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Visualizing
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Information
an Introduction to Information Design
for Advocacy
An Introduction to Information Design
This manual offers an introduction to
information design. It is intended to provide
Contents
NGOs with a useful and powerful tool for
advocacy and research. 1 Introduction
Thanks to Caroline Kraabel, as well as Colleen 14 Information Design for Consumer Education
Macklin, Jane Pirone and Jesus Farcierth of
Parsons the New School for Design for their 15 Information Design for Strategy
comments and help.
20 How to Begin
Sponsored by the Open Society Institute
Information Program.
21 Planning Your Information Design
The politics of spectrum
Printed in India, January 2008. Kf_\cgle[\ijkXe[_fnjg\ZkildcfYYp`e^nfibj#
_\i\ËjXeXeXcf^pn`k_]\[\iXccXe[^iXekj1 24 Assessing Your Data
2 3
Introduction
Just Vision tells the stories of Palestinians and Isaelis working together for peace. Instead How do you tell your story effectively?
»
of presenting a single account of the history of the conflict, the site hosts a collaborative,
subjective timeline composed of personal recollections. See http://justvision.org
How can NGOs make their messages as attractive
A project of Greenpeace, Exxon Secrets charts funding by the Exxon Foundation to
and compelling as other, competing, information?
»
institutions and individual “climate change skeptics” working to undermine solutions to global
warming and climate change. The interface makes it easy to visualize and navigate the research.
See http://exxonsecrets.org By using information design.
4 1
Middle East Crisis: Who backs an immediate cease-fire?
=IW Kofi Annan, speaking for the United Nations, said yesterday, “The collective punishment of the
Lebanese people must stop. What is urgently needed is the immediate cessation of hostilities.” 2S Margaret Beckett, Foreign Secretary, addressing the Cabinet yesterday, said:
“What people are really saying is they want a ceasfire with rockets still going into Israel.”
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This editorial information graphic ran on the cover of the Belfast Telegraph in July 2006. At a glance, it effectively shows the stark contrast between the majority and the minority —
It dramatically illustrates the world reaction to the Israeli bombing of Lebanon. and invites examination of the relationships between the countries in the minority.
2 3
What is Information Design? Information Design Tells a Story
Information design It can help illustrate complexity, Information design tells a Information design is about making
showing relationships between ideas your data:
uses pictures, symbols, or actors, or providing a snapshot of
story with pictures.
colors, and words to changing systems. Clear
It can tell “how many?” “when?” or
communicate ideas, “where?” It can show trends over It makes complex information easier
illustrate information or It takes many forms and appears in
time, compare elements or reveal to understand.
many media. Some familiar forms
express relationships include charts, graphs, maps,
hidden patterns.
visually. diagrams or timelines. These can
Compelling
Information design brings form and Visuals grab people’s attention.
be big or small, simple or complex,
structure to information.
Effective design is not just a matter published in print or electronic
of making text pretty or entertaining, media.
It is not the same as graphic
Convincing
but of shaping understanding and People who might not be persuaded
design, nor is it only about making
clarifying meaning. Information design can help you by raw numbers or statistics may be
something aesthetically pleasing.
present your information in a clear more likely to understand and believe
It’s not about branding, style, making
Information design adds seeing to and compelling way, persuasively what they see in a chart or graphic.
a glossy product or something that
reading to make complex data easier convey facts or ideas or discover
looks “corporate.”
to understand and to use. something new in your data.
PUSIC
Popular Force for
Democracy in Congo relationships, trade, to a failure of mandatory
Party for Unity and Safeguarding ( Alur / Lugbara )
Please note that alliances change frequently. This is accurate as of May 2003.
political groups in
Ituri.
4 5
The Highline is an abandoned
elevated-train railway which
runs along the edge of New York
City. The railway was neglected
for decades and was slated
for demolition when a coalition
formed a campaign to save the
unique structure and convert
it into an innovative, elevated
public park.
Here are just a few ways you can use information design:
Make a Plan
• Analyze relationships of power The 2004 Global Witness report on
• Illustrate social networks corruption and extortion affecting
• Find out where your issue has the most impact Cambodia’s forest sector, entitled Taking
• Project future trends a Cut, uses two different types of graphics
to provide an overview of individuals with
command responsibility and personal
Make Information Visible relationships with illegal logging syndicates.
• Show influence and causality The chart above illustrates specific
«
• Illustrate the consequences of specific choices relationships between individuals. » The list
• Compare and contrast view presents the officials in order by rank
from the National Government to the Military
to the local police and local Government. Six
Simplify and Clarify
months after being implicated in the report,
• Illustrate analysis of an abstract idea the World Bank announced an investigation
• Show the flow of a process or changing system of its Forest Concession Management and
• Make your conclusions visible and easy to navigate Control Pilot Project in Cambodia.
