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CONTENTS:-


×? NTRODUCTON

×? CRCUTDc Rc

×? CBcOUT

×? ëORKN 

×? cDVcNTc ES

×? COONENTST:-

C

REc

TRcNSSTOR

THERSTER

ED

CccCTOR

RESSTOR

×? COONENTDSCRTON

×? STESOFROJECTcKN 

×? CONCUSON

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NTRODUCTON:-


The automatic fan controller can easily control the temperature of
surrounding environment using this technology. In the circuit the resistance
increases as the surrounding temperature decreases. Tolerance for my
application (cooling a large power supply coolrib) is 10%. Another name for
this thing is 'NTC'. NTC stands for "Negative Temperature Coefficient" which
means when the surrounding temperature decreases the resistance of this
thermistor will increase. I replaced my thermistor for a 60K hermetically
sealed glass type since the environment for my application may contain
corrosive particles which may affect performance on a future date. P1 is a
regular Bourns trimmer and adjusts a wide range of temperatures for this
circuit. I used the 10-turn type for a bit finer adjustment but the regular type
will work for your application.
R1 is a 'security' resistor just in case the trimmer pot P1 is adjusted all the way
to '0' ohms. At which time the thermistor would get the full 12 volt and it will
get so hot that it puts blisters on your fingers... :-)R3 feeds a bit of hysteresis
back into the op-amp to eliminate relay 'chatter' when the temperature of
the thermistor reaches its threshold point. Depending on your application
and the type you use for Q1 and Re1, start with 330K or so and adjust its value
downwards until your satisfied. The value of 150K shown in the diagram
worked for me. Decreasing the value of R2 means more hysteresis, just don't
use more then necessary.

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Th1, the 50K thermistor, is a standard type. Mine was a bar or rectangular
looking thingy. Available from Tandy/Radio-Shack. Almost any type will do.
I experimented with different models from 22K to 100K and all worked fine
after replacing the trimmer pot. The one used in the above circuit diagram
was a 50K model. This 50K was measured at exactly 25 °C and with 10%
tolerance. The resistance increases as the surrounding temperature
decreases. Tolerance for my application (cooling a large power supply
coolrib) is 10%. Another name for this thing is 'NTC'. NTC stands for
"Negative Temperature Coefficient" which means when the surrounding
temperature decreases the resistance of this thermistor will increase.

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I replaced my thermistor for a 60K hermetically
sealed glass type since the environment for my application may contain
corrosive particles which may affect performance on a future date. P1 is a
regular Bourns trimmer and adjusts a wide range of temperatures for this
circuit. I used the 10-turn type for a bit finer adjustment but the regular type
will work for your application.

R1 is a 'security' resistor just in case the trimmer

pot P1 is adjusted all the way to '0' ohms. At which time the thermistor
would get the full 12 volt and it will get so hot that it puts blisters on your
fingers... :-)R3 feeds a bit of hysteresis back into the op-amp to eliminate
relay 'chatter' when the temperature of the thermistor reaches its threshold
point. Depending on your application and the type you use for Q1 and Re1,
start with 330K or so and adjust its value downwards until your satisfied. The
value of 150K shown in the diagram worked for me.

Decreasing the value of R2 means more

hysteresis, just don't use more then necessary. Or temporarily use a trimmer
pot and read off the value. 120K worked for me. Transistor Q1 can be a
2N2222(A), 2N3904, NTE123A, ECG123A, etc. Not critical at all. It acts only as
a switch for the relay so almost any type will work, as long as it can provide
the current needed to activate the relay's coil. D1, the 1N4148, acts as a spark
arrestor when the contacts of the relay open and eliminates false triggering.
For my application the 1N4148 was good enough since the tiny relay I used
was only 1 amp.
However, you can use a large variety of diodes here, my next choice would be
a regular purpose 1N4001 or something and should be used if your relay type
can handle more then 1 amp. If you like to make your own pcb, try the one
above. The pcb is fitted with holes for the relay but may not fit your
particular relay. It was designed for a Aromat HB1-DC12V type. The variety
and model of relays is just to great. How to mount it then? Well, I left ample
space on the pcb to mount your relay. You can even mount it up-side-down
and connect the wires individually. Use Silicon glue, cyanoacrylate ester
(crazy glue), or double-sided tape to hold the relay in place. Works well.
Note that the pcb and layout is not according to the circuit diagram in
regards to the hookup of the fans. The PCB measures approximately 1.5 x 3
inches (4.8 x 7.6mm) If you print the pcb to an inkjet printer it is probably

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not to scale. Try to fit a 8-pin ic socket on the printed copy to make sure it
fits before making the pcb.

cDVcNTc ES:-

×? The automatic fan controller can easily conrol the temperature.

×? This technology is very chief in cost & effective.
×? The circuit capability for damage is sufficient.
×? The environmental effect does not harmful for this automatic fan
controller.

