ASSIGNMENT OF

CSE410

SUBMITTED TO: - SUBMITTED BY:-

MISS.SNEHA SAHI ASHISH BUTANI
B.TECH (IT)B2802
ROLL NO-33
Part-A

Ques1:- In order to enhance your web page, you decide to introduce color into it.
Show how you could direct the html interpreter in a browser to make the
background color yellow, text in the page orange, each link red, and a visited link
blue.

Ques 2:-With the aid of an example, explain the meaning of “Absolute URL”
and “relative URL” including the relationship between the two.

Answer: An Absolute URL is, thus, something that is independent or free from

any relationship. When you use an absolute URL, you point directly to a file.
Hence, an absolute URL specifies theexact location of a file/directory on the
internet. It also follows that each absolute URL is unique, which means that if two
URLs are identical, they point to the same file. The absolute URL is straight
forward but in the relative URL you'll notice that I have refered to the image
with ../images/email.gif. In order to understand the relative URL, let me tell you
about the directory structure of this web site.

This web site has several sections and the files and web pages for each section
have been segregated into different directories. This helps me to keep things
organized and uncluttered on the web site. Under the document or server root
directory (the main directory of the web site), I have a directory called images
which stores all common images used on the pages of this web site. The image
email.gif resides in this directory. I have another directory called design which is
at the same level as images i.e. it is also in the document root directory.

For example:
http://www.google.com/images/mmc.jpg specifies an image file mmc.jpg in
the images directory, under www.webdevelopersnotes.com domain name.
Similarly, the absolute URL of the document you are viewing is
http://www.google.com/mmc.php3 which is a page in the directory
called design on this web site.

A relative URL points to a file/directory in relation to the present file/directory.A

relative URL doesn't contain as much information as an absolute URL does.
Relative URLs are convenient because they are shorter and often more portable.
However, you can use them only to reference links on the same server as the page
that contains them. Relative URLs can take a number of different forms. When
referring to a file that occurs in the same directory as the referring page, a URL
can be as simple as the name of the file. For example, if you want to create a link
in your home page to the file mmc.html, which is in the same directory as your
home page, you would use:

<a href="mmc.html">The third assignment of multimedia!</a>

If the file you want to link to is in a subdirectory of the directory the referring
page is in, you need to enter only the directory information and the name of the
file. So if mmchtml were in the mmc subdirectory of your www directory, you
could refer to it from your home page by using:

<a href="mmc\mmc.html">MMC!</a>

If the file you want to link to is in a higher directory than the referring page, use ..
, which means to go up a directory. For example, to link from mmc.html to
home.html, which is in the directory above, you would use:

<a href="..mmc.html">MMC</a>

We include (display) the image file email.gif stored in the images directory of

wwwgoogle.com domain on this (relative_and_absolute_urls.php3 stored in
the design directory) page.
There are two ways to do this. We can either refer to it using an absolute URL or
use a relative URL. The <img> tag for this image display will be as follows:

Using an Absolute URL in an <img> tag

<img src="http://www.google.com/images/mmc.jpg"
width="..." height="..." />

Using a Relative URL in an <IMG> tag

<img src="../images/email.gif" width="..." height="..." />

Ques3:-Identify the potential security loophole with SSL scheme and state
how the secure electronic transactions (SET) scheme overcomes this.

Answer:

1. Cryptographic Protocol: A security protocol (cryptographic protocol or

encryption protocol) is an abstract or concrete protocol that performs a
security-related function and applies cryptographic methods. A protocol
describes how the algorithms should be used. A sufficiently detailed
protocol includes details about data structures and representations, at which
point it can be used to implement multiple, interoperable versions of a
program. Cryptographic protocols are widely used for secure application-
level data transport. A cryptographic protocol usually incorporates at least
some of these aspects:

 Key agreement or establishment

 Entity authentication
 Symmetric encryption and message authentication material construction
 Secured application-level data transport
 Non-repudiation methods

For example, Transport Layer Security (TLS) is a cryptographic protocol that is

used to secure web (HTTP) connections. It has an entity authentication
mechanism, based on the X.509 system; a key setup phase, where a symmetric
encryption key is formed by employing public-key cryptography; and an
application-level data transport function. These three aspects have important
interconnections. Standard TLS does not have non-repudiation support. There are
other types of cryptographic protocols as well, and even the term itself has various
different readings; Cryptographic application protocols often use one or more
underlying key agreement methods, which are also sometimes themselves referred
to as "cryptographic protocols". For instance, TLS employs what is known as the
Diffie-Hellman key exchange, which although it is only a part of TLS per se,
Diffie-Hellman may be seen as a complete cryptographic protocol in itself for
other applications. Cryptographic protocols can sometimes be verified formally on
an abstract level.