• Show structure and order in apparently chaotic data
Download the complete report at
http://globalwitness.org
Images © Global Witness, Taking a Cut, 2004
8 9
Information Design for Advocacy Information Design for Analysis
In a campaigning context, information design can transform raw data into a Information design can be integrated into the research process by
powerful advocacy tool to motivate an outcome. illuminating data visually, or providing a neutral platform with which to
identify trends or targets.
Graphics can tell your story in a compelling, immediate and powerful way
to move your intended audience. Information design can simplify and Translating data into a visual format may help reveal patterns that might not
summarize a complex story — and add impact. otherwise be apparent. Representing data visually on a chart or graph can
reveal wider trends and unexpected clusters around specific demographics,
Information design should be considered within your overall strategy for geographies or time-periods.
achieving policy change or increasing awareness. When and how you use
information design will depend on the information you want to convey and the Using information design to examine larger networks and systems can
context in which you work. complement and provide context to individual case studies and testimonies.
12 Costs to the smoker CYAN MAGENTA YELLOW BL CK A
SWEDEN
EN
FINLAND
NLAND
The cost of smoking
Cost of a pack of 20 Marlboro cigarettes or an equivalent
international brand 2003-05
Mapping Poverty in New York City
NORWAY
ESTONIA
STONIA
TONIA
ONIA
selected countries US$
RUSSIAN
From a case study produced by the Community Mapping Assistance Project (CMAP):
DENMARK
NMARK
ARRK
away not just health but wealth.” RRUSSIAN
SSIAN FED.
S
CZECH
CH UKRAINE
mokers waste vast amounts of LUX.
REP. SLOVAKIA
OVAKIA
AKIA
AK
MOLDOVA
OLDOVA
REP.
AUSTRIA HUNGARYY RUSSIAN
money on their tobacco FRANCE SWITZ.
SWITZ.
Z
Z. SLOVENIA
LOVENIA
OVENIA
NIA ROMANIA $2 – $2.99
FEDERATION
SSERBIAA &
addiction that could otherwise be C A N A D A CROATIA
ROATIA
TIA MONTENEGRO
EGRO BULGARIA
20 imported cigarettes cost
“[The Robin Hood Foundation] used CMAP’s expertise
ARIA
ITALYY
invested in productive economic PORTUGAL
GAL SPAIN more than half average daily
activity or used to obtain food, G ECE
GREECE income
clothes and education. In poverty-
with Census data to identify which of many possible
KAZAKHSTAN
MALTA
stricken households where a large U S A
proportion of the household income GEORGIA
GIAA
AZERBAIJAN
AZERBAIJAN
BAIJAN UZBEKISTAN
N JAPAN
APAN
PANAMA
TOGO
AUSTRALIA
the geographic relationship between the foundation’s
insurance premiums and many other
current funding sites and current patterns of poverty.
SOUTH
miscellaneous costs, such as URUGUAY
UAY 1088
AFRICA A hard day’s smoke
increased wear and tear on their Average minutes of labour required
ARGENTINA
96 94 to purchase 20 cigarettes or 1kg of rice
home, as well as increased fire risk. In 2004, for the cost of 2003
a pack of 20 Marlboro cigarettes selected cities
NEW
or equivalent international brand, ZEALAND
ND
What the maps revealed was striking, prompting Robin Hood to initiate a major redirection
70 Marlboro 71
a person could buy:
1 kg of rice
of resources. The maps enabled the board to visualize the complexity of focusing Robin
46 46
42
35
29
Hood’s grants where in the city they can do the most good. In addition to their use in
25
18
15 16
13 14 16
10 10
7
…two and a half
small fish
…ten litres
of milk
…five to eight
kilogrammes of apples
…seven kilogrammes
of tomatoes
…nine kilogrammes
of potatoes in Armenia
…four pairs of cotton
socks in Lao People’s S h Mumbai
an Tokyo gh Nairobi Kuala aiLumpur Mexico City Karachi Warsaw Geneva Dubai
planning, the maps have become a vital tool for orienting staff and donors. They visually
in Sri Lanka… in Algeria… in Armenia… in Jordan… and Uruguay… Democratic Republic. China India Japan Kenya Malaysia Mexico Pakistan Poland Switzerland UAE
44 45 convey complex information to all kinds of people, making the point forcefully and
immediately. As a result, Michael Weinstein says, program officers ‘don’t even talk to me
The Tobacco Atlas is a publication of the World Health Organization designed to influence
about a new project unless it starts with Bed-Stuy, or one of the other high poverty areas
national policy. The map contextualizes data to give it more impact. It shows places in
where we need to increase our impact.’”
the world where the cost of 20 cigarettes is higher than half an average days income and
compares the cost of a packet of cigarettes to locally available produce. See http://who.int/ Source: http://www.cmap.nypirg.org/case_studies/CS2/robin_hood_case_study.pdf
tobacco/statistics/tobacco_atlas/en/
10 11
Historical Examples of Information Design and Advocacy
Information design is not a new communication technique. These historic examples, from
campaigns for social change, show information design applied to analysis and advocacy
respectively. In both cases, information design was used to tell a powerful, persuasive story
on behalf of a cause.
