The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words.[1][2][3] A key
technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is
performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to
fixate on every word in a text, but instead fixate to some words while apparently filling in the
missing information using context. This is possible because human languages show certain
linguistic regularities.[citation needed]
The process of recording information to be read later is writing. In the case of computer and
microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans, reading is
usually faster and easier than writing.
Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for
the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a
form of intrapersonal communication. Reading to young children is a recommended way to
instill language and expression, and to promote comprehension of text. Before the reintroduction
of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather
remarkable. See Alberto Manguel (1996) A History of Reading. New York: Viking. The relevant
chapter (2) is posted online here.
[edit] Reading skills
Main article: Reading skills acquisition
Literacy is the ability to use the symbols of a writing system. To be able to interpret the
information symbols represent, and to be able to re-create those same symbols so that others can
derive the same meaning. Illiteracy is not having the ability to derive meaning from the symbols
used in a writing system.
Dyslexia refers to a cognitive difficulty with reading and writing. The term dyslexia can refer to
two disorders: developmental dyslexia which is a learning disability; alexia or acquired dyslexia
refers to reading difficulties that occur following brain damage.
Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and nonalphabetic scripts are
phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.[4]
[edit] Skill development
Both the Lexical and the Sub-lexical cognitive processes contribute to how we learn to read.
Sub-lexical reading
Sub-lexical reading,[5][6][7][8] involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of
characters with sounds or by using Phonics learning and teaching methodology. Sometimes
argued to be in competition with whole language methods.
Lexical reading
Lexical reading[5][6][7][8] involves acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters or
groups of characters that compose them or by using Whole language learning and teaching
methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with phonics methods, and that the whole
language approach tends to impair learning how to spell.
Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat
controversial.[9]
Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than
learning to read a native language in childhood.
There are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught.[10] Such was
the case with Truman Capote who reportedly taught himself to read and write at the age of five.
There are also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by comparing street signs or
Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six
during a transatlantic crossing by studying a book about boats.[citation needed]
[edit] Methods
Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate text. Very little is
actually seen accurately. It is necessary to understand visual perception and eye movement in
order to understand the reading process.[11]
There are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each,
for different kinds of material and purposes:
• Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if
spoken. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and
comprehension, but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts.[12]
[13]
ading process
by Leah B. Walter
Kenneth A. Boothe
Introduction
Many people have tried to understand and define the reading process. Over the years,
theoretical assumptions regarding the reading process have varied greatly.
Nevertheless, “definitions of reading are generally divided into two major types: a) those
that equate reading with interpretation of experience generally,... and b) those that
restrict the definition to the interpretation of graphic symbols.” (Dechant 1991)
Benefits
• material production
• teaching, and
• training teachers.
“The most successful reading instruction is that which is based on a solid understanding
of the reading process itself, and which promotes...the acquisitions of good reading
strategies.” (Weaver, C. 1980).
Definitions
Here are some definitions and characterizations of the reading process by those
working in the reading field:
Controversy, where it exists, now focuses more on the reading process than on the
outcome.
Discussion
“The essential skill in reading is getting meaning from a printed or written message.”
(Carroll 1985). Reading specialists would generally agree that that reading skill includes
the following components (Carroll 1985):
See also
Sources
• Adams 1990
• Barr, Sadow, and Blachowicz 1990
• Carroll 1985
• Dechant 1991
• Flesch 1955
• Goodman, K. 1981
• Harste 1978
• Klein, Peterson, and Simington 1991
• Weaver, C. 1980
Reading Process
Content
• Wiki
• Stage 1
• Stage 2
• Stage 3
“Reading is an interactive, problem-solving process of making meaning from texts.”
Literacy for Learning, The Report of the Expert Panel on Literacy in Grades 4 to 6 in Ontario, p.
61.
Reading is a complex interaction between the text, the reader and the purposes for reading,
which are shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge and experiences, the reader’s knowledge about
reading and writing language and the reader’s language community which is culturally and
socially situated.
