The Effects of

Reconstruction and the

Freedmen’s Response
Christopher Martin
African American History 133
4/8/11
Essay Topic A
 Although the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation declared the end of slavery, the

African American struggle for freedom had just begun. It would be many years before true

equality would be a reality. Due to racial tensions throughout the country, the treatment of blacks

following the civil war was full of suppression, aggression, and ignorance. Following the war,

Republicans began a period of reconstruction in the south, attempting to bring it up to the social

and economic levels already in the North. As time went on, the effects of reconstruction began to

diminish as party objectives clashed. The three different periods of reconstruction represented

different goals and views towards the freedom of America’s former slaves, forcing them to adapt

to new policy, regulation, and injustice.

The defeat of the Confederacy in the south marked a massive change in every slave’s life,

but the prospect of freedom seemed so foreign. Slaves during this era were usually born into

slavery, and knew no other way. While enslaved, living conditions were terrible. However, each

slave was treated equally, as powerless workers.1 After slavery was outlawed in the 13th

amendment, free slaves now had to adapt to a new lifestyle, even within the family structure. The

American standard at this time was patriarchy, where the husband was the breadwinner and the

wife answered to the husband, taking care of the children and the house.2 Former slaves had not

lived under this system before. Many women had trouble accepting their appointed place,

sometimes leading to conflict in the family. “With freedom came developments that strengthened

patriarchy within the black family and consigned men and women to separate spheres”3 The

patriarchal system puts the husband in charge of the wife, so rarely would she go against him and

report any abuse. Black women felt equally responsible for helping in the civil rights effort

1
Gaga, Larry. “Teaching Freedmen in the Post-War South”, The Journal of Negro History.
(Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1955)
2
Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper & Row, 1990) 38
3
Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper & Row, 1990) 39
because they had been equally oppressed. The Freedmen’s Bureau worked with former slave

families and protected both the husband and the wife. Conflict arose because black women

would report their husbands for domestic abuse and assault, which white women would not have

done. The Freedmen’s Bureau had hundreds of reports documented domestic conflicts.4 After

1867, black men had suffrage, but like white women, black women still did not have the right to

vote. Men could also sign their wife into a labor contract, even without consent. This system

could be seen as another form of slavery, one of many present after the federal outlawing in the

13th amendment.

Economically, freed slaves had to make a decision quickly after their release. Many

chose to go north, seeking the greater prosperity in the non-war torn Union. Freed slaves had

heard about the work opportunities in major cities like New York and Chicago, and settled down

there. Up until 1900, a very small minority of the African American population lived in the

North. Beginning in 1910, the Great Migration increased the northern African American

population to 40%, with the majority located in the major cities.5 However, the north was not all

peaceful. With not enough jobs to go around, white European immigrants began to feel

threatened and used intimidation to keep their jobs safe.

While the north did not grant the total freedom that former slaves were expecting, the

south remained a violently hostile environment for African Americans trying to integrate into the

system. Following the war, the south was in ruins, its economy almost completely destroyed.

Another issue the south faced was finding workers for the jobs that slaves used to perform.

Following the civil war, plantation owners had their land taken away during reconstruction,

further hindering economic progress in the south. Freedmen had the ability to purchase land

4
Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper & Row, 1990) 40
5
Lynd, Staughton. “Rethinking Slavery and Reconstruction”, The Journal of Negro History. (Association for the
Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1965) 198-209
following the war, which many used to their advantage. Working for a former plantation owner

was not how freedmen viewed economic freedom, and many avoided it. The freedmen felt that

owning land was the first step in true economic freedom, which did not always prove to be true.

Former slaves in general had little to no money, so investing in a piece of land and the equipment

necessary to farm it was out of reach for many.6 Without the money to purchase their own land,

some resorted to the system of sharecropping. Sharecropping involved the former slave holders

leasing out their land to freedmen, who in return would work the land and pay a percentage to

their sharecropper. This economic debt created another form of slavery for many, because poor

yields and unexpected problems made many of the former slaves indebted to the former

slaveholders. This obviously was not the idea of freedom that slaves had before their release.

Purchasing land also involved many hidden taxes and fees that the freedmen were not

able to pay. This hurdle created more distortion in the freedmen’s view of economic freedom. At

this time, the most profitable southern crop was cotton. Cotton fields were also where many

slaves had to work, so they resented this crop after their freedom. Many former slaves refused to

grow cotton, calling it the “slave crop” even though it offered the most profits for labor.7 In an

effort to create a more self sustained family and community many freedmen focused on growing

food crops. Another option for work for freed slaves was wage labor. This was also resented by

the former slaves, because it was too close in resemblance to the slavery they had just escaped.