COONENTDESCRTON:-
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D

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The LM741 series are general purpose operational amplifiers which feature improved
performance over industry standards like the LM709. They are direct, plug-in
replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in most applications. The amplifiers
offer many features which make their application nearly foolproof: overload protection on
the input and output, no latch-up when the common mode range is exceeded, as well as
freedom from oscillations. The LM741C is identical to the LM741/LM741A except that the
LM741C has their performance guaranteed over a 0°C to +70°C temperature range, instead
of χ55°C to +125°C.

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Automotive style miniature relay

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close
one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is
able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be
considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier

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Small relay as used in electronics

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core,
an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a moveable iron
armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by
a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the
other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on
their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the
armature, and the circuit track on the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB. When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting
magnetic field attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable
contact or contacts either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of
contacts was closed when the relay was de-energised, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a
high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing. If the coil is energized
with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the
collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike
dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays already include that diode
inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection network, consisting of a capacitor
and resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with

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AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring"
creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature
during the AC cycle. By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device,
a solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To
achieve electrical isolation an opt coupler can be used which is a light-emitting diode
(LED) coupled with a photo transistor.

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A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called 'keep' or 'stay'
relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is
achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two
opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and
contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remnant core. In the ratchet and
cam example, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it
off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the
opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes
power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a
power outage.

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A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which
protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a

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magnetic field generated when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed
relays are capable of faster switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low
switch current and voltage ratings. See also reed switch.



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A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) because of
their low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where
the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and
must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of
liquid mercury, these relays are rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury
switch.

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A Polarized Relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone
exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on
screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a
bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.

 

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A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large
number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from
normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that
allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once
were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the
programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from
sequential control applications.

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A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable
arcing causes the contacts to oxidize and silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such
devices are often used for motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload
protection devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated
relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to

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operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the
overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor relays can
be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.

S-


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Solid state relay, which has no moving parts 25 amp or 40 amp solid state contactors .A
solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components,
increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that
every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount
of current a given SSR could handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to
handle 100 to 1,200 amps, have become commercially available. Compared to
electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.

S






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A solid state contactor is a very heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat
sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where
frequent on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no
contact bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control
signals from Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
sources, or other microprocessor controls.

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A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer
if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

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A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together,
so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move
together. If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the
same relay will be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the
safety circuit to check the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as
"positive-guided contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

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One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in
series with the electric motor . The heat generated by the motor current operates a bi-
metal strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload
relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude
compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided.

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Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.

The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A
relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing
the coil in one of three ways:

1.? N
-  !NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also
called a Form A contact or "make" contact.

2.? N
- !NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called
a Form B contact or "break" contact.

3.? C -v

 !CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits:
one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a
common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact

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("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make before break"
functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

1.? SST - Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be
connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four
terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or
normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to
resolve the ambiguity.

2.? SDT - Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either
of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in
total.

3.? DST - Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals.
Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The poles
may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).

4.? DDT - Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over
terminals.Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to
a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14
terminals).

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A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old telephone switching
system. Several 30-contact relays in DzConnectordz circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch
and 5XB switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one Selection of an appropriate
relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many different factors:

[? N "
 


 Ȃ normally open, normally closed, (double-
throw)

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 #   Ȃ DzMake before Breakdz or DzBreak before Makedz. For
example, the old style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so
that the connection didnǯt get dropped while dialing the number.

[? R
   

 Ȃ small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors
are rated for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current

[? V


   

 Ȃ typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600
VAC, automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15
000 V

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 Ȃ machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays
for switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, Dzsensitivedz relays operate
on a few mill amperes.

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Ȃ Usually in the range of 40 Ȃ 200 Ma for 0 Ȃ 24 VDC coils.[2]

[? $ 
 Ȃ open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation
between circuits, explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant,
washable for printed circuit board assembly

[? c" Ȃ Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to
allow PCB post soldering cleaning agents. Which is removed once assembly
is complete?

[? 
  Ȃ sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel

mount, enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment

[? Sw
 
 Ȃ where high speed is required

[? ùD
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 Ȃ when switching very low level signals, special contact
materials may be needed such as gold-plated contacts

[? C




 Ȃ suppress arcing in very inductive circuits

[? C


 Ȃ suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the
coil current

[? Isolation between coil circuit and contacts

[? Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance

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[? Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration Ȃ some relays used in
aerospace applications are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or
more

[? Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons

[? Regulatory approvals

[? Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit

board.

