Atmosphere of Earth 1

Atmosphere of Earth
The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet
Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life
on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface
through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature
extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
Atmospheric stratification describes the structure of the atmosphere,
dividing it into distinct layers, each with specific characteristics such as
temperature or composition. The atmosphere has a mass of about
Blue light is scattered more than other
5×1018 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere,
36000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner giving the Earth a blue halo when seen from
with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the space.

atmosphere and outer space. An altitude of 120 km (75 mi) is where

atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of
spacecraft. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), also is often regarded
as the boundary between atmosphere and outer space.

Air is the name given to atmosphere used in breathing and

photosynthesis. Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen,
20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small
amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water
vapor, on average around 1%. While air content and atmospheric
Limb view, of the Earth's atmosphere. Colours
pressure varies at different layers, air suitable for the survival of
roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.
terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals is currently known only to be
found in Earth's troposphere and artificial atmospheres.
Atmosphere of Earth 2

Composition
Air is mainly composed of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, which together
constitute the major gases of the atmosphere. The remaining gases are
often referred to as trace gases,[1] among which are the greenhouse
gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical
compounds. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts
in an unfiltered air sample, including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray,
and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present,
such as chlorine (elementary or in compounds), fluorine compounds,
elemental mercury, and sulfur compounds such as sulfur dioxide
[SO2].

Composition of Earth's atmosphere. The lower

pie represents the trace gases which together
compose 0.039% of the atmosphere. Values
normalized for illustration. The numbers are
from a variety of years (mainly 1987, with CO2
and methane from 2009) and do not represent
any single source.

Mean atmospheric water vapor

Atmosphere of Earth 3

Composition of dry atmosphere, by volume[2]

ppmv: parts per million by volume (note: volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, see volume
(thermodynamics))

Gas Volume

Nitrogen (N2) 780,840 ppmv (78.084%)

Oxygen (O2) 209,460 ppmv (20.946%)

Argon (Ar) 9,340 ppmv (0.9340%)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 390 ppmv (0.039%)

Neon (Ne) 18.18 ppmv (0.001818%)

Helium (He) 5.24 ppmv (0.000524%)

Methane (CH4) 1.79 ppmv (0.000179%)

Krypton (Kr) 1.14 ppmv (0.000114%)

Hydrogen (H2) 0.55 ppmv (0.000055%)

Nitrous oxide (N2O) 0.3 ppmv (0.00003%)

Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.1 ppmv (0.00001%)

Xenon (Xe) 0.09 ppmv (9×10−6%) (0.000009%)

Ozone (O3) 0.0 to 0.07 ppmv (0 to 7×10−6%)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0.02 ppmv (2×10−6%) (0.000002%)

Iodine (I2) 0.01 ppmv (1×10−6%) (0.000001%)

Ammonia (NH3) trace

Not included in above dry atmosphere:

Water vapor (H2O) ~0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1%-4% at surface
Atmosphere of Earth 4

Structure of the atmosphere

Principal layers
In general, air pressure and density decrease in the atmosphere as height increases. However,
temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude. Because the general pattern of this
profile is constant and recognizable through means such as balloon soundings, temperature
provides a useful metric to distinguish between atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's
atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. From highest to lowest, these layers are:

Exosphere

The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward. It is mainly
composed of hydrogen and helium. The particles are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of
kilometres without colliding with one another. Since the particles rarely collide, the atmosphere
no longer behaves like a fluid. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may
migrate into and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.

Thermosphere

Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from the mesopause up to the
thermopause, then is constant with height. Unlike in the stratosphere, where the inversion is
caused by absorption of radiation by ozone, in the thermosphere the inversion is a result of the
extremely low density of molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise to 1500 °C (2730 °F),
though the gas molecules are so far apart that temperature in the usual sense is not well defined.
The air is so rarefied, that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of
1 kilometer between collisions with other molecules.[3] The International Space Station orbits in
this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi). Because of the relative infrequency of
molecular collisions, air above the mesopause is poorly mixed compared to air below. While the Layers of the
atmosphere (not
composition from the troposphere to the mesosphere is fairly constant, above a certain point, air
to scale)
is poorly mixed and becomes compositionally stratified. The point dividing these two regions is
known as the turbopause. The region below is the homosphere, and the region above is the
heterosphere. The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase. Its height varies with
solar activity and ranges from about 350–800 km (220–500 mi; – ft).