In 1859, physician John Snow mapped deaths from a devastating cholera outbreak in
»
London to determine its cause. Snow gathered data by talking to local residents. His map
revealed a pattern of infections around the Broad Street water pump. Despite skepticism,
he collected enough evidence to prompt officials to shut down the pump, after which the
epidemic quickly ended. Snow’s work promoting the idea that the disease was spread
through contaminated water became a major turning point in the history of public health.
» Thomas Clarkson’s 1786 “Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of Human Species”
influenced the abolition movement in England. This diagram shows how hundreds of
enslaved Africans were crammed into ships. The image and accompanying description
of the conditions shocked and appalled readers. The slave trade was abolished in British
empire by the Slave Trade Act in 1807.
The images clarify key concepts in an experiential, and in the case of the slave ship image,
highly emotional way. These two examples show how vital information can be presented
powerfully and accessibly. They also remind us that strong design does not require high
technology or expensive computer software.
12 13
Information Design for Consumer Education Information Design for Strategy
Information design acts as a force for change when NGOs can also use information design internally to help with their planning
and self-assessment.
making information visible at the point of action.
For instance:
For example, consumers change their purchasing decisions when presented
with informational graphics about a product’s health impact, energy
• Mapping places and issues of significance can help groups to pinpoint
efficiency or other long-term costs.
where and how they should focus their efforts.
The Hannaford
««
Brothers chain of
markets in the U.S. rate
Based on standard U.S. Government tests Based on standard U.S. Government tests
shelves with a system Compare the Energy Use of this Clothes Washer Compare the Energy Use of this Clothes Washer
with Others Before You Buy. with Others Before You Buy.
called Guiding Stars. This Model Uses
ENERGY STAR
282kWh/year A symbol of
▼ energy efficiency
Labels designed by
« Energy use (kWh/year) range of all similar models Energy use (kWh/year) range of all similar models
Uses Least ENERGY STAR clothes washers must
Uses Most
Energy be rated with a modified Energy Factor Energy
Burkey Belser for U.S. 177 of 1.26 or higher.
1298
kWh/year (kilowatt-hours per year) is a measure of energy (electricity) use.
government agencies Your utility company uses it to compute your bill. Only standard size clothes
washers are used in this scale.
inform consumers at Clothes washers using more energy cost more to operate.
This model’s estimated yearly operating cost is:
Clothes washers using more energy cost more to operate.
This model’s estimated yearly operating cost is:
Based on standard U.S. Government tests Based on standard U.S. Government tests
14 15
Tactical Mapping for Analysis and Planning
• What tactics might be brought into play to engage targets that are not
currently affected
• Who are your potential allies for building a more comprehensive and Tactical map on torture by U.S. military in Guantamo Bay.
effective strategy
With this in place, you can start devising a strategy. Examine what
Sticky notes
connections and resources you already have. With a strategic goal in mind,
and marker
you can determine tactics you have access to or would like to explore.
on a white
board provide
Both paper and interactive versions of the map allow the users to manipulate
a flexible,
the map dynamically, changing and moving actors to visually represent
changeable
different relationships and scenarios.
surface on
which to
For more information on tactical mapping, visit
develop a map
http://www.newtactics.org/main.php/TrainingTools
in progress.
16 17
18
It included the map above, which illustrated
the relationships between local paramilitary
In 2005, the Human Rights Watch report The
reports/2005/drc0505/
from access to gold rich areas, and local
towns where people suffered from ethnic
groups, international corporations benefitting
This graphic, which ran in the New York Times in February 2007, illustrates Iraqi civilian deaths in the month of January. The figurative depictions
19
give a better sense of the magnitude of the tragedy than would a simple list of names or numbers. The use of the map shows how the crises is not
limited to any one region, and illustrates the lack of safety and security across the entire country during the U.S. occupation.
How to Begin Planning Your Information Design
There are many ways to tell a story or to present data. How do you know What kind of data is best What will move your
what kind of presentation to use? presented as a chart, as a constituency or target?
diagram or as a map?
Consider the story you are telling as
The main thing to consider is: how will your information Maps are useful for showing spatial well as the tone, style, and format
design be used? issues or locations. Charts are useful of your message. How it will be read
for showing quantities and trends by your target audience? Does your
Is it for planning? Or advocacy? Are you trying to tell a specific story? over time. Diagrams and flowcharts audience have a prior interest in your
Or are you trying to create a more neutral map to guide a process of may best illustrate processes or subject or are you trying to reach a
discovery? relationships. new audience?
Keeping your purpose in mind can help guide your development process as Different audiences may respond
well as your decisions about the most effective format and medium. The
How do you know what
better to different graphic
following pages focus on practical tips, suggestions and things to bear in
information to focus on and
treatments — for example a
mind when creating your information design.
what to exclude?
campaign targeting youth, a rural
Some key questions are: population or government officials.