“In countless ways, the newly freed slaves sought to overturn the real and symbolic authority

whites had exercised over every aspect of their lives” 8 Their desire for economic freedom

included working better hours, receiving more equal wages, and putting an end to the white

6
McPherson, James M. The Negro’s Civil War (New York: Vintage Books, 1965)
7
John Cade, “Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves”, The Journal of Negro History. (Association for the Study of African
American Life and History, Inc. July, 1935) 294-337

8
Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper & Row, 1990) 36
superiority in the workplace. This resistance also helped lead to the purchasing of land and

tenancy of former slaves on sharecropping plantations. Aligning with concurrent social issues,

women did not want to work as wage laborers in the field, and instead wanted to work a fairer

job or focus on raising their family and supporting the husband.

Following the civil war and continuing for nearly a decade, lynching of blacks by mobs

of whites persisted due to ignorance, racism, and the white’s fear of equality. A lynching

involved the murder of someone, usually by hanging from a tree with a makeshift noose. This

differed vastly from hanging, which was a court ordered process performed more humanely.

Lynching was always performed violently, and the victim was not given any form of a trial

before death. Southern democrats created fear in their white citizens of the African Americans.

Stories were told of black men violently raping white women, and any relationship between a

black male and a white woman was seen as forced and rape.9 These rumors were far from the

truth, as many people looked past slavery and inequality and engaged in interracial relationships.

To the mobs however, consent did not matter. Due to the patriarchal system that was still in

place, a woman’s word was not enough to save a black man, however it was enough to have him

killed. There are many reports of lynching’s occurring purely based off the word of a white

woman claiming she was assaulted by a freedman.10 As democrats began to take control over the

south, more fear tactics were used to prevent the former slaves to vote, even though they were

granted the right in the 15th amendment. Literacy tests and land ownership were used to unjustly

prevent minorities from voting in elections, because many still were not fully educated and did

9
Horace Bond, “Social and Economic Forces in Alabama Reconstruction”, The Journal of Negro History.
(Association for the Study of African American Life and History), 290-348
10
Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper & Row, 1990
not own land. The tests were designed biased, grandfathering in whites who would not qualify to

vote and ousting any minority the politicians did not want to vote. 11

The conditions for freedmen following the Civil War varied, but had many similarities to

their former confinement. Within a few years, it became evident that the freedom slaves had

envisioned for themselves was not accurate, and there was still a lot of progress that had to be

made to truly create equality. The period of reconstruction following the Civil War began to

work on this issue, but changes in leadership and ideals had a drastic effect, hindering and

eventually bringing to a stop all efforts of reconstruction.

Following the Civil War President Lincoln knew it was necessary to rebuild the south to

the economic power it once was. However the social and economic issues of slavery had to be

accounted for. He felt it was not the fault of the entire south for leaving the Union, and blame

was to be put on the political leaders. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the

emancipation proclamation, giving freedom to ten states. The states not mentioned in the

proclamation were Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. This left apparent

gaps in the freedoms of all slaves by excluding states, and led Lincoln to the development of his

10% plan.12

I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, do proclaim, declare, and make
known to all persons who have, directly or by implication, participated in the existing
rebellion, except as hereinafter excepted, that a full pardon is hereby granted to them and
each of them, with restoration of all rights of property, except as to slaves, and in
property cases where rights of third parties shall have intervened, and upon the condition
that every such person shall take and subscribe an oath, and thenceforward keep and
maintain said oath inviolate13

11
Horace Bond, “Social and Economic Forces in Alabama Reconstruction”, The Journal of Negro History.
(Association for the Study of African American Life and History), 290-348
12
Lincoln, Abraham. “The Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction” Freedmen and Southern Society Project.
(University of Maryland, December 8th, 1863)
13
Lincoln, Abraham. “The Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction” Freedmen and Southern Society Project.
(University of Maryland, December 8th, 1863)
This plan would allow for confederate states to rejoin the union if 10% of the state’s Electoral

College voted to join. The major condition of this plan was that the state had to abolish slavery if

rejoining. He first proposed the plan in Louisiana, who accepted. After Louisiana accepted

Arkansas and Tennessee also accepted the terms. At this point the conflict between Lincoln’s

plan and Congress’s plans started to become apparent. Congress did not accept the votes from

the three states who voted for Lincoln’s plan, due to the Radical Republicans having majority

rule on Congress. The radicals in Congress wanted more dedication to the Union from the south,

so they proposed the Wade-Davis Bill. The Wade-Davis bill said that if a confederate state

wanted to rejoin the Union, the majority of electorates must take oaths pledging their allegiance

to the federal Congress.14 With Lincoln and Congress in conflict over reconstruction, hostilities

continued to mount. Lincoln used his executive power to pocket veto the Wade-Davis bill, trying

to maintain his course for the reconstruction in the south. During Lincoln’s presidency the

Freedmen’s Bureau was established, becoming law in March of 1965.15 Shortly after becoming

law, and before a head of the bureau could be appointed, President Lincoln was assassinated.