Mesosphere
The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km (50–53 mi; – ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn
up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere. The mesopause, the
temperature minimum that marks the top of the mesosphere, is the coldest place on Earth and has an average
temperature around −85 °C (−121 °F; 188.1 K).[4] At the mesopause, temperatures may drop to −100 °C (−148 °F;
173.1 K).[5] Due to the cold temperature of the mesosphere, water vapor is frozen, forming ice clouds (or Noctilucent
clouds). A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES, form many miles above thunderclouds in the
troposphere.
Atmosphere of Earth 5

Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi; ft). Temperature increases with height due to
increased absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. While the
temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 213.2 K) at the troposphere, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and
may be near freezing. The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere, typically is
at 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; to ft). The pressure here is 1/1000 sea level.

Troposphere
The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 9 km (30000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56000 ft) at
the equator,[6] with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from the
surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude. This
promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word "τροπή", trope, meaning turn or overturn).
The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of the atmosphere. The tropopause is the boundary between the
troposphere and stratosphere.

Other layers
Within the five principal layers determined by temperature are several layers determined by other properties.
• The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per
million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components
of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–22 mi;
49000– ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere
is contained in the stratosphere.
• The ionosphere, the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, stretches from 50 to 1000 km (31 to
620 mi; to ft) and typically overlaps both the exosphere and the thermosphere. It forms the inner edge of the
magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on the Earth. It
is responsible for auroras.
• The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. In the
homosphere the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases
are mixed by turbulence.[7] The homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Above the
turbopause at about 100 km (62 mi; ft) (essentially corresponding to the mesopause), the composition varies with
altitude. This is because the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared
with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier
ones such as oxygen and nitrogen present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the
heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.
• The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is nearest the Earth's surface and is directly
affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is
well-mixed, while at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the
planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 m on clear, calm nights to 3000 m or more during the
afternoon in dry regions.
The average temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of Earth is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K)[8] or 15 °C (59 °F;
288 K),[9] depending on the reference.[10] [11] [12]
Atmosphere of Earth 6

Physical properties

Pressure and thickness

The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa (kilopascals) = 14.7 psi
(pounds per square inch) = 760 torr = 29.9 inches of mercury (symbol Hg). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×1018
kg (1.135×1019 lb),[13] about 2.5% less than would be inferred naively from the average sea level pressure and the
Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this defect having been displaced by the Earth's mountainous terrain.
Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus
air pressure varies with location and time, because the amount of air above the Earth's surface varies.
If atmospheric density were to remain constant with height the atmosphere would terminate abruptly at 8.50 km
(27900 ft). Instead, density decreases with height, dropping by 50% at an altitude of about 5.6 km (18000 ft). As a
result the pressure decrease is approximately exponential with height, so that pressure decreases by a factor of two
approximately every 5.6 km (18000 ft) and by a factor of e = 2.718… approximately every 7.64 km (25100 ft), the
latter being the average scale height of Earth's atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; ft). However, because of changes in
temperature, average molecular weight, and gravity throughout the atmospheric column, the dependence of
atmospheric pressure on altitude is modeled by separate equations for each of the layers listed above. Even in the
exosphere, the atmosphere is still present. This can be seen by the effects of atmospheric drag on satellites.
In summary, the equations of pressure by altitude in the above references can be used directly to estimate
atmospheric thickness. However, the following published data are given for reference:[14]
• 50% of the atmosphere by mass is below an altitude of 5.6 km (18000 ft).
• 90% of the atmosphere by mass is below an altitude of 16 km (52000 ft). The common altitude of commercial
airliners is about 10 km (33000 ft) and Mt. Everest's summit is 8848 m (29029 ft) above sea level.
• 99.99997% of the atmosphere by mass is below 100 km (62 mi; ft), although in the rarefied region above this
there are auroras and other atmospheric effects. The highest X-15 plane flight in 1963 reached an altitude of
108.0 km ( ft).

Density and mass

The density of air at sea level is about 1.2  kg/m3 (1.2 g/L). Density is
not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of
temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air
(a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the
altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using
the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict
orbital decay of satellites.