The reading process involves 5 stages:
• Prereading
• Reading
• Responding
• Exploring
• Applying
Throughout the reading process readers use a variety of strategies, sometimes multiple strategies
at once, to help them make meaning from a text. (Interview with Lynn Marsden).
Reading Strategies
• Activating prior knowledge
• Predicting
• Visualizing
• Questioning
• Drawing inferences
• Finding important/main ideas
• Summarizing
• Synthesizing
• Monitoring comprehension
• Evaluating
Stage 1: Prereading
Pre-Reading Strategies Include:
• Activating Background Knowledge
• Setting purposes for reading
• Making predictions and previewing a book
• Going on a Picture Walk
• Making a KWL map
• Questioning and making predictions about a story
Stage 2: Reading – Responding and Exploring
There are a variety of ways to engage students in the reading process. A balanced approach
provides the necessary teacher support for reading.
• Modeled reading (reading aloud to students)
• Shared reading
• Guided reading
• Independent reading
During reading a number of strategies are used to help students develop comprehension skills.
By way of example, view the guided reading video clips and observe how a variety of strategies
are employed at various stages of the reading process by both the teacher and student.
Making Connections
Students relate to what they read by making connections to their own lives, to other texts they
have read and to the things or events that occur in the world. They compare themselves with the
characters in the text and recall similar situations or experiences.
Encouraging students to make connections helps the reader to stay engaged and to see the
connections between reading and everyday life. Capable readers use previous personal
experiences, prior knowledge, and opinions to make sense of what they have read. Capable
readers make text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world connections. In the guided reading clip,
the child makes text-to-self and text-to-text connections. Notice that the teacher prompts her to
make connections at certain points, but the child also offers connections without being prompted.
To encourage students to make connections you can provide them with some prompts:
• “This reminds of the time that …”
• “I had a similar experience …
• “I remember when…”
Predicting
Making predictions or “best guesses” about what will happen in a text is an important literacy
strategy and skill. Students’ predictions are based on their prior knowledge and experiences
about the topic, the genre, and what has happened so far in the text (using both the print text and
illustrations). Having students make predictions engages them in the reading task and encourages
them to become active participants in the learning.
Ask the learner to make predictions at the following points:
• Before reading:
○ Examine the cover illustration and read the title of the book. Ask the student to
predict what it might be about based on the cover illustration, the title, or both.
Sometimes the cover is not very helpful in giving students clues about what the
story might be about so you may have to provide a brief summary of the book.
○ You might say: “Look at the picture on the book and read the title. What do you
think this book is about?”
• During reading:
○ Students make predictions at
several key points throughout the
text and as they read, they confirm
or revise their predictions. In the
guided reading clip, the teacher
uses post-it notes to mark places
in the text where the student might
make a prediction.
○ You might say: “What do you
think [main character] is going to
do?”
• After reading:
○ The student compares the predictions to what the text says. Students can record
their predictions on a chart as they read and they can see how accurate they were
when they finish reading.
Synthesizing
Readers synthesize by summarizing information
into key points and combining their ideas into a
main idea. Synthesizing helps the reader to make
generalizations and develop opinions and to
integrate new information with prior knowledge.
Readers need to be encouraged to stop and reflect
on what they have read, to identify and select and
summarize important information and to merge
new information with existing knowledge to gain
new insight. Being able to summarize is very
important because big ideas are easier to
remember than a lot of small details.
In the guided reading clip, the teacher provides
the child with an opportunity to summarize the main idea of the story.
Stage 3: Post-Reading – Applying
Strategies Include:
• Story retelling all or part of a story
• Discussing favorite parts or elements of a story
• Answering questions
• Comparing to another book
• Writing new ending
• Drawing a picture about the story
• Playing a game related to the story
• Creating a radio play or other kind of performance
ALL grade levels can have similar charts in student/grade-level friendly language. That the
purpose of developing a common language or strategy that is used across the district. Strategies
do not change as students change grade levels - the material becomes more complex.