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A protective relay is a complex electromechanical apparatus, often with more than one
coil, designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit
breakers when a fault was found. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-
defined operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays had well-
established, selectable, time/current (or other operating parameter) curves. Such relays
were very elaborate, using arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets, operating and
restraint coils, solenoid-type operators, telephone-relay style contacts, and phase-shifting
networks to allow the relay to respond to such conditions as over-current, over-voltage,
reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency, and even distance relays that would trip
for faults up to a certain distance away from a substation but not beyond that point. An
important transmission line or generator unit would have had cubicles dedicated to
protection, with a score of individual electromechanical devices. The various protective
functions available on a given relay are denoted by standard ANSI Device Numbers. For
example, a relay including function 51 would be a timed over current protective relay.
These protective relays provide various types of electrical protection by detecting
abnormal conditions and isolating them from the rest of the electrical system by circuit
breaker operation. Such relays may be located at the service entrance or at major load
centers. Design and theory of these protective devices is an important part of the
education of an electrical engineer who specializes in power systems. Today these devices
are nearly entirely replaced (in new designs) with microprocessor-based instruments
(numerical relays) that emulate their electromechanical ancestors with great precision
and convenience in application. By combining several functions in one case, numerical
relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays.
However, due to their very long life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are
still protecting transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over the world.

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An DzOver current Relaydz is a type of protective relay which operates when the load
current exceeds a preset value. The ANSI Device Designation Number is 50 for an
Instantaneous over Current (IOC), 51 for a Time over Current (TOC). In a typical
application the over current relay is used for over current protection, connected to a
current transformer and calibrated to operate at or above a specific current level. When
the relay operates, one or more contacts will operate and energize a trip coil in a Circuit
Breaker and trip (open) the Circuit Breaker.

  
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These robust and reliable electromagnetic relays use the induction principle discovered
by Ferraris in the late 19th century. The magnetic system in induction disc over current
relays is designed to detect overcurrents in a power system and operate with a pre
determined time delay when certain overcurrent limits have been reached. In order to
operate, the magnetic system in the relays produces rotational torque that acts on a metal
disc to make contact, according to the following basic current/torque equation:

T = K x ɛ1 x ɛ2 SinɌ

Where

K Ȃ is a constant

ɛ1 and ɛ2 are the two fluxes

Ɍ is the phase angle between the fluxes

The relay's primary winding is supplied from the power systems current transformer via a
plug bridge, which is also commonly known as the plug setting multiplier (psm). The
variations in the current setting are usually seven equally spaced tapings or operating
bands that determine the relays sensitivity. The primary winding is located on the upper
electromagnet. The secondary winding has connections on the upper electromagnet that
are energized from the primary winding and connected to the lower electromagnet. Once
the upper and lower electromagnets are energized they produce eddy currents that are
induced onto the metal disc and flow through the flux paths. This relationship of eddy
currents and fluxes creates rotational torque proportional to the input current of the
primary winding, due to the two flux paths been out of phase by 90º. Therefore in an over
current condition a value of current will be reached that overcomes the control spring
pressure on the spindle and the breaking magnet causing the metal disc to rotate moving
towards the fixed contact. This initial movement of the disc is also held off to a critical
positive value of current by small slots that are often cut into the side of the disc. The

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time taken for rotation to make the contacts is not only dependent on current but also
the spindle backstop position, known as the time multiplier (tm). The time multiplier is
divided into 10 linear divisions of the full rotation time. Providing the relay is free from
dirt, the metal disc and the spindle with its contact will reach the fixed contact, thus
sending a signal to trip and isolate the circuit, within its designed time and current
specifications. Drop off current of the relay is much lower than its operating value, and
once reached the relay will be reset in a reverse motion by the pressure of the control
spring governed by the braking magnet.

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The most common form of feeder protection on high voltage transmission systems is
distance relay protection. Power lines have set impedance per 19ilometer and using this
value and comparing voltage and current the distance to a fault can be determined. The
ANSI standard device number for a distance relay is 21. The main types of distance relay
protection schemes are:-

Ȉ Three step distance protection

Ȉ Switched distance protection

Ȉ Accelerated or permissive intertrip protection

Ȉ Blocked distance protection

In three step distance protection, the relays are separated into three separate zones of
impedance measurement to accommodate for over reach and under reach conditions.
Zone 1 is instantaneous in operation and has a purposely set under reach of 80% of the
total line length to avoid operation for the next line. This is due to measurements of
impedance of lines not being entirely accurate, errors in voltage and current transformers
and relay tolerances. These errors can be up to ±20% of the line impedance, hence the
zones 80% reach. Zone 2 covers the last 20% of the feeder line length and provides
backup to the next line by having a slight over reach. To prevent mal-operation the zone
has a 0.5 second time delay. Zone 3 provides backup for the next line and has a time delay
of 1 second to grade with zone 2 protection of the next line.






 
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AC motors need over current protection against short circuits from external faults in
connecting cables and from internal faults in motor windings. In addition, motors are
thermally rated and limited, and protective relays must be applied to prevent overheating
during operating conditions where no fault is present.

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Relays are used to and for:

1.? Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of

modems or audio amplifiers,

2.? Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter

solenoid of an automobile,

3.? Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening
and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

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Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A

dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance. A capacitor consists of
two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[4] The non-conductive substance
is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a vacuum or a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is
assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence
from an external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite charges
on their facing surfaces,[5] and the dielectric contains an electric field. The capacitor is a
reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits.An ideal capacitor is
wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on
each conductor to the voltage V between them. Sometimes charge buildup affects the
mechanics of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is
defined in terms of incremental changes.In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that
one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

E 


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Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists and

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energy is stored in the electric field. If charge is later allowed to return to its equilibrium
position, the energy is released. The work done in establishing the electric field, and
hence the amount of energy stored.