20 21
Direct Visual Comparison to Illustrate Contrast
In September 2006 Amnesty International published satellite images of the Porta Farm
«
settlement in Zimbabwe to show the destruction of more than 850 houses and structures,
practically all of which are absent from the center image.
The third image indicates the center points of the destroyed structures.
See http://news.amnesty.org/pages/zwe-080906-news-eng. Images © DigitalGlobe, Inc.
Gapminder is a non-profit venture in Sweden The bubble plot above displays several
developing software tools to visualize human kinds of data at the same time. The vertical
development. The interactive Flash application and horizontal axes compare income per
displays statistics from the UNDP Human capita and life expectancy. The size of each
Development Report. Animated charts help population is represented by the size of the
show trends over time; for instance seeing the relevant bubble. Colors on the bubble chart
rich getting richer while the poor grow poorer. correspond to geographical regions, below.
See http://gapminder.org.
Interactive, printed cards for a campaign by The image on the card above changes as
»
TrueMajority examine the enormous budget it is turned and viewed from different angles.
of U.S. military and reveal how the money The images compare the number of schools
could be better spent. The campaign urged that could be built for the price of a single
Congress to reallocate 15% of military budget fighter jet.
to education and health care. The cards were
designed by Sagmeister, Inc.
22 23
Assessing Your Data Sorting and Sketching
What types of information do I have? To start, put notes on a wall describing aspects of your information. Arrange
these notes freely into shapes and clusters that make sense. Rearranging
Information design can illuminate quantitative or qualitative data.
these clusters should help you start to form an organizing scheme that you
can use as the basis for your initial designs.
Do I have information worth using?
One way to assess this is to try to put yourself in the place of your audience.
Is your information persuasive? Personas & Scenarios
Now try putting yourself in the role of your audiences. Identify your various
What is my key message or desired outcome? constituencies. What are they looking for? What is their point of view? What
do they already know about the issue? In what context will they read your
Are you trying to project a holistic picture of a situation? Or one specific
graphics? How much time do they have? Are they more likely to be reached
aspect of it? You may not need to include everything in a single graphic. It
by posters, reports, or other media? Distill this information into profiles of
may be more effective to create multiple graphics.
“typical” users. These profiles and scenarios should help inform how your
design should be structured.
What can I leave out?
Prioritize the importance and usefulness of your data. What is the key
message, what is the most important thing? Without sacrificing clarity, Sketching
simplify and decide what to remove. Finally, before turning to computer software, sketch your idea on paper
or on a white-board. Think in broad strokes at first, saving detail for later.
When planning your information graphics, you may discover that the data you Sketching out your ideas first will help you think outside the confines of the
have is not sufficient. You might need to collect additional data, for instance, page or the screen. It will free your ideas from the limitations of your design
if you are comparing your data to information from another source. program and tools.
For example, you may have data relating to populations that you work with Card sorting and sketching are also useful for testing your assumptions
directly, but people in other areas might be affected as well. Taking the time and your design with a test audience before investing time and resources
to amass this additional information may improve your graphics considerably. in producing final, polished graphics. Testing with a rough draft allows you
The process of assessing your data and designing your graphics may raise to make changes to your graphics quickly and cheaply, and to test several
useful questions about the larger geographic, demographic or policy context variations without having to redo expensive production work.
of your organization and your data — it may even extend the scope of your
work.
24 25
Mapping and Advocacy in Africa This poster, published by
»
Myriad Editions for UNIFEM,
Maps are a useful way of representing data – and there are many ways to use a map. charts the impact of war and
» peace on women in Africa,
A map of satellite coverage of Africa
illustrating the refugee
published by the International Development
population, statistics on HIV/
Research Centre reveals that policy not
AIDS, current and former UN
technology holds back greater connectivity.
peacekeeping operations, and
The map illustrates the conclusion that
the growing number of women
“Every square inch of Africa is covered by
in parliament.
satellite bandwidth, but restrictive telecom
policies stop this from supporting Africa’s
The interactive map at http://
»
development.” See http://www.idrc.ca/en/
kitab.nl/tunisianprisonersmap
ev-53486-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
plots prisons in Tunisia with links
to audio and video to expose the
» A cartogram is a cross between a map
stories of prisoners, their cases
and a diagram. Cartograms distort the
and the brutality of the Tunisian
area of a given country to represent
police. The map uses Google
data. Worldmapper displays a collection
Maps to plot the data and
of cartograms illustrating a variety of
YouTube to host the audio and
economic and social indicators in dramatic
video files. The government of
global patterns. The map below shows the
Tunisia is notoriously secretive
proportion of all children worldwide with
about its penal system.
evidence of trachoma, or “blinding disease.”
See http://worldmapper.org
26 27
Assessing Your Media
Graphics that work well in one medium may not be as effective in another.