2. Authentication using a CA:

 C authenticates S by first checking that the CA named in S’s Web

page
Is on the list of recognized CA

 On receipt of the certificate C decrypts it using CA’s public key and

checks
that the name on the certificate is that of S

3. Session key exchange:

a. C generates a random (symmetric) key for the transaction and

encrypts it using S’s public key

b. On receipt of the message, S decrypts the message using its own

private key and returns a response message to C acknowledging
Ques4:-Explain why large fabrics consist of multiple switching stages each
made up of a number of smaller switching elements interconnected in a
regular matrix.

Answer: Small cells have advantages for constant bit rate traffic but disadvantages

that the overheads associated with each cell are higher

A cell size is 53 bytes/octets

A cell comprises a 48-byte payload field with a 5-byte header for the
VCI and other fields cell format and switching principles:-

Protocol connection identifier (PCI) :the virtual circuit identifier used on each link
.

The PCI is made up of virtual path identifier (VPI) and virtual channel identifier
(VCI)

Cell loss priority(CLP):in ATM cell format, it enable the user to specify a
preference as to which cells should be discarded.
Switch Architectures:-
  Input controller (IC): Involves a simple look-up and mapping operation
of the VPI/VCI in the header of the incoming cell into the corresponding
output VPI/VCI
 Buffering is provided in the IC or output controllers to hold
simultaneously arriving cells
 Control processor is to download routing information into the routing
tables in each IC
 Switch fabrics can be classified as either time division or space division
 In a time-division switch, a time-division backplane bus is capable of
transferring N cells in a single cell arrival time.

Delta switch matrix example

1. One approach to overcoming blocking is for the switching element to

discard one of the two cells
2. Discarding cells can lead to an unacceptably high cell loss rate in large
switches
  Batcher-Banyan switch: no two cells entering the switching matrix
require the same output port and no common interconnecting links
within the paths through the switch
 If two cells arrive simultaneously at different input ports that require the
same output port, just one cell is selected for transfer

Part-B

Ques5:-Expalin the role of an RF modem including the modulation schemes

used and the bandwidth available with a single 6/8 MHz band. State the
additional applications that these channels are used for.
Answer: A modem (modulator/demodulator) is a device that transforms signals
from one form to another. Modems are usually used over phone lines, but an RF
(radio frequency) modem converts radio signals to other forms.
Some organisations, aware of the prospects of local radio communications for
individual users, have allocated some specific frequency bands to be used in a
more flexible way. The oldest and most commonly used ones are located at 900
MHz and 2.4 GHz and called the ISM bands (Industrial, Scientific and Medical).
The main characteristic of these bands is that they are unlicensed, this means that
the user is free to use them without having to register or to pay anything (apart
from the radio hardware).

To avoid abuses, these organisations have imposed a set of rules for these
frequency bands and only the products certified to conform to those rules are
allowed to emit in the bands. These rules specify at least the maximum power
transmitted in the band and the out of band emissions (to not pollute adjacent
bands). The ISM bands rules specify as well that Spread Spectrum has to be used
(either Direct Sequence or Frequency Hopping), and how the channels are
defined, to allow the peaceful cohabitation of different systems.

The Spread Spectrum rules mandate Direct Sequence systems must spread their

signal at least 11 times, and that Frequency Hopping systems stay on a channel a
maximum of 0.4 s and use 75 channels at minimum in each 30 s period

 Multi-rate systems

If you want a better throughput, the most simple way is to use more bandwidth.
The problem is that the ISM spread spectrum regulations limits the amount of
bandwidth usable (1 MHz channels for Frequency Hopping). Also, in most
hardware the filters used to recover the signal are fixed, so the channel width is
fixed. This limit the rate of symbols that you can use (1 Mbauds for Frequency
Hopping).

 2FSK and 4FSK

2FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) is the simplest form of frequency modulation.
Basically, the system use two different frequencies for the values 0 and 1 of each
bit. For example, if B is the base frequency (the carrier) and dthe carrier deviation,
each time the system want to transmit a 0 it creates a waveform of frequency B-
d (a symbol), and each time it want to transmit a 1 it creates a waveform of
frequency B+d.