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 :-

The current i (t ) through a component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of

change of the charge q (t ) that has passed through it. Physical charges cannot pass
through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, but rather build up in equal and opposite
quantities on the electrodes: as each electron accumulates on the negative plate, one
leaves the positive plate. Thus the accumulated charge on the electrodes is equal to the
integral of the current, as well as being proportional to the voltage (as discussed above).
As with any ant derivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial
voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation, Taking the derivative of
this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,The dual of the capacitor is the
inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the electric field. Its
current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor
equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

DC
 
:-

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor. A series circuit

containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is
known as a charging circuit.[10] If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is
open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that Taking
the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation, At t = 0, the
voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial
current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields where
ə0 = RC is the time constant of the system.As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the
source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and the current through the entire circuit
decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged capacitor likewise demonstrates
exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage
being zero.

cC
 
:-

See also: reactance (electronics) and electrical impedance Deriving the device specific
impedances Impedance, the complex sum of reactance and resistance, describes the
phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidal varying voltage and

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sinusoidal varying current at a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be
constructed from a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various
frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively

Where j is the imaginary unit and ɟ is the angular velocity of the sinusoidal signal. The - j
phase indicates that the AC voltage V = Z I lags the AC current by 90°: the positive
current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges, zero current
corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc.Note that impedance decreases with
increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency
signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current amplitudeȄ
an AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance
will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC analysisȄthose
frequencies have been "filtered out."Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors
in that the impedance is inversely proportional to the defining characteristic, i.e.
capacitance.



:-

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a separation
of d. The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a
dielectric with permittivity ɉ. The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions
for other device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A
and a charge density ±ɖ = ±Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the width of the
plates is much greater than their separation d, the electric field near the centre of the
device will be uniform with the magnitude E = ɖ/ɉ. The voltage is defined as the line
integral of the electric field between the plates. Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that
capacitance increases with area and decreases with separation.The capacitance is
therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high permittivity.

N
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:

S
 

 
:-

Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their
capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic
diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the
total surface area.

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Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the
plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that
of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is
apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire
series acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components. Capacitors are combined in
series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage
power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate separation, add up. In such
an application, several series connections may in turn be connected in parallel, forming a
matrix. The goal is to maximize the energy storage utility of each capacitor without
overloading it. Series connection is also used to adapt electrolytic capacitors for AC use.

N -"v

:-

Capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in a number of ways. Some of these,
such as leakage current and parasitic effects are linear, or can be assumed to be linear,
and can be dealt with by adding virtual components to the equivalent circuit of the
capacitor. The usual methods of network analysis can then be applied. In other cases,
such as with breakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and normal (i.e., linear) network
analysis cannot be used, the effect must be dealt with separately. There is yet another
group, which may be linear but invalidate the assumption in the analysis that capacitance
is a constant. Such an example is temperature dependence.

B
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:-

Above a particular electric field, known as the dielectric strength Eds, the dielectric in a
capacitor becomes conductive. The voltage at which this occurs is called the breakdown
voltage of the device, and is given by the product of the dielectric strength and the
separation between the conductors.

Vbd = Edsd

The maximum energy that can be stored safely in a capacitor is limited by the breakdown
voltage. Due to the scaling of capacitance and breakdown voltage with dielectric
thickness, all capacitors made with a particular dielectric have approximately equal
maximum energy density, to the extent that the dielectric dominates their volume. For air
dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength is of the order 107 V/m and will be
rather a lot less when other materials are used for the dielectric. The absolute breakdown
voltage of most capacitors is nowhere near such a high number because of the very small
distance between the plates. Typical ratings for capacitors used for general electronics
applications range from a few volts to 100V or so. For high voltage applications physically
much larger capacitors have to be used. In this field, there are a number of factors that
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can dramatically reduce the breakdown voltage below that to be expected by considering
the breakdown field strength of the dielectric alone. For one thing, the geometry of the
capacitor conductive parts (plates and connecting wires) is important. In particular, sharp
edges or points hugely increase the electric field strength at that point and can lead to a
local breakdown. Once this starts to happen, the breakdown will quickly "track" through
the dielectric till it reaches the opposite plate and cause a short circuit. The usual
breakdown route is that the field strength becomes large enough to pull electrons in the
dielectric from their atoms thus causing conduction. Other scenarios are possible, such as
impurities in the dielectric, and, if the dielectric is of a crystalline nature, imperfections in
the crystal structure can result in an avalanche breakdown as seen in semi-conductor
devices. Breakdown voltage is also affected by pressure, humidity and temperature.