Pamphlets, posters, web sites, video and other media each have their
strengths and weaknesses for conveying information.
Will people be able to stop and read the graphics? Or will it fly by in a few
seconds? A faster medium may require a simpler, bolder approach. A slower
medium may allow for more detail and density of information.
The medium in which you design your graphics is usually not the medium
in which you finally publish your graphics. Information is read differently at
different sizes. Colors and grays also render differently in different media.
Where possible, it is always best to test your graphics in the final size and
format in which they will appear.
Printed reports and other publications may also have a long shelf life. With
this in mind, be careful when printing web addresses that may not last as
long as the document that contains them. Consider how graphics or web
pages will live on.
Black-and-white printing on paper is cheaper to produce than color, but limits Posters provide the luxury of space to display a range of information and fine
the amount of visual information. Some printing methods (like photocopying) detail. Posters may also be viewed from a distance as well as close up. This
may not produce subtle ranges of grays. provides an opportunity to catch readers from afar and draw them in. This
is not a reason to fill the space with information, but rather to consider the
Printing methods and materials also make a statement about your work and hierarchy implicit in your material and how different levels of information will
your organization. Materials and techniques — visibly cheap or luxurious be revealed as your reader approaches.
printing or paper, the use of recycled paper or soy-based inks — as well as the
location and conditions under which your graphics are produced are also part
of the story your graphics tell.
On Screen
Television, computer screens, video and slide projectors are very different
from print. Screens are generally much lower resolution than print and do not
offer a large area. Larger type, fewer words, and simpler imagery work best
in these media.
Both the sequence of screens and the printed pages of a brochure or book
can selectively reveal information bit by bit over time to build your story
progressively. However, the web also makes it possible to design interactive
graphics that allow users to explore your data in a non-linear sequence, or
perhaps to filter the information they are accessing. The addition of audio
to interactive or video graphics creates a more immersive and emotional Information can be conveyed through the context of a design. This campaign promoting
experience. breast cancer awareness in Brazil placed stickers on fruit reading “You see? It is easy to
do auto-examination.” The sticker makes an analogy between self-examination and how
shoppers routinely examine fruit. The campaign was developed by the advertising agency
JWT for Hospital do Cancer, Sao Paulo.
30 31
Designing Your Graphics
Innovative design ideas come from embracing your constraints. Being obliged Structure
to adjust your graphics to your medium of publication, budget and technology
The way information is presented and organized is as important as the
of reproduction may lead you to discover unexpected opportunities.
content. What information is presented first? How will your reader’s eye
Color move across the design? Structure your design so that the most important
information is the most prominent. Consider using a visual hierarchy to
While color can be used to convey additional layers of meaning and emotion,
capture the reader’s attention and direct it across the page. Most people
black-and-white may be more cost-effective and more readable at high
start reading at the top of the page and move in the direction their language
contrast. Color also disappears when photocopied or printed in black-
is read.
and-white. When designing your graphics, consider using contrasting
thicknesses, tints, line styles or shapes first, before considering color.
Elements
You don’t have to use all the colors of the rainbow. Instead, choose a limited The style of your elements can convey meaning. Objects can be
color scheme that relates to your data. Make sure colors vary in intensity, not differentiated by size, color, pattern, and placement. However, too many
just hue — some of your readers may be color-blind. styles may clutter the page. Thin lines are generally preferable to thick lines,
which may compete with text and other information.
Typography
Use text in a way that makes it readable. Placing text over a patterned Technology
background or photograph is a difficult art. Use headlines that draw the Computers are great for producing professional-looking graphics, but you
readers’ eye and entice them to read more. don’t necessarily need a computer to create great design. Designing graphics
with pen, paper or collage can be fast and inexpensive.
These sample
charts show a few
possibilities for
combining one,
two, three, and Data along a single axis Data plotted on two axes make a To reflect additional information, such Here color reveals a fourth variable.
four types of data reveals where data clusters comparison. For instance showing as the relative size of a country’s In this case, population divided by
using position, and shows the range of a GDP vs. life expectancy in different population, increase the size of your demographic or gender.
size, and color. measurement. countries. data points.
32 33
Clarifying Your Graphics More Tips
Design that is easy to understand can be better evaluated for its credibility. Here are a few more tips for data presentation:
Below are a few principles, suggestions, and questions for improving your
information graphics. • Sketch out ideas on paper first, before you turn on the computer. All
graphics used to be drawn by hand. Software reduces creativity; good
• What is most important? If some information is more important to your graphics are created despite your software.
story than other information, consider giving it greater prominence. This
can be done with size, color, line, bold or other type treatment. • People will look at your pictures before they read your text, if they read it
at all. Graphics have to be self-contained. Put your conclusion right there
• Keep it simple. What you leave out is as important as what you leave in. in the caption.