Following the assassination of President Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson took

over. Before becoming President, Johnson was known as being very harsh towards the

confederacy. However once president, Johnsons view towards the south became more

apologetic. He began to issue pardons to confederates and also hindered attempts by the

Freedmen’s Bureau to issue confiscated land back to freedmen. This land had been taken during

the Confiscation Acts and had originally been intended for use by the freedmen. Johnson

appeased the elite white plantation owners that he had spoken against earlier in his political

career. While the Republicans in Washington were busy arguing about the reconstruction

14
Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper & Row, 1990) 31
15
Lynd, Staughton. “Rethinking Slavery and Reconstruction”, The Journal of Negro History. (Association for the
Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1965) 198-209
strategy, black codes began to be enacted in the south, limiting the rights of freedmen. The

Freedmen Bureau worked to stop the black codes, passing the Civil Rights Act in 1866.16 This

act gave all freedmen the same legal equality as whites. However Johnson did not support this

act.

The bill, however, would seem to show upon its face that the establishment of peace and
good order is not its real object. The fifth section declares that the preceding sections
shall cease to operate in any State where certain events shall have happened. . . . All these
conditions must be fulfilled before the people of any of these States can be relieved from
the bondage of military domination; but when they are fulfilled, then immediately the
pains and penalties of the bill are to cease, no matter whether there be peace and order or
not, and without any reference to the security of life or property.17

He vetoed the act; however the Republican Congress was able to overthrow his veto due to a

majority vote. Once again, the Radical Republicans and the President clashed on ideologies. By

this point, Johnson was winning the support of the democrats who favored superiority over

equality.

Constant argument over the future of the south and plans for reconstruction split the

Republican Party between the Moderates and the Radicals. The moderates wanted slower

integration and focused less on the rights of freedmen. To the Radicals, this plan wasn’t enough

progress. After taking control of Congress in 1866, the Radicals began their reconstruction

policies. Compared to Lincoln and Johnson, the Radical Republican’s main goal was the equality

of freedmen in the south. During this period of reconstruction, three amendments were added to

the constitution. The 13th amendment ratified in 1866 abolished slavery and the 14th amendment

ratified in 1868 granted US citizenship to all people born in the country. The 15th amendment

ratified in 1870 gave suffrage to eligible males.18 Congress also passed the Reconstruction Acts,

16
Lynd, Staughton. “Rethinking Slavery and Reconstruction”, The Journal of Negro History. (Association for the
Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1965) 198-209
17
Johnson, Andrew. “Veto of the First Reconstruction Act”, From Revolution to Reconstruction. (University of
Groningen, March 2nd, 1867.)
18
Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction. (New York: Harper & Row, 1990)
setting stricter demands on the southern states. The first Reconstruction Act passed in 1867

divided the south into five separate military districts, where new elections were to be held with

freedmen voting. This also required the ratification of the 14th amendment in each state.

Following this act, Congress authorized military commanders to supervise the election process

and provide protection from the paramilitary groups. In 1868, Ulysses S. Grant was elected into

office, with strong support from the Radical Republicans. He had opposed Johnson’s views on

reconstruction, and was in support of the reconstruction acts.19

Looking at the reconstruction plans of Lincoln, Johnson, and the Radical Republicans in

Congress, there are many similarities and differences in their views of how reconstruction would

be carried out. Lincoln maintained a moderately Republican stance throughout his presidency,

providing some support to the freedmen but ultimately worried more about the nation’s health.

Johnson’s personal views varied greatly from his actions, and he ultimately worked in the favor

of the democrats. His priorities no longer lied in the protection of the freedmen and instead in

appeasing the wealthy southerners. The radical’s main priority was the protection and equality of

the freedmen in the south. To them, there was no compromise in equality, and the acts passed

during their reign led to the modern civil rights movement. Following the civil war, freed slaves

went through many changes politically, socially, and economically. The changes they

experienced were the result of the three different views of reconstruction. Throughout the

majority of reconstruction, freedmen had little to no say in the politics that affected their way of

life. Many were put into situations bearing strong resemblances to slavery, and it would be a long

time until proper equality and freedom had been obtained by all.

Works Cited

19
Lynd, Staughton. “Rethinking Slavery and Reconstruction”, The Journal of Negro History. (Association for the
Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1965) 198-209
Bond, Horace Mann. “Social and Economic Forces in Alabama Reconstruction”, The Journal of
Negro History. Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc.
July, 1938

Cade, John B. “Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves”, The Journal of Negro History.
Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1935

Foner, Eric. A Short History of Reconstruction.

New York: Harper & Row, 1990

Gaga, Larry. “Teaching Freedmen in the Post-War South”, The Journal of Negro History.
Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1955

Johnson, Andrew. “Veto of the First Reconstruction Act”, From Revolution to Reconstruction.
University of Groningen, March 2nd, 1867.

Lincoln, Abraham. “The Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction” Freedmen and Southern
Society Project. University of Maryland, December 8th, 1863.

Lynd, Staughton. “Rethinking Slavery and Reconstruction”, The Journal of Negro History.
Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc. July, 1965 198-209

McPherson, James M. The Negro’s Civil War

New York: Vintage Books, 1965