E# v

 
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Tw# v

 



:-

An ideal capacitor only stores and releases electrical energy, without dissipating any. In
reality, all capacitors have imperfections within the capacitor's material that create
resistance. This is specified as the equivalent series resistance or ESR of a component.
This adds a real component to the impedance: As frequency approaches infinity, the
capacitive impedance (or reactance) approaches zero and the ESR becomes significant. As
the reactance becomes negligible, power dissipation approaches PRMS. = VRMS.² /RESR.
Similarly to ESR, the capacitor's leads add equivalent series inductance or ESL to the
component. This is usually significant only at relatively high frequencies. As inductive
reactance is positive and increases with frequency, above a certain frequency capacitance
will be canceled by inductance. High frequency engineering involves accounting for the
inductance of all connections and components. If the conductors are separated by a
material with a small conductivity rather than a perfect dielectric, then a small leakage
current flows directly between them. The capacitor therefore has a finite parallel
resistance,[6] and slowly discharges over time (time may vary greatly depending on the
capacitor material and quality).

R


:-

Ripple current is the AC component of an applied source (often a switched-mode power

supply) whose frequency may be constant or varying. Certain types of capacitors, such as
electrolytic tantalum capacitors, usually have a rating for maximum ripple current (both
in frequency and magnitude). This ripple current can cause damaging heat to be

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generated within the capacitor due to the current flow across resistive imperfections in
the materials used within the capacitor, more commonly referred to as equivalent series
resistance (ESR). For example electrolytic tantalum capacitors are limited by ripple
current and generally have the highest ESR ratings in the capacitor family, while ceramic
capacitors generally have no ripple current limitation and have some of the lowest ESR
ratings.

 
"

 :-

The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic

capacitors, this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric and the
ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while
the operating voltage has a smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating
the component above the Curie point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the
component, and the device stabilizes over time.[15] Electrolytic capacitors age as the
electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of
life of the component. Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually expressed in
parts per million (ppm) per °C. It can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can
be noticeably non-linear at the temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient can be
either positive or negative, sometimes even amongst different samples of the same type.
In other words, the spread in the range of temperature coefficients can encompass zero.
See the data sheet in the leakage current section above for an example. Capacitors,
especially older components, can absorb sound waves resulting in a micro phonic effect.
Vibration moves the plates, causing the capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current.
Some dielectrics also generate piezoelectricity. The resulting interference is especially
problematic in audio applications, potentially causing feedback or unintended recording.
In the reverse micro phonic effect, the varying electric field between the capacitor plates
exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate audible sound, but
drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any.

T

:-

Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of
internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect
the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.

Dielectric materials:-

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C

 

: From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc, multilayer polyester
film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized polyester film, aluminum electrolytic. Major
scale divisions are in centimeters.

Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance.
These dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are
available with a vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage
operation and low losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere
were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric
between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between them.
Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic
materials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage
performance. However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely
replaced by plastic film capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance,
which makes them useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to low operating
temperatures and frequencies. Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful
for high frequency applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage,
and they age poorly. They are broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have
predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can
operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and
tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream
applications. Electrolytic capacitors and super capacitors are used to store small and
larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators,
and parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-
conductor sequence is formed unintentionally. Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum
or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid
electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very
high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of
capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. The conductivity

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of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance.
While widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics
make them unsuitable for many applications. Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency
and temperature characteristics than aluminum, but higher dielectric absorption and
leakage.[16] OS-CON (or OC-CON) capacitors are a polymerized organic semiconductor
solid-electrolyte type that offer longer life at higher cost than standard electrolytic
capacitors. Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications. super
capacitors store large amounts of energy. Super capacitors made from carbon aero gel,
carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials offer extremely high capacitance
(as much as 2,500 farads) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable
batteries. Alternating current capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains)
voltage AC power circuits. They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are
often designed to handle large currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are
usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed.
They also tend to have rather high direct current breakdown voltages.

S



:-

Capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left; through-hole
tantalum at top right; through-hole electrolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions are
cm.

The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired
ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic
disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be
made by multiple stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal
foil or metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and
a dielectric film of impregnated paper or plastic - these are rolled up to save space. To
reduce the series resistance and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are
staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at
the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates. The assembly is
encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric - early radio equipment used a
cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in
a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form
compressed to fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for
connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to
improve its properties. Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many
configurations, for example axially or radically. "Axial" means that the leads are on a
common axis, typically the axis of the capacitor's cylindrical body -- the leads extend from

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opposite ends. Radial leads might more accurately be referred to as tandem; they are
rarely actually aligned along radii of the body's circle, so the term is inexact, although
universal. The leads (until bent!) are usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of
the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured.
Small, cheap discoid ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s, and remain in
widespread use. Since the 1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been widely
used. These packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be
soldered directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components
avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated
assembly, although manual handling is made difficult due to their small size.
Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for
example by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of
stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of
aluminum and plastic with a screw. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with
varactors (or varicaps), which are reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion
region width varies with applied voltage. They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst
other applications.

c
 


:-

Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so ubiquitous
that it is a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

? S
E 

S

:-
[? A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit,
so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in
electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed.
(This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)
[? In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on
demand.
[? UPSes can be equipped with maintenance-free capacitors to extend service life.
?  w
 w :-
[? Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors
(capacitor banks) are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power
applications. These include electromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed
lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming networks, radar, fusion research, and
particle accelerators.

