Types of Bivariate Relationships

and Associated Statistics

 Nominal/Ordinal and Nominal/Ordinal (including
dichotomous)
 Crosstabulation (Lamda, Chi-Square Gamma, etc.)

 Interval and Dichotomous

 Difference of means test

 Interval and Nominal/Ordinal

 Analysis of Variance

 Interval and Interval

 Regression and correlation
 Difference of Means
 Often, we are interested in the difference in the
means of two populations.

 For example,
 What is the difference in the mean income for blacks
and whites?

 What is the difference in the average defense

expenditure level for Republican and Democratic
presidents?
 Difference of Means
 Notethat both of these questions are
essentially asking if two variables (one of
which is interval and the other
dichotomous) are related to one another.
 Difference of Means
 The
null hypothesis for a difference of
means test is:
 There is no difference in the mean of Y across
groups (m1-m2=0)
 Difference of Means
 Thealternative hypothesis for a difference
of means test is:
 There is a difference in the mean of Y across
groups (m1-m2≠0)
 Sampling Distribution for a
Difference of Means
 The sampling distribution for the difference of
two means:

1. Is distributed normally (for large N)

2. Has mean m1-m2
3. We can determine the variance of the sampling
distribution of the difference of means (and
thus the SE) from information about the
population variances (but we use sample
variances to estimate).
 Test Statistic for a Difference of
Means
 The test statistic (used to test the null
hypothesis) for the difference of two
means (for independent samples) is
calculated as:
 Test Statistic for a Difference of
Means
 After calculating this test statistic, we can
determine the probability of observing a t-
value at least this large, assuming the
null hypothesis is true (P-value/sig. level)
 Example: NES and 2000 Election
 1. Null hypothesis: there was no difference
in age between those who voted for Bush
and those who voted for Gore (alternative
hypothesis: there WAS a difference)
 Example: NES and 2000 Election
 2. Appropriate test statistic for difference
of means = t statistic (t-test)

 3. What would the sampling distribution

look like if the null hypothesis were true?
(normal, mean of 0, and SE calculated by
researcher)
 Example: NES and 2000 Election
 4.Alpha level (.05) = we will reject the null
hypothesis if the P-value (sig. level) is less
than .05
 Example: NES and 2000 Election
 5. Calculate test statistic

Mean for Gore voters: 49.63

Mean for Bush voters: 49.60
Difference: .033
SE: .98
T-statistic: 0.0337
P-value: 0.9732 (the probability of obtaining a sample
difference of at least .033 if in fact there is no difference
in the population)
Conclusion: ???
Zilber and Niven (SSQ)
 Zilber and Niven (SSQ)
 Hypothesis
 Whites will react less favorably to black
leaders who use the label “African-American”
instead of “black.”
 Zilber and Niven (SSQ)
 Simple2-group posttest-only
 Sample – convenience sample from
Midwestern city; university students

R (“black”) MBLACK
R (“A-A”) MAFRICANAMERICAN
Zilber and Niven (SSQ)

*p<.05
**p<.10
 Example
 NES 2004
 Republican Party Feeling Thermometer
(537)
 Religious importance (51)
 Talk Radio (78)
 Analysis of Variance
 Purpose – ANOVA is used to compare the means of >2
groups

 More specifically, ANOVA is used to test:

 Null Hypothesis: m1 = m2 = m3= ... = mg

 against

 Alternative Hypothesis: At least one mean is different

 Analysis of Variance
 Examples
 Comparing the differences in mean income
among racial/ethnic groups (black, white,
Hispanic, Asian)

 Comparing the differences in feeling

thermometer scores for Bush among
Republicans, Democrats, and Independents
 Analysis of Variance
 Essentially,ANOVA partitions the total
variance in Y (TSS) into two components.

 TSS = Total sum of squares – total

variation in Y
_
S (Yi – Y)2
 Analysis of Variance
BSS = Between Sum of Squares =
variation in Y due to differences
between groups
_ _
S (Yg – Y)2
 Analysis of Variance
WSS = Within Sum of Squares =
variation in Y due to differences within
groups
_
S (Yig – Yg)2
 Analysis of Variance

Test statistic:

 Fg-1, N-g = [BSS/(g-1)] / [WSS/(N-g)]

 [Where g=# groups]
 Analysis of Variance
 Interpreting an ANOVA
 If the null hypothesis is true (i.e. all means are
equal), the F-statistic will be equal to 1 (in the
population)

 If the F-statistic is judged to be “statistically

significant” (and thus sufficiently greater than
1) we reject the null hypothesis
 Analysis of Variance
 Interpreting an ANOVA
 We can also calculate a measure of the
strength of the relationship
• Eta-squared = the proportion of variation in the
dependent variable explained by the independent
variable
 ANOVA Examples
 NES 2004
 Republican Party Feeling Thermometer
(537)
 Educ Categ (4)
 Religion (8)
 Ideology (25)
 Bivariate Statistics
Dependent Variable
Nominal or Interval or
Independent Dichotmous Ordinal Ratio
Variable
Lamda, Lamda, Difference of
Means Test (t-test)
Nominal or Chi-square, Chi-square, if IV dichotomous,
Dichotomous Cramer’s V Cramer’s V ANOVA if IV nominal

Lamda, Gamma, Analysis of

Ordinal Chi-square, Tau-b, Tau-c, Variance
Cramer’s V Somer’s D (ANOVA)
Interval or Difference of Analysis of Correlation,
Means Test (t-test)
Ratio if DV dichotomous, Variance Regression
ANOVA if DV nominal (ANOVA)
 Bivariate Statistics
Dependent Variable
Nominal or Interval or
Independent Dichotmous Ordinal Ratio
Variable
Lamda, Lamda, Difference of
Means Test (t-test)
Nominal or Chi-square, Chi-square, if IV dichotomous,
Dichotomous Cramer’s V Cramer’s V ANOVA if IV nominal

Lamda, Gamma, Analysis of

Ordinal Chi-square, Tau-b, Tau-c, Variance
Cramer’s V Somer’s D (ANOVA)
Interval or Difference of Analysis of Correlation,
Means Test (t-test)
Ratio if DV dichotomous, Variance Regression
ANOVA if DV nominal (ANOVA)