The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5×1015) Temperature and mass density against altitude
from the NRLMSISE-00 standard atmosphere
tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American
model (the eight dotted lines in each "decade" are
National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729)
the atmosphere is 5.1480×1018 kg with an annual range due to water
vapor of 1.2 or 1.5×1015 kg depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller
than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27×1016 kg and the dry air mass as
5.1352 ±0.0003×1018 kg."
Atmosphere of Earth 7

Optical properties
Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy the Earth receives from the Sun. The Earth also emits radiation back into
space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or
reflected by the atmosphere.

Scattering
When light passes through our atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact
with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect
radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see
your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a
phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red)
wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue, you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red.
Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye.
Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.

Absorption
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all
wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule
absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. We can think of this as heating the atmosphere, but the
atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave
"windows" of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain
bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm
(ultraviolet-C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum
(commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the
infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows
Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance
that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For
(or opacity) to various wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation, including visible light. example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about
eleven-meter waves.

Emission
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and
wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more
radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the
Sun is approximately 6000 K (5730 °C; 10340 °F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye.
The Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be
visible to humans.

Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights the Earth's surface
cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared
radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations. The atmosphere acts as a "blanket" to limit
the amount of radiation the Earth loses into space.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission (or "blanket") effect. Some chemicals in the
atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common
examples of these chemicals are CO2 and H2O. If there are too much of these greenhouse gases, sunlight heats the
Earth's surface, but the gases block the infrared radiation from exiting back to space. This imbalance causes the Earth
Atmosphere of Earth 8

to warm, and thus climate change.

Refractive index
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the
bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard
ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of
the Earth's surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is
large. An example of such effects is the mirage.

Circulation
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air through the
troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is
distributed around the Earth. The large-scale structure of the
atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure
remains fairly constant as it is determined by the Earth's rotation rate
and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.

Evolution of Earth's atmosphere

Earliest atmosphere An idealised view of three large circulation cells.

The outgassings of the Earth was stripped away by solar winds early in
the history of the planet until a steady state was established, the first atmosphere. Based on today's volcanic
evidence, this atmosphere would have contained 60% hydrogen, 20% oxygen (mostly in the form of water vapor),
10% carbon dioxide, 5 to 7% hydrogen sulfide, and smaller amounts of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, free hydrogen,
methane and inert gases.
A major rainfall led to the buildup of a vast ocean, enriching the other agents, first carbon dioxide and later nitrogen
and inert gases. A major part of carbon dioxide exhalations were soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate
sediments.

Second atmosphere
Water-related sediments have been found dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.[15] About 3.4 billion years
ago, nitrogen was the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". An influence of life has to be taken into
account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, since hints of early life forms are to be found as early as 3.5
billion years ago.[16] The fact that this is not perfectly in line with the - compared to today 30% lower - solar
radiance of the early Sun has been described as the "Faint young Sun paradox".
The geological record however shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature
record of the Earth with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archaean eon
an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently from photosynthesizing algae which have been
found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) is
very much in line with what is found today,[17] suggesting that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle were
established as early as 4 billion years ago.
Atmosphere of Earth 9

Third atmosphere
The accretion of continents about 3.5 billion years ago[18] added plate
tectonics, constantly rearranging the continents and also shaping
long-term climate evolution by allowing the transfer of carbon dioxide
to large land-based carbonate storages. Free oxygen did not exist until
about 1.7 billion years ago and this can be seen with the development
of the red beds and the end of the banded iron formations. This
signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidising
atmosphere. O2 showed major ups and downs until reaching a steady
state of more than 15%.[19] The following time span was the Oxygen content of the atmosphere over the last
Phanerozoic eon, during which oxygen-breathing metazoan life forms billion years
began to appear.

Currently, anthropogenic greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere. According to the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, this increase is the main cause of global warming.[20]

Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or
discomfort to organisms into the atmosphere.[21] Stratospheric ozone depletion is believed to be caused by air
pollution (chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons).