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[? Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-
bridgewire detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other
specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as
power sources for electromagnetic armour and electromagnetic railguns and
coilguns.
? w
 
  :-
[? Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a
full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the
energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.
[? Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic
devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current
fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for
signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in
this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The
capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents
from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening
capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-
acid car battery.

4.? w





 :-

In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such
capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the
values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-
amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like
electric motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive.
Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger
sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load
center within a building or in a large utility substation.

? S 
    :-
[? Signal coupling
[? capacitive coupling

Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied dc
voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This
method is known as AC coupling or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of

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capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small
at the signal frequency, is employed.

? D  :-

A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to decouple one part of a circuit from another.
Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted through the capacitor, reducing the
effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most commonly used between the power
supply and ground. An alternative name is bypass capacitor as it is used to bypass the
power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit.

? N


  ""
:-

When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses
quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the
inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to
oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A
snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to
bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in
contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the
spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still radiate undesirable radio
frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are
usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize
RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package. Capacitors are
also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage circuit breaker in order to equally
distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors.
In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn
vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The
straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see
electrolytic capacitor).

M? 





:-

In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary winding within the motor housing isn't
capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To
start the motor, a secondary winding is used in series with a non-polarized starting
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capacitor to introduce a lag in the sinusoidal current through the starting winding. When
the secondary winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary winding, a
rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is
sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a
centrifugal switch (or current-sensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects
the capacitor. The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing.
These are called capacitor-start motors, and have relatively high starting torque. There
are also capacitor-run induction motors which have a permanently-connected phase-
shifting capacitor in series with a second winding. The motor is much like a two-phase
induction motor.

Motor-starting capacitors are typically non-polarized electrolytic types, while running

capacitors are conventional paper or plastic film dielectric types.

6? S 
 :-

The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent information, either in binary
form, as in DRAMs, or in analogue form, as in analog sampled filters and CCDs.
Capacitors can be used in analog circuits as components of integrators or more complex
filters and in negative feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use
capacitors to integrate a current signal.

&?T 
 
:-

Capacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select information in
particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to
tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers
use capacitors to select different audio bands.The resonant frequency f of a tuned circuit
is a function of the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) in series, and is given by:

where L is in henries and C is in farads.

? S  :-

Most capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physical structure. However, various
factors can change the structure of the capacitor; the resulting change in capacitance can
be used to sense those factors.

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The effects of varying the physical and/or electrical characteristics of the dielectric can
also be of use. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure
humidity in air. Capacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel level in airplanes; as
the fuel covers more of a pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases.

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Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Industrial
pressure transmitters used for process control use pressure-sensing diaphragms, which
form a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capacitors are used as the sensor in
condenser microphones, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed
position of the other plate. Some accelerometers use MEMS capacitors etched on a chip
to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to
detect changes in acceleration, eg. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors
triggering airbag deployment, and in many other applications. Some fingerprint sensors
use capacitors. Additionally, a user can adjust the pitch of a theremin musical instrument
by moving his hand since this changes the effective capacitance between the user's hand
and the antenna.

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Capacitive touch switches are now used on many consumer electronic products.

H 
 
:-

Lichtenberg figures are produced by inducing a capacitor failure in a capacitor with a

solid dielectric. Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit;
this charge can cause shocks or damage to connected equipment. For example, even a
seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable camera flash unit powered by a 1.5 volt
AA battery contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily
capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include
instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors. Capacitors may also have built-
in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after
power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as
protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption.

Some old, large oil-filled capacitors contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is known
that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors containing PCB
were labeled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade names. PCB-filled capacitors
are found in very old (pre 1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications.

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High-voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents
beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal
interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes dielectric fluid, resulting in case
bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current
applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used
within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor
causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High
voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper
containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.

High-voltage capacitors can benefit from a pre-charge to limit in-rush currents at power-
up of HVDC circuits. This will extend the life of the component and may mitigate high-
voltage hazards

cDDTcC
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1.? Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at
different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a
low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low
voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs
change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to
conserve energy,

2.? Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting
normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally
open contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR
(exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished
using normally closed contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used
for designing relay logic networks.

3.? Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2,
and Zuse Z3.

a.? Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than
semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical
logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.

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4.? Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a
set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk
between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk
maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly
longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with
fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing
or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer
is installed.

