Review of Thermodynamic Processes

Basic Concepts
1. Temperature: Degree of molecular movement,
°C; K.
2. Energy: Capacity to do work, J
3. Work: Action of a force on a moving system, W
4. Heat: Rate of energy transferred across system
boundary by temperature difference, W
5. Heat flow: Energy transferred per unit time, J/s
6. Specific heat: Heat required to raise 1 kg
material for 1° C
7. Heat capacity: Ability to store energy, J/°C
 Closed & Open Systems

W
W

System
boundary

Closed
Open
System
Working fluid System Working fluid
in out

Q
Q

Control mass Control volume

 Closed-Systems First Law

For process in a closed system,

System Q-W= Change in total Energy (1st Law of
boundary Thermodynamic)
Closed
Q-W= ∆KE + ∆ PE + ∆U
System
In HVAC systems, changes in KE and PE are
insignificant. Therefore,

Q Q-W = Changes in internal energy

Control mass
 Open-System First Law
Work, W

KE 2 PE 2, h 2
KE 1 PE 1, h 1
Open System

z1 Heat, q
z2

Reference line

KE 1 + PE 1 + h 1 + q = KE 2 + PE 2 + h 2 + w
 Steady State Steady Flow
This is a steady form of open system.
For a typical HVAC system,
• SSSF has constant flow across boundary and
no mass or energy changes
• ∆KE & ∆PE terms are small
Therefore, Q-W = m (h 2 – h 1)
Where h = enthalpy
 Example 1
Q (hvac) = 350 w
Q (roof)=150 w

Q (solar) = 500w

Q (people)= 300w
Q (wall) = 200 w
Thermal mass is
Assumed to be
7000 w/C

Q (floor) = 100 w
Is the system in equilibrium?
What will happen if the HVAC is shut off?
 Heat Transfer
Objectives
•Three modes
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
•Overall coefficient of heat transfer
 Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the energy in transit due to
temperature difference
The transfer of heat is normally from a high
temperature to a lower temperature side

Use of heat transfer?

-- to calculate heating and cooling loads
-- to understand the performance of heat exchanger
 Heat Transfer Modes
The difference in temperature provides
the necessary potential for heat
transfer.
There are 3 modes of heat transfer.
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Fourier’s Law of Conduction

dT
q"  k k = thermal conductivity (Watts/ m K)
dx T = temperature (K)
q” = heat flux vector (Watts/m2)
 Conduction Heat Transfer
• Due to molecular-level kinetic energy T2 T1
transfer
Q
• Heating/cooling of solid
X
• For heat transfer between 2 plane
surfaces, by Fourier’s Law
Copper: k=385 W/m K
dT
q"  k Steel: k = 50 W/m K
Glass: k = 0.8 W/m K
dx Styrofoam: k = 0.01 W/m K
Firebatt, k = 0.04 W/m K
k = thermal conductivity (Watts/ m K)
T = temperature (K)
q” = heat flux (Watts/m2)
Fourier’s law at steady state

dT Fourier’s Law
q"   k
dx

Tout  Tin
q"   k At steady state
L

Tout  Tin
q"   i=V/ R
L/k
T = Voltage (V)
L/k = Resistance (R)
q” = current (i)
 Conduction Heat Transfer

heat flow

Inside of 35 C
enclosure
is cold
Outside is
Temperature warm
Gradient 22 C
 Composite Wall

Using the resistance concept,

T 2 T1
q
R1 R 2
x1
R1 
k1
x2
R1 R2 T2 R2 
T1
k2
Q
 Example 2
A wall of a Switchgear room consists the
following:
6mm 100mm 25mm

TNF panel
k2 k = 0.02 W/m K

35 C q2 22 C
Q
Q
Q
Steel plate
Firebatt
k = 50 W/m K
k = 0.04 W/m K

Determine Q, if the wall is 5m x 4m ?

 Thermal Insulation

“R-value”
as used in classifying performance of insulation in
commercial practice is

x
R  value 
k Insulation Thickness “R-Value” (m2 ˚C/W)
Extruded 3.8 cm 1.3
Polystyrene

Thermal Conductivity, k W/m C Expanded 1.3 cm 0.6

Metals: k = 50-400 Polyurethane
Air : k = 0.0251
Insulating materials: k = 0.035 - Expanded 3.2 cm 1.6
Polyurethane
0.173
Fiberglass batt 8.9 cm 2.1
 Convection
• Heat transfer between solid and fluid
• Energy transfer by bulk or macroscopic fluid
motion; large numbers of molecules are
moving in aggregate.
• Forced convection: fan inside your computer.
• Natural or free convection: hot air rises.
 Convective Heat Transfer
y Tair
q

q"  h(T plate  Tair ) Cool air flow

T plate
(Tplate  Tair)
q"  Hot Plate
1
where:
h h is convection coefficient (W/m2C),
T p is plate surface temperature (C),
1 T air is surrounding fluid temperature (C).
R
h
 Magnitude of Convection Coefficients
Arrangement h, W/m2 K Btu/(h.ft2.F)
Air, free 6-30 1-5
Air, forced 30-300 5-50
Oil, forced 60-1800 10-300
Water, forced 300-6000 50-1000
Steam, condensing 6000-120000 1000-20000
 Radiation
• Energy emitted by matter that is at a finite
temperature.
• Emission attributed to changes in electron
configurations.
• Energy transported by electromagnetic waves.
• No medium needed.
 Radiation Heat Transfer

• Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law T1 T2
ε2
q= σε1ε2 (T42-T41)
Where
q= heat flux, W/m2
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant ε1
ε= surface emittance (Black body
ε=1; Gray body ε=0.60)
T= surface temperature
 Radiation heat transfer
• Intensity depends on body temperature and
surface characteristics.
• Important mode of heat transfer at high
temperatures, e.g. combustion.
• At room temperature it may just be
measurable.
 Radiation
q   1 2(T 14  T 2 4 )
q   (T 13  T 12 T 2  T 1T 2 2  T 2 3 )(T 1  T 2)
when T1  T2
q  4 T (T 1  T 2 )
3

q  hr (T 1  T 2)
(T 1 T 2)
where T 
2
hr  4 T 3
 Combined convection and radiation
• The surface heat transfer is combination of
convection and radiation
q  qc  qr
q  (hc  hr )(T )
• Some practical values of wall surface coefficients:
Air velocity Emissivity, ε=0.9
25 kmph (7 m/s) h = 35 W/m2 K
Still air h = 8.5 W m2 K
 Combined modes
Thot
Thot

Hot air flow

R=1/hhot

T3
T3
T2

T1 R=L1/k1 + L2/K2
Cold air flow T1

R=1/hcold
Tcold

T
Tcold
Resistance in parallel, R= R1 + R2 +R3
 Compute
Thot

R  R1  R 2  R 3
1 L 1 R=1/hhot
R  
hcold k hhot
Thot  Tcold T2
q
1 / hhot  1 / hcold  L / k R=L/k

T1  Tcold
q T1
1 / hcold
T2  Tcold R=1/hcold
q
1 / hcold  L / k
Tcold
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Heat transfer processes includes conduction,
convection and radiation simultaneously
• The total conduction heat transfer for a wall or
roof is expressed as
q = U x ∆T where
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (or U-
value)

R  R1  R 2  R 3  .......
1
U 
R
 Surface characteristics
q (W/m2)
(incident energy flux) q (reflected)

 q (absorbed) translucent slab

 q (transmitted)

1   
absorptance transmittance
reflectance
 Black body radiation
• A “black body”:
– Is a model of a perfect radiator.
– Absorbs all energy that reaches it; reflects
nothing.   1,     0.
– Therefore q   T 4

• The energy emitted by a black body is the

theoretical maximum:
• This is Stefan-Boltzmann law;  is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant (5.6697E-8 W/m2K4).

30
 Real bodies
q   T 4
• Real bodies will emit less radiation than a black body:
• Here  is the emissivity, which is a number between 0 and
1. Such a body would be called “gray” because the
emissivity is the average over the spectrum.
• Example: radiation from a small body to its surroundings.
– Both the body and its surroundings emit thermal radiation.
– The net heat transfer will be from the hotter
4 to the colder.
Qnet   A (Tw  T ) 4
• The net heat transfer is then:
• For small T the term (Tw4-T4) can be T
4T (Tw  T ) and
3
approximated as q
Qnet  A hr T with h as an effective
r qw
radiation heat transfer coefficient. Qnet Tw
A
31
 Heat transfer optimization
• We have the following relations for heat transfer:
– Conduction: Q = k A ∆T /d
– Convection: Q = A h ∆T
– Radiation: Q = A h r ∆T
• As a result, when equipment designers want to improve
heat transfer rates, they focus on:
– Increasing the area A, e.g. by using profiled pipes and ribbed
surfaces.
– Increasing T (which is not always controllable).
– For conduction, increasing k /d.
– Increase h by not relying on natural convection, but introducing
forced convection.
– Increase hr, by using “black” surfaces.
 Radiation & Convection
"
qconv  h(T  Tair )
"
qrad   (T 4  Tair
4
)
7
10

6
10
convection
5
10
q"

4
10

3
10
radiation

2
10 2 3 4
10 10 10
temp. (K)
Heat Balance of Energy Terms

Heat removed or
Conduction
Supplied by HVAC system
Convection
Solar radiation
Enclosure Internal heat ie people,
equipment, lights etc

Heat capacity Fresh air

Load calculations are static limits. It is usually an acceptable

approximation for the calculations of peak load.
 Cooling Load
• The removal of thermal energy to maintain
the desired conditions.
• Affected by the weather conditions
• Peak load is the maximum load to determine
the capacity of equipment
 Cooling Load
The major components of cooling load are from:
• External environment
1. Solar heat transmission
2. Ventilation
• Internal environment
1. People
2. Equipment
3. Lighting
• System Gain
1. Fan & duct Gains
 External Environment
Outside conditions are variations due to:
• Rain
• Winds
• Humidity
• Temperature
Meteorological measurements of the nearest
station provides longer term data.
 Choice of Outside Design Conditions
• Use meteorological data with ASHRAE or
CIBSE guide
• Adopt what is chosen by common usage,
locally. For Malaysia, a value of 35 °C dry-bulb,
30°C wet-bulb is commonly adopted.
Choice of Indoor Design Conditions
• Based on DEP
• Room temperature 22C
• Humidity 45-65 % RH
• Pressurized
 CLTD Method
• A shorthand method to account for dynamic
effects developed by ASHRAE
• Uses CLTD and CLF values to account for
thermal inertia
 Ventilation Air Requirements
Ventilation air = Fresh air + Re-circled air

WHY DO WE NEED FRESH AIR?

1. Required to dilute indoor contaminants so that their
concentration never exceeds establish levels
2. ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 (Ventilation for acceptable
IAQ) specifies that each person in a building should be
supplied with at least 7.5 L/s of fresh air
3. Fresh air can be either outdoor air or treated indoor air