Every element you add to a page competes with every other. Is everything
in your graphic crucial to the story you are telling? Without sacrificing • The graphic has to tell a story (if it doesn’t, don’t use it) and your job is to
clarity, consider removing detail. keep redesigning it until the story is as clear as possible.
• Show comparisons, contrasts, and differences. This is both a vivid way • Show the actual data, as much as you can. People can deal with much
of displaying information and a primary way we perceive and understand greater information density than you think. Your job is to help them see the
information. Visible variation can convey meaning. patterns in the data, but…
• Is the language clear and easy to understand? • Show as few non-data elements as you can. Remove boxes, lines,
colored backgrounds, grids, shadows, and other decoration, except where
• Is the choice of typeface clear and legible at a glance? The size and style it’s essential to understanding the data. If you can’t remove it, fade it out
of your text can also convey information, but should not be at the expense or make it smaller, thinner, or dotted.
of clarity.
• Minimize the number of steps required to interpret your graphic. Don’t
• Is your title clear? Is it easy to understand? Does it convey the story you put required information in the text that could go in the caption, or in the
are telling? caption if it could go in a key, or in a key if you could just label the points or
lines directly.
• Do your graphics require a legend to label the patterns and symbols you
use? • Provide context. Always use a scale and give sources. Six small, related
graphs juxtaposed in the space we’d usually use for just one provide more
• Is your documentation clear? Listing your data sources makes your data than six times as much content.
authoritative and verifiable. Disclosing funding sources for your campaign
or project also creates transparency and credibility. • Learn some basic typography and a graphics application like Illustrator,
Photoshop, or Free Software tools like GIMP or Inkscape. It’s not hard to
• Consider the limitations and opportunities inherent in your medium of find tutorials, and they’re wonderful transferable skills.
publication.
Adapted from Mike Dickison’s Tip List, http://numberpix.com/2007/02/mikes_tip_list.html
34 35
100 MHz 500 MHz 1 GHz 1.5 GHz 2 GHz 3 GHz
The value
The
Today, the government
In order to emphasize the most valuable Empire U.S. military U.S. radio spectrum $771 billion (est.)
“They used to rob trains in the Old West. of the airwaves restricts the use of this parts of the spectrum, this scale gives
the lower frequencies disproportionate space.
State
Building Bill Gates
budget
$357 billion
spectrum’s
6 MHz to broadcasting one
Now we rob spectrum.” (vertical scale) $1.00 TV signal (this example is The value of
$1 billion $52.8 billion annually
billion
Senator John McCain, varies with frequency channel 14). The market completely 3kHz 2GHz 5GHz 50GHz 300 GHz
worth
per values this limited license flexible
Chairman, Senate Commerce Committee (horizontal scale) MHz at $390 million. usage rights
The Using an unadjusted linear scale,
Temporary
The
(i.e., ownership assistance
If the license allowed the rights); number area under
the values part of the chart would appear like this: each = $1 billion for needy
compared
same 6MHz to be put to its based on this curve is
most highly valued use (e.g., recent auctions $4.5 trillion, which families (TANF)
cellular telephone service), should not be interpreted $24 billion
3kHz 100 GHz 200 GHz 300 GHz annually
to other
its market value jumps to as the total market value of Government
$0.75
billion
$7.2 billion. The difference The light areas ( ) $42 b. spectrum. The curve shows Medicaid
($6.8 billion) is the potential the marginal value of par- spending
per $60 billion represent:
value of spectrum flexibility
$143 billion ticular bands based on recent
things
$147 billion
MHz on channel 14. Note that if 1. The windfall an incumbent auctions, which only fetched annually
citizen’s
all broadcasters were grant- Mobile phones Mobile phones Electronic as much as they did because
ed flexibility, the greater (Narrowband- spectrum licensee could receive if news- most spectrum cannot be
supply of spectrum would granted flexibility to use it for any (Broadband PCS) purchased at any price or is
PCS) gathering McDonalds
lower this value considerably. purpose or to sell it (i.e., ownership (Broadcast TV) mandated for inefficient use. Higher frequencies are less valuable than “[Spectrum is] $31.2 billion
rights). lower ones because popular consumer
$0.50 If government allowed the most
billion $453 billion 2. The compensation taxpayers
spectrum to be used for any services (broadcasting and cell
per ($6.7 billion per channel) $18 billion $30 b. $18 billion purpose—or allowed the phones) need to penetrate valuable natural
MHz could receive if government unlicensed sharing of under-
buildings, and this gets resource of the
guide
utilized bands (see other
charged market rates for use of Non-geostationary Non-geostationary
Satellite side)—its supply would harder as you move
this public asset. mobile satellite radio mobile satellite increase and market value
up the spectrum.
information age.” All the gold
service (NGSO-MSS) service (NGSO-MSS) decrease. The $782 William Safire, stored in
Potential windfall BROADCAST TV 3. The efficiency loss from not billion estimate for the
New York Times Fort Knox
if the spectrum $0.25 (67 channels) allowing this spectrum to be used spectrum’s total value, at
$45.5 billion
The value right, assumes reforms are
for services most highly valued by
is privatized ( ) billion of today’s
restricted consumers.