V
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:-

C 


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Variable resistors consist of a resistance

 with
connections at both ends and a w
which moves along
the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made
from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of
wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but
straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also
available.

Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with
w

connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a
potentiometer with all

 connections in use. Miniature
versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which
will not require further adjustment.

Variable resistors are often called 




 in books Standard Variable Resistor
and catalogues. They are specified by their maximum
resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical
size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm.

The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:

KN means 4.7 k linear track.
O means 1 M logarithmic track.

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Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but
most are for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with
stranded wire connecting their terminals to the circuit board.

 
!N) 

!O )

:-

 
!N) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the
wiper. This is the standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a
project does not specify the type of track. Presets always have linear tracks.



!O ) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the
track and rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is 
half the total
resistance! This arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human
ear has a logarithmic response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low
volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to connect
the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the spindle increases
the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should swap the connections to
the ends of the track.

R

:-

This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Tw


  are used: one connected to an end of the track, the
other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the
resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the Rheostat Symbol
maximum resistance.

Rheostats are often used to v




, for example to
control the brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.

If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals
are connected! However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves
the mechanical strength of the mounting but it serves no function electrically.

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:-

Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all





  connected. This arrangement is normally used to
v
v
, for example to set the switching point of a
circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an Potentiometer Symbol
amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends of the track are
connected across the power supply then the wiper terminal
will provide a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.

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These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor.

They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit
board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example
to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a
Preset Symbol
light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is
required to adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper than
standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in
projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.  





are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many
times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine
control.

Preset Presets
Multiturn preset
(open style) (closed style)

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Many resistors are so small that it would be difficult to print their value and % tolerance
on their body in digits. To overcome this, a coding system based on bands of distinctive
colours was developed to assist in identification. Learning this
colour code
is not as
necessary as it used to be (thanks to accurate, low cost digital multimeters!), but it
s not
hard to learn and it
s quite useful knowledge anyway. The first thing to know is that in
each decade of resistance
i.e., from 10 - 100W, 100 - 1kW, 1k - 10kW, etc
there are only a
finite number of different nominal values allowed. Most common resistors have values in
the E12 series, which only has 12 allowed values per decade. Normalized these are 1.0, 1.2,
1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8 and 8.2. Multiples of these values are simply repeated
in each decade
e.g., 10, 12, 15, 18 and so on. Note that the
steps
between these values
are always very close to 20%, because the E12 series dates from the days of resistors with
±10% tolerance. To allow greater accuracy in circuit design, modern 1% tolerance resistors
are made in a larger range of values: the
E24
series, which has 12 additional allowed
values per decade as shown in the table. As before, these nominal values are simply
repeated in each decade. The table at right shows both the E12 and E24 allowed values for
comparison. The next thing to know is that there are two different resistor colour coding
systems in use: one using a total of 4 colour bands, and the other 5. The 5-band system is
generally used for 2% and closer tolerance resistors, even though the 4-band system is
quite capable of handling any resistors with E12 or E24 values. Both systems use the same
band colours to represent the various digits; the main difference is that 5-band resistors
have an additional
third band
, which is almost always BLACK to represent a third digit
of
0
. Hereǯs how both systems work in practice?

STESOFROJECTcKN
The following steps have been followed in carrying out the project

1.? Study the books on the relevant topic.

2.? Understand the working of the circuit.
3.? Prepare the circuit diagram.
4.? Prepare the list to components along with their specification estimate .the cost
and procure them after carrying out market survey.
5.? Plan and prepare PCB for mounting all the components.
6.? Fix the components on the PCB and solder them.

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7.? Test the circuit for the desired performance.
8.? Trace and rectify faults if any.
9.? Give good finish to the unit.
10.? Prepare the project report.

DES NSECFCcTON:-

STETcKENëHEREcRN CRCUT


!c)? CBDES NN :-

The main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric currents of electric
currents and signal through a thin copper layer that is bounded firmly to and instating
base material some time called the base. This base is manufactured with an integral
bounded layer of thin copper foil which has to be partly etched of other wise remove to
arrive at a pre designed pattern to suite the circuit connections or whatever other
application is noted.
The term printed circuit board is derived from the original method where by a
printed pattern is used as the mask over be wanted areas of copper. The PCB provides an
ideal; base board upon which to assemble and hold firmly most of the small components

From the constructors point to view the main attraction of using PCB is its role as
the mechanical support for small components. There is less need for complicate and time
consuming metal work of chassis contraception except perhaps in providing the final
enclosure Most straight forward circuit designs can be easily covered in to printed wiring
layer the thought required to carry out the inversion cab footed high light an possible
error that would otherwise be missed in conventional point to point wiring. The finished
project is usually neater and truly a work of art.

Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn on the copper board, while
the help of a material inactivate of FeCl solution. The hoard is then immersed in FeCl
solution for 12 hours, in this process only the hidden copper portion that is etched out by
the solution.