 802.11 HR (11 Mb/s)

When 802.11 was eventually released, 1 and 2 Mb/s was no longer considered as
decent speed for Wireless LAN and people were already talking of using the 5
GHz band for higher throughput (HiperLan and 802.11 at 5 GHz).

 OFDM

OFDM use a set of subcarrier frequencies, the frequencies being orthogonal. Each
subcarrier is modulated individually, the bit rate and signal strength of each
subcarrier can be adapted to get maximum performance of the system (we put
more bits on the good subcarriers and less on the bad ones).

Ques6:-Explain with diagram describe the operation of the IDEA scheme.

Include in your description the size of the key used and the number and size
of sub keys associated with each encryption stage.

Answer:
In the schematic diagram (a) of the encryption operation shown above we can see
that each 64-bit block of plain text passes through a series of eight bit-
manipulation iteration followed by a final transposition. At each of the eight
iterations, each of the 64 output bits is a function of all 64 input bits. The various
processing operations that are carried out to achieve this are shown in figure (b).

The 128-bit key is first used to generate 52 subkeys each of 16 bits. As we can see
in the figure, six subkeys are used at each iteration and remaining four subkeys are
used in the final transposition stage. Decryption uses the same algorithm but with
a modified set of keys.

Ques7:-Explain with diagram show the difference between straight,

expanded and compressed or choice Permutation / transposition. Use for
example purpose a P-box with 8 input bits. State the keys used in each case.

Answer: Product ciphers use a combination of substitutions and Transpositions.

Instead of substituting/transposing the characters in a message, the order of
individual bits in each character is substituted/transposed. The three alternative
operations are shown in figure each is normally referred to as P-box.
These three aspects have important interconnections. Standard TLS does not have
non-repudiation support. There are other types of cryptographic protocols as well,
and even the term itself has various different readings; Cryptographic application
protocols often use one or more underlying key agreement methods, which are
also sometimes themselves referred to as "cryptographic protocols". For instance,
TLS employs what is known as the Diffie-Hellman key exchange, which although
it is only a part of TLS per se, Diffie-Hellman may be seen as a complete
cryptographic protocol in itself for other applications. Cryptographic protocols can
sometimes be verified formally on an abstract level.

Ques8:-Explain the role of a proxy ARP. Hence explain how an IP packet

sent by a host at one site is routed a host at a different site. And also explain
how the reply packet is returned to the host that sent the first packet.

Answer: Proxy ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is a technique by which a

device on a given network answers the ARP queries for a network address that is
not on that network. The ARP Proxy is aware of the location of the traffic's
destination, and offers its own MAC address in reply, effectively saying, "send it
to me, and I'll get it to where it needs to go." Serving as an ARP Proxy for another
host effectively directs LAN traffic to the Proxy. The "captured" traffic is then
typically routed by the Proxy to the intended destination via another interface or
via a tunnel. The process which results in the node responding with its own MAC
address to an ARP request for a different IP address for proxying purposes is
sometimes referred to as publishing.

Consider a router with two interface cards, one connected to a public network
PUBNET and one connected to a private network PRIVNET. We want to hide a
server machine on the PRIVNET network but have it accessible from the
PUBNET network. The IP address of the server machine lies in the PUBNET
network, even though we are placing the machine on the PRIVNET network
behind the router. By enabling proxy ARP on the router, any machine on the
PUBNET network that issues an ARP "who has" request for the server's MAC
address will get a proxy ARP reply from the router containing the router's MAC
address. This tells machines on the PUBNET network that they should be sending
packets destined for the server via the router. The router forwards the packets
from the machines on the PUBNET network to the server on the PRIVNET
network. Similarly, when the server on the PRIVNET network issues a "who has"
request for any machines on the PUBNET network, the router provides its own
MAC address via proxy ARP. This tells the server to send packets for machines
on the PUBNET network via the router. The router forwards the packets from the
server on the PRIVNET network to the machines on the PUBNET network. The
proxy ARP provided by the router allows the server on the PRIVNET network to
appear to be on the PUBNET network. It lets the router pass ARP requests and
other network packets in both directions between the server machine and the
PUBNET network, making the server machine appear to be connected to the
PUBNET network even though it is on the PRIVNET network hidden behind the
router.