2. Picture: Form images. For good readers, the words and the ideas on the
page trigger mental images that relate directly or indirectly to the material.
Images are like movies in your head, and they increase your understanding of
what you read.
Learning to read literature is a matter of learning how to work through the process of
reading, to go beyond the questions raised during a first reading and begin to see the
complex patterns and interpretive gaps which make literature creative art. Different
cognitive processes are engaged as the reader reads more and more closely, and it is
these which are addressed here, linked to the kinds of questions that a reader
explores at each stage of the reading process.
First Reading
Questions for First Reading of Poetry, Fiction
Emotional Experience = Reading "through" the work
Linear, sequential, emotional, subjective, uncritical, superficial, selective.
• Reading for pleasure
• Reading to experience a semblance of reality (naturalization)
• Responding to "events," "people," "characters"
• Reading for recognition
• Reading through identification, absorption
• Reading "over" frustrating gaps, questions
Re-Reading(s)
Poetry, Fiction
Imaginative Experience = Reading "into" the work for discovery, problem-solving
Holistic, interactive, questioning, recreative, cultural
• Reading to connect, fill in gaps
• Asking questions
• Inferring motivations and predicting outcomes
• Arriving at conclusions
• Reading for "otherness" as well as self-discovery
• Connecting text with other texts, experiences
Critical/Analytic Reading(s)
A mental picture is constructed by the reader during the reading of the text. A key concern
during reading is to recognize what to do when the mental picture breaks down. The goal for a
mature reader is to recognize there is a problem, diagnose it, and use decoding and
comprehension strategies to correct it. In this monitoring during reading, students should have
strategies to help them when they encounter decoding or comprehension problems. Research and
literature on the teaching of reading often refer to these as “fix-up strategies.”
It is important that students learn fix-up strategies that include things to do to help themselves
and knowing when and how to ask for help when helping themselves isn’t working. Examples of
appropriate times to ask for help from another student or the teacher can be discussed (such as
when they cannot decode a word, or when they do not understand a vocabulary word or a portion
of text even after trying some strategies independently).
A key skill in developing independence through during reading activities is learning to ask
oneself appropriate questions. Questions might include: “Does this make sense?” “What sound
does it start with?” “Can the picture help me understand?” “I have tried a few things, and I still
don’t know what this says.” “What else can I do to help myself?” “Is it time to ask for help?”
“How else can I get help?” Effective questioning strategies are best learned through teacher
modeling.
Decode for Meaning: Though students may not recognize all the words, they can try
to figure them out in the following ways:
These strategies, as described by reading specialists E. Sutton Flynt and Robert B. Cooter, Jr. are
as follows:
Stages of the Reading Process #1: Making Early Connections – Describing Pictures
In the first of the stages of the reading process, the child is unable to read stories. Instead, he is at
the stage where he can describe pictures, but is unable to make much of a story by looking at the
pictures.
Hopefully, a child who is in elementary school has already progressed beyond the first of the
stages of the reading process. But, there are some children who have not moved beyond this
stage by the time they are in elementary school. This is particularly true of special needs
children.
The characteristics of a child in the first of the stages of the reading process include:
If you have taken a reading inventory, as discussed in Testing First Grade Reading Skills, then
you should have an idea of the type of miscues, if any, your child makes.
If your child makes guess at words, but the words don’t make sense, or if your child skips words
altogether, he is likely still in reading stage 5.
If, however, your child makes guesses at words and the guessed word starts with the same letter
as the missed word and the guessed word makes sense within the context, then he is in reading
stage 6.
If your child makes miscues, but recognizes his own mistakes and corrects them, then he is in
reading stage 7. If your child is at this stage, it is time to move him on to more difficult reading
material.
Understanding which of the stages of the reading process your child is at is key to helping him
become a better reader and advance to the next reading stage.