Now the paint is washed out by the petrol. Now the copper layout on PCB is
rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only the oxide layers over
the Cu is removed. Now the holes are drilled at the respective places according to
component layout as shown in figure.

!B)? cOUTDES N:

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When designing the layout one should observe the minimum size (component
body length and weight) before starting to design the layout have all the required
components to hand so that an accurate assessment of space can be made it is often
necessary to mount these so thwart the body is clear of the board to allow adequate air
flow. Other space consideration might also include from case mounted components over
the printed circuit board or to access path to present components in the case.
It might be necessary to turn some components round to a different angular
position so that terminals are closer to the connections of the components. The scale can
be checked be positioning the components on the squared paper. If any connections
cross, then one can reroute to avoid such condition.
All common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a common line routed
around than perimeter of the layout this will act as the ground plane. If possible try to
route the outer supply line ground plane. If possible try to route the other supply lines
around the opposite edge to the layout to through the center. The first set is to tearing
the circuits eliminate the crossover with out altering the circuit detail in any way.

Plan the layout as if looking at the top side to this board first this should be
translated inverse later for the etching pattern large areas rate recommended to maintain
good copper adhesive it is impotent be bear in mind always that cooper track width must
be atlas to the recommended minimum dimensions and allowance must be made fort
increased width where termination holes are need from this aspect if can become little
tricky to negotiate the route for connects to small transistors.

There are basically two ways one can effect the copper interconnections pattern in
the under side to the board. The first is the removal of only the amount of copper
necessary to isolate the junction to the components to each other resulting in the large
areas of copper. The second is to make the interconnection pattern looking more like
conventional point point wiring by routing uniform width of copper from component to
component.

!C) ETCHN ROCESS:-

Etching process requires the use of chemicals acid resistant dishes and running
water supply Ferric chloride is maximum used solution but other enchants such as
ammonium per sulfate can be used. Nitric acid can be used but in general it is not used
due to poisonous fumes.

The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the board using a latex type
of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The pattern is laid firmly on the copper use a very
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sharp knife to cut round the pattern carefully a remove the paper corresponding to the
required copper pattern areas. Then apply the resist solution, which can be kind of ink
proportion fort the purpose maintaining smoothing clean outlines as far as possible.
While the board is drying test all the components

Before going to next stage, check the whole gotten and cross cheek against the
circuit diagram check for any freeing matte on the copper. The etching bath should be in
a galls or enamel disc. If using crystal of ferric- chloride these should be thoroughly
dissolved in water to the proportional suggested. There should be 0.5 Lt. Of water for 125
Gm of crystal.

Waste liquid should be thoroughly deflated and druid in water land; never pour
down the drain. To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate the
solutions carefully be gently twisting or rocking the tray.

The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed to
remove just the right amount of copper. In spite of there being a resist coating there is no
protection against etching away through exposed copper edges; this leads to over etching.
Have running water ready so that etched board can be removed properly and rinsed; this
will halt etching immediately.

Drilling is one of those operations that call for great care. because most of the
holes will be made a very small drill. For most purposes a 1mm drill is used Drill all holes
with this size first those that need to be larger can be easily drilled again with the
appropriate lager size.

!D)COONENTcSSEBES:

From the greatest variety of electronic components available today, which runs
into tent of thousands of different types it is often a perplexing task to know which the
right task for a given job is.

There should be damage such as hair line crack intuit opera on PCB that could age a
serious efface on the operational ability to the completed assemble. If there are than they

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can and should be repaired fiesta bye soldering a short link of bare copper wire over the
affected part.
The most popular method of holding all the items is to been the wires future apart
after they eve been indebted in the appropriate holes. This will hold the component in
position ready for soldering.

Some components will be considerably lager than other occupying and possibly partly
obscuring neighboring components. Because of this is best to start by mounting the
smallest first and progressing through to the largest. Before starting make certain that no
further drilling I likely to be necessary because access may be impossible later.

Next will probably be the resistor small signal diodes of other similar size
components. Some capacitors are also very small but it would be best to fit these after
wards. When fitting each group of components mark off each one on the components its
as it is fitted and if we have to leave the job we know where to recommence.

Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items there are good
reasons for leaving the soldering of these untile the last step. The main point is that these
components are very sensitive to heart and if subjected to prolonged application to the
soldering iron, they could be internally damaged.
All the components before mounting are rubbed with sand paper so that
oxide layer is removed with sand paper so that oxide layer is removed from their tips.
Now they are mounted according to the component layout.

!E)SODERN :

Flux is applied to the tips and then the components are solider now the
board is prepared antenna and condenser mike are connected at respective Place and 9v
DC supply is given. Now the circuit goes under the following process.

C   :-

Our project Dzautomatic fan controllerdz is working perfectly in the
guidance of our faculties and the cost is not so much high as
compare to other projects. The component cost is also less. The

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major advantage of this project is that it can create better
environment by controlling the temperature. Our team work has
so hard work out for the efficient operation. we feel very proud for
this honourable achievement.

REFERENCE:-


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