Local and national impacts of global climate change and

biodiversity policies in the Philippines

OLLI SAASTAMOINEN1*, CELESTE LACUNA-RICHMAN1, KARI KANGAS1 AND KATI
HÄKKINEN1
1
Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu
*
Corresponding author, e-mail: olli.saastanoinen@forest.joensuu.fi

Abstract
In analysing the local and national impacts of international agendas such as global climate change and
biodiversity in the Philippines, the project has concentrated on three main aspects. These are forest
policy and its framework, technical considerations in implementation related to carbon sequestration
capacity of Philippine forests and biodiversity evaluation, and the socio-economic effects of field
applications. The Philippines has played an active role in international agreements on biodiversity
and climate change but the political framework is not favourable for implementing sound national
policies. Large-scale reforestation efforts for carbon sequestration are not likely to fare any better than
conventional reforestation has done (Saastamoinen). Initial models on carbon-balance and land use
change were made (Kangas); carbon stocks and fluxes in the Philippines were modelled, concentrating
on certain tree species. Tentative results suggest the high carbon sequestration potential of old-
growth and secondary growth dipterocarp, natural pine forests and plantation species in both biomass
and soil (Häkkinen). Application of policies and technical recommendations on the local level were
examined. A preliminary conclusion based on the present capacity of the project, is that land tenure
issues, local soil and climatic conditions, and rural communities’ preferences will determine the
planting of trees more than national policies based on international agendas (Lacuna-Richman).
Keywords: forest policy, carbon sequestration modelling, socio-economic effects, Philippines

Background blamed for this, so has the lack of political will

The Philippines has been a signatory to global
biodiversity (e.g. CITES) and climate change (e.g.
Kyoto Protocol) initiatives. However, it has not
been able to implement these initiatives
adequately nation-wide. There have been many
factors blamed for this lack of success. Like most
other developing countries, the Philippines does
not have the economic resources and financial
infrastructure to comply strictly with international
standards.
Besides that, the country also has an almost
endless crises of policy implementation – wherein
national policies regarding the environment and
natural resources look good on paper but are
seldom felt at the local level, especially in rural
areas far removed from Manila. On a national
scale, corruption within the government has been
from elected officials, the protection of big
business interests, and a non-existent population
programme. On various local levels, other factors
come into play, which are seldom taken into
account in national policy. Among these are the
preferred choice of tree species to be planted, the
land ownership/tenure/availability situation that
affects greatly any reforestation effort, the specific
income needs of affected communities, and
existing markets for forest products.
For this project, the impacts of global change
and biodiversity policies at the national and local
levels were analysed, using various methods.
Methods
Since the project was concerned about the prob-
lem at various levels and from different aspects,
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UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SYSTEM
the methods used for analysis also varied.
For forest policy analysis, the review of sec-
ondary data, historical and legal material were used
(Saastamoinen).
For an overview of the national situation,
modelling with the use of secondary data was
the main method of analysis. Modelling the
relationship between carbon balance and land-
use changes were initiated (Kangas). For
modelling of carbon stocks and fluxes of the
different Philippine forests the new CO2FIX-
model developed by EFI was used (Häkkinen).
For the local socio-economic effects of
national forest policy based on global agenda, a
combination of primary data collected through
field work, and multiple regression based on this
data was used (Lacuna-Richman).
Results
The results of the project could again be grouped
into three major categories: forest policy and policy
framework, models of carbon sequestration and
the socio-economic factors that affect forest use.
However, there is much interrelation among the
findings of the project, as there is in actuality.
1. Forest policy - Although the Philippines has
taken a favourable attitude towards the in-
ternational agrements on biodiversity and cli-
mate and promoting sustainable forestry, the
internal structure of the society and related
political framework has not been conducive
for agreeing upon, and in particular imple-
menting sound national policies to achieve
the goals. For example, the results of policy
analysis done so far, indicate that there are
numerous risks in assuming that large-scale
reforestation efforts for carbon sequestration
would perform any better than conventional
reforestation has done (Saastamoinen).
2. Carbon sequestration - Fast growing planta-
tion forests sequestered more carbon than
natural forests, as expected. However, the
ability of natural old growth dipterocarp for-
ests to sequester carbon is considerable, and
secondary growth dipterocarp forests seques-
tered appproximately 2.4 Mg C/ha/yr, almost
as much as most plantations. Average net
carbon flux was 0.25 Mg C/ha/yr and ranged
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from negative to 1.3 Mg C/ha/yr (Häkkinen).
3. Socio-economic factors affecting forest use -
Centralising the decision-making for refor-
estation is almost certain to make it a failure,
since forest use varies considerably among
localities, rather than target beneficiaries (e.g.
women, migrant communities). The differ-
ence of non-wood forest product (NWFPs)
use between indigenous and migrant forest
communities in the same area was statisti-
cally insignificant. However, large income
differences (in favour of migrants) were based
more on legalisation of land tenure and the
greater access to markets (to the advantage of
migrants) (Lacuna-Richman).
Discussion
The emphasis on global agendas often leaves out
the local implications of these agendas once
governments “adopt” these agendas (e.g. to
receive more foreign aid). Sometimes these
agendas, such as biodiversity or carbon
sequestration concentrate on giving benefits to a
target group, without sufficient concern for the
specifics of the local situation. Among the
findings of this project are the dangers of such a
general approach, which may be feasible in
developed countries.
In developing countries such as the
Philippines, although there are common issues
and realities that can be found, the applications
tend to be very different at the local level. For
example, Häkkinen has isolated some key tree
species (e.g. the exotic Eucalyptus deglupta) that,
grown in plantations, can store substantial
amounts of carbon in biomass. However, the
success of such plantations in the Philippines
has been marginal at best, and in many instances
has to compete with other uses of land. The
establishment of tree plantations has also been
subject to economic equity issues, since mostly
more affluent farmers and corporations can afford
growing these plantations.
In the research of Lacuna-Richman, there
was little difference found in the amounts of
NWFPs harvested by indigenous and migrant
forest communities, and policies based on such
a misconception can be harmful to both types of
communities. It often happens that such policies

“backfire”, wherein allowing only indigenous
people the rights to harvest NWFPs may make
them instead, the low-paid primary collectors,
while giving leeway to other groups such as
migrants to become more well-compensated
middlemen. Legalisation of land tenure and
assistance to improve the marketing skills of
indigenous people would be more relevant in
this case. Other factors may be important in other
areas, other cases within the Philippines.
Conclusion
As a result of this project, a tentative conclusion
could be that in countries with a weak socio-
economic infrastructure such as the Philippines,
national forest policy which complies with global
agendas, takes a low priority compared to more
immediate livelihood concerns such as the few
existing forests provide. One way to remedy this
situation is to develop technologies that fulfil
for instance, carbon sequestration requirements,
but can be modified to specific soil and climate
conditions, and match local vegetation needs. The
forest policy formed should be fine-tuned to local
situations while being at the same time
accountable to a national authority to avoid
conflicts in reforestation efforts. To some extent,
the Philippine government is already trying some
of these solutions, however there is a continuous
danger of implementation failures and a lack of
co-ordination between the different policy
priorities. It is difficult to solve the dual problem
existing that the forest situation in the Philippines
would require that the government decentralise
the decisions made about forest use to make
policy more effective, at the same time that it has
to take into account all the various local situations
to have a more comprehensive and integrated
national forest policy.
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