instituted to allow flexible
use. Without reform, the
per usage
MHz auction value of prime
to the
rights
spectrum will remain
Note: Spectrum
Market value of artificially high.
valuations, which are
FREQUENCIES
100
200 3000 400
500 600 700 800 900 1 GHz 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
3
3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
500 100 150 200 250
300
megahertz (MHz) GHz
(see note* at bottom of page) MHz (1,000 MHz) GHz GHz GHz GHz Hz
GH GHz
airwaves Radio:
AM
Remote-
controlled
toys
FM radio Medical
implants
Wireless
medical
telemetry
Cordless
phones*
Pagers
GPS
(Global Positioning
System)
Wireless
medical
telemetry
GPS
Satellite
phones
Unlicensed
PCS
Satellite
radio
(SDARS)
Wireless
networking
(Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth)*
Satellite
phones
Fixed satellite
communications (cable
Wi-Fi
Security
alarms
Satellite
TV Security
alarms
The airwaves
A graphic Frequency
Short-
wave
Most
of the
TV networks are carried
on these bands) 20 GHz 30 GHz 40 GHz needed for all
the everyday
—and misuses— CB
radio
C ar alarms Family
Radio
toll tags*
*overlapping Mobile
phones
and industry use.
Microwave*
Weather radar
speed radar speed radar
Notes and * Radio waves are transmitted at different Wireless bandwidth is generally counted in megahertz. A wavelength is the distance The electromagnetic spectrum has long The radio spectrum The amount of spectrum required LOW FIDELITY 10 kHz Voice (e.g., telephone quality) “The basic problem is that “[The spectrum allocation] system is inefficient,
A P P R O X I M AT E LY
COMMUNICATIONS
SPECTRUM between the wavelengths (low frequency) at one end and short (enlarged in the charts above) 3 kHz 300 GHz 100 kHz Music (e.g., CD quality)
definitions frequencies measured in hertz (Hz). A slice
Abbreviations: kilohertz (1,000 hertz) is written as kHz, recurring peaks wavelengths (high frequency) at the other end. is the portion of the total THE RADIO SPECTRUM for everyday communications 1,000 kHz (=1 MHz) Standard definition TV (e.g., VCR quality)
demand for spectrum is unresponsive to consumer demand, and a huge
POLICY of spectrum contains a band of frequencies. of a wave. electromagnetic spectrum
visible
Today, most wireless communication is low fidelity 5,000 kHz (=5 MHz) High definition TV (e.g., movie theater quality)
outstripping the supply.” barrier to entry for new technologies anxious to
The wider the band, the more information microwaves infrared light ultraviolet x rays gamma rays
PROGRAM megahertz (1 million hertz) is written as MHz, and distinguished by its value audio. In the future, high fidelity video could require
HIGH FIDELITY U.S. General Accounting Office compete in the marketplace.”
The size of the wavelength influences the ability of a wave to pass through objects. COMMUNICATIONS 50,000 kHz (=50 MHz) Super high definition TV* (e.g., glossy magazine quality)
carrying capacity it has. (It has more “bandwidth”). gigahertz (1 billion hertz, or 1,000 megahertz) is written as GHz. Generally, as a wavelength decreases in size, its value also decreases. for communication. up to 5,000 times as much bandwidth. *Super high definition video in 3D or holography would require additional bandwidth. Report, September 2002 Thomas Hazlett, Former Chief Economist, FCC
See http://www.newamerica.net/publications/policy/
citizens_guide_to_the_airwaves
36 37
The Map of Tashkent was part of an advocacy As a result of the campaign, the Bank faced
campaign by Human Rights Watch (HRW) public criticism for its decision to hold the
around the European Bank for Reconstruction meeting in Uzbekistan. On its web site, HRW
and Development’s (EBRD) decision to hold notes:
its annual meeting in Tashkent, Uzbekistan
in 2003. Countries hosting the meeting “The Bank’s annual meetings usually center
historically stand to gain significant on investment opportunities in the host
investment and international legitimacy. The country. But this year, the coalition’s campaign
goal of the HRW campaign was to move the turned the meeting into a debate of the Uzbek
Bank to link human rights progress to the government’s poor human rights record and
decision to hold the meeting in Tashkent. the Bank’s commitment to addressing these
The campaign included letter-writing, media concerns.... In keynote speeches, broadcast
advocacy, coalition-building with other NGOs live on Uzbek television, EBRD President
and personal meetings with EBRD officials in Jean Lemierre and U.K.’s then-Development
2002 and 2003. Minister Clare Short emphasized the need
for the Uzbek leadership to make progress
Realizing that participants would be on human rights. They raised in particular the
anticipating information about Tashkent recent recommendations by the U.N. Special
and that the Uzbek government would be Rapporteur on Torture, which found torture in
promoting their country, HRW worked with the country to be ‘systematic.’ This amounted
a graphic designer to develop an alternative to a public scolding of President Karimov’s
map of Tashkent. The map mimics the style broken promise, and it did not go unnoticed.
of tourist brochures, marking out tourist As Lemierre and Short delivered their critical
sites as well as locations where human rights speeches, President Karimov removed his
violations had taken place in the city. headphones and demonstratively covered his
ears.”