References
[1] "Trace Gases" (http:/ / www. ace. mmu. ac. uk/ eae/ Atmosphere/ Older/ Trace_Gases. html). Ace.mmu.ac.uk. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[2] Source for figures: Carbon dioxide, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory (http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ gmd/ ccgg/ trends/ #mlo),
(updated 2010.06). Methane, IPCC TAR table 6.1 (http:/ / www. grida. no/ climate/ ipcc_tar/ wg1/ 221. htm#tab61), (updated to 1998). The
NASA total was 17 ppmv over 100%, and CO2 was increased here by 15 ppmv. To normalize, N2 should be reduced by about 25 ppmv and O2
by about 7 ppmv.
[3] Ahrens, C. Donald. Essentials of Meteorology. Published by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005.
[4] States, Robert J.; Gardner, Chester S. (January 2000), "Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I:
Seasonal Variations" (http:/ / journals. ametsoc. org/ doi/ full/ 10. 1175/ 1520-0469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2. 0. CO;2), Journal of the
Atmospheric Sciences 2000 57: 66–77,
[5] http:/ / www. ace. mmu. ac. uk/ eae/ Atmosphere/ Older/ Mesosphere. html
[6] http:/ / www-das. uwyo. edu/ ~geerts/ cwx/ notes/ chap01/ tropo. html
[7] "''homosphere''—AMS Glossary" (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?id=homosphere1). Amsglossary.allenpress.com. .
Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[8] "Earth's Atmosphere" (http:/ / www. bambooweb. com/ articles/ e/ a/ Earth's_atmosphere. html). .
[9] "NASA - Earth Fact Sheet" (http:/ / nssdc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ planetary/ factsheet/ earthfact. html). Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[10] "Global Surface Temperature Anomalies" (http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ oa/ climate/ research/ anomalies/ index. php). .
[11] "Earth's Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes" (http:/ / oceanworld. tamu. edu/ resources/ oceanography-book/ radiationbalance.
htm). .
[12] "Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run" (http:/ / www-pcmdi. llnl. gov/ projects/ cmip/ overview_ms/ control_tseries. pdf). .
[13] "The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses" (http:/ / ams. allenpress. com/ perlserv/ ?request=get-abstract& doi=10.
1175/ JCLI-3299. 1). Ams.allenpress.com. 1970-01-01. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[14] Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995) The Atmosphere, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp14-17, ISBN 0-13-350612-6
[15] B. Windley: The Evolving Continents. Wiley Press, New York 1984
[16] J. Schopf: Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1983
[17] Celestial climate driver: a perspective from 4 billion years of the carbon cycle Geoscience Canada, March, 2005 by Jan Veizer
[18] Veizer in B. F. Windley (ed.), The Early History of the Earth, John Wiley and Sons, London, p. 569., 1976
[19] Christopher R. Scotese, Back to Earth History : Summary Chart for the Precambrian (http:/ / www. scotese. com/ precamb_chart. htm),
Paleomar Project
[20] "Summary for Policymakers" (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/ assessment-report/ ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-spm. pdf) (PDF). Climate Change 2007:
The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 5 February 2007. .
Atmosphere of Earth 10

[21] Starting from (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ pollution) Pollution - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary

External links
• NASA atmosphere models (http://modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/spdf_models_home.html#atmo)
• NASA's Earth Fact Sheet (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html)
• American Geophysical Union: Atmospheric Sciences (http://atmospheres.agu.org/)
• Stuff in the Air (http://www.stuffintheair.com/) Find out what the atmosphere contains.
• Layers of the Atmosphere (http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm)
• Answers to several questions of curious kids related to Air and Atmosphere (http://www.scribd.com/doc/
22854/Air-Atmosphere-and-Airplanes/)
• The AMS Glossary of Meteorology (http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary)
• Paul Crutzen Interview (http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/111) Free video of Paul Crutzen Nobel
Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science
Trust.
• Slides describing the Earth's modern atmosphere (http://des.memphis.edu/lurbano/Geog1010/Fall05/
chapter_03/chapter_03.html)
Article Sources and Contributors 11

Article Sources and Contributors

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Image:Top of Atmosphere.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory
Image:Sunset from the ISS.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sunset_from_the_ISS.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ISS Expedition 23 crew
File:Atmosphere gas proportions.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atmosphere_gas_proportions.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:User:MysidMysid
File:Atmospheric Water Vapor Mean.2005.030.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Jdorje, Saperaud, W!B:, Wouterhagens, 4 anonymous edits
File:Atmosphere layers-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atmosphere_layers-en.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: NOAA & w:User:MysidUser:Mysid
File:Atmosphere model.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atmosphere_model.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Angeloleithold,
Conscious
File:Atmospheric electromagnetic opacity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atmospheric_electromagnetic_opacity.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
(original); SVG by w:User:MysidMysid.
File:AtmosphCirc2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AtmosphCirc2.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Hastings
File:Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:WolfmanSF

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