By linking data from HRW’s research to data
about well-known tourist sites, the map invited See http://hrw.org/campaigns/uzbekistan
the target audience to take a walk through
the campaign’s data. The map was posted
online as well as printed and distributed to the
meeting’s attendees.
38 39
Evaluate and Iterate Additional Resources
How do you know if your graphics are working? Just ask your audience. Dickison, Mike. Pictures of Numbers. Illustrated techniques for improving your data
Testing your graphics with even a small number of typical users can provide graphics. http://www.numberpix.com
useful insight for revising and improving your work.
Emerson, John. Social Design Notes. Writing and clippings on design and activism.
image in one context may have an entirely different meaning in another. The
Friendly, Michael and Daniel J. Denis. Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography,
representation of ideas, individuals or groups of people may be affected
Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization. An extensive catalog of visualization
by assumptions and pre-conceptions. As with any visual representation,
techniques used throughout history. http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/milestone
different communities may ascribe different meanings to the same image.
One way of addressing this is to test your design with a sample group from IDEO Methods Cards. Tips and techniques for user testing.
your audience. Testing can be as simple as showing your design to your http://www.ideo.com/methodcards/MethodDeck/index.html
Visualizing
Information Information
for Advocacy
visualizations
An Introduction to Information Design Moere, Andrew Vande. Information Aesthetics. A gallery of dramatic experiments in the
translation of data into images. http://infosthetics.com
Swivel. A web service for uploading, visualizing, and sharing data and designs.
http://swivel.com
Visualising Social
Information Tufte , Edward. Author of several beautiful, informative books on information design.
http://www.edwardtufte.com
Above, alternative cover designs tested while producing this report. Each mock-up employs
A small accreditation to the visual can come here.
a good example of information design, but the one that was chosen for the cover best
Williams, Robin. The Non-Designer’s Design Book: Design and Typographics Principles for
achieves a combination of simplicity, clarity and visual narrative.
the Visual Novice. Peachpit Press; September, 2003.
40 41
Free Software Tools
Below is brief list of Free Software and Open Source tools you can download PDFCreator
or use online to help with your information graphics. Once you’ve planned
PDFCreator is a free tool to create PDF files from nearly any Windows
your graphics, these tools can help render, polish and prepare them for
application that can print.
printing.
http://sourceforge.net/projects/pdfcreator
OpenOffice
Scribus
OpenOffice is an office productivity suite. It includes a word processor,
Scribus can be used to create layouts for newsletters, stationery, posters,
spreadsheet, presentation manager and drawing program. OpenOffice also
training manuals, technical documentation, business cards and other
works with a variety of file formats, including those of Microsoft Office and
documents that need flexible layout or sophisticated image handling. It has
open formats such as .odt. OpenOffice runs on Linux and Windows and on
precise typography controls and image sizing not available in current word
Mac OS X under X11.
processors. Available for Windows, Linux and Mac.
http://openoffice.org
http://www.scribus.net
NeoOffice
The Gimp
NeoOffice is a fully-featured set of office applications (including word
GIMP is the GNU Image Manipulation Programme. Typical uses include
processing, spreadsheet, presentation and drawing programs) for Mac OS
creating graphics and logos, resizing and cropping photos, changing colors,
X. Based on OpenOffice, NeoOffice has integrated dozens of native Mac
combining images, removing unwanted image features and converting
features and can import, edit and exchange files with other popular office
between image formats. GIMP can also be used to create animated images.
programs such as Microsoft Office.
GIMP is a powerful image editor supporting advanced image editing,
http://neooffice.org
manipulation and professional graphics creation. For Windows, Linux and
Mac.
Ajax13 http://gimp.org
Ajax13 is a web-based Office Suite that allows you to create and share
documents, spreadsheets and presentations. Ajax13 also has a sketch tool GimpShop
to do basic diagrams and a media player. The tool supports files in a variety of
GIMPShop is a version of the GIMP image editor modified to be more user-
formats.
friendly for Photoshop users. The interface is adapted to look and feel more
http://us.ajax13.com
like Photoshop and act more like a single, unified program. Available for
Windows and Mac.
InkScape http://gimpshop.com
Inkscape is a vector graphics editor with capabilities similar to Illustrator,
Freehand or CorelDraw. It supports rendering of shapes, paths, text,
markers, clones, transparency, transformations, gradients, patterns and
grouping. Available for Windows, Linux and Mac.
http://inkscape.org
42 43
You’ve got data, now what do you do with it?
44