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2008-01-0941
ABSTRACT
In general it is beneficial to further develop the diesel
Future light, medium and heavy duty diesel engines will engine combustion system to provide further reductions
need to satisfy the more stringent emission levels (US in engine-out NOx and PM emissions, even when
2014, Euro 6, etc.) without compromising their current exhaust aftertreatment systems are to be used. For
performance and fuel economy, while still maintaining a example, in-cylinder combustion improvements can help
competitive cost. In order to achieve this, the Fuel to reduce the urea consumption needed for the Selective
Injection Equipment (FIE) together with the pressure Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system and/or reduce the
charging, cooling system, exhaust after treatment and required frequency of regeneration for a Diesel
other engine sub-systems will each play a key role. The Particulate Filter (DPF) system. Also there is a
FIE has to offer a range of flexible injection continuing demand to increase the engine torque and
characteristics, e.g. a multiple injection train with or rated power output and to reduce the engine fuel
without separation, modulated injection pressures and consumption which also impacts CO2 emissions.
rates for every injection, higher specific power output
from the same injector envelope, and close control of The search for better combustion in the field of diesel
very small fuel injection quantities. engines has been strongly linked to the capability of the
FIE to generate high injection pressures which gives
The aim of this paper is to present Delphi’s faster fuel-air mixing and lower soot formation allowing
developments in fuel injection strategies for light and an overall better emissions and performance trade off.
medium duty diesel engines that will comply with future CR systems provide a significant increase in injection
emission legislation, whilst providing higher power pressure capability compared with previous rotary and
density and uncompromised fuel economy. inline pump systems and also provide electronic control
of the level of injection pressure across the engine speed
and load range [2].
INTRODUCTION
The CR system can also provide a flexible choice of
The market improvement of Diesel vehicles is closely
multiple injections that can be used to explore potential
linked to the continuous improvement in its perception to
benefits including a pilot that is necessary to mitigate the
customer and benefits such as drivability, increased
tendency for higher combustion noise with the relatively
power density and improved fuel consumption. One of
square diagram of a CR system. Also multiple injections
the main contributors to this is significant improvement in
can be used to facilitate various forms of advanced
Fuel Injection Equipment (FIE). During the recent years,
combustions (low temperature, premixed or partially-
sales of passenger cars powered with direct injection
premixed) to achieve very low NOx and soot at least for
Common Rail (CR) FIE have gained a noticeable
part load conditions [3, 4].
increase in market share in Europe to over 50% (or more
than 8 million vehicles annually) [1].
The performance of the CR system has been continually
refined over the last several years. In order to maintain
Diesel engines for passenger cars, medium and heavy
precise injection control and minimize dispersion
duty vehicles and off-road applications need to meet
between vehicles, innovative software strategies have
future stringent emission regulations, as proposed in
been developed including Accelerometer Pilot Control
areas such as the USA, Japan and Europe. In particular
(APC) and Individual Injector Calibration (I3C) [5].
there is a need to reduce the emissions of NOx and
Simultaneously there is a continuous request to increase
particulate matter (PM) over the appropriate emission
the maximum pressure capability of CR systems. The
test cycle.
latest light duty systems are capable of 2000bar, and will FUEL INJECTION EQUIPMENT
be capable of > 2000bar in the near future.
The FIE used were Common Rail systems with the
The aim of this paper is to present developments in FIE maximum pressure of 2000bar. The pump was a three-
and fuel injection strategies for light and medium duty plunger Diesel Fuel Pump (DFP 3 family) [7], which was
diesel engines that will comply with future emission electrically driven on engine 1 and engine mounted on
legislation, whilst providing higher power density and engine 2. As flow rates through the pump are four times
uncompromised fuel economy. lower than normal on a single cylinder engine some
uncertainty exists over the friction characteristics with the
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND engine driven pump. For this reason only indicated
PROCEDURES specific performance is presented with engine 2.
TM
ENGINE SET-UP The fuel injectors used were: Multec Solenoid Injector
(DFI 1 family) and a Direct Acting Injector (DFI 3 family).
Two single cylinder engines with similar configurations The operational schematics of these injectors are shown
were used for test work presented here. The engine in Figure 1.
details are listed in Table 1. The engines versions 1 and
2 used for this work both have a 4-valve cylinder head DFI 1 Concept DFI 3 Concept
with variable swirl capability although the lowest level of Balanced Servo Solenoid Direct Acting Control
swirl (∼ 2.0 on the momentum meter method) was used Actuator
for tests presented here. The engines were run with an (Solenoid)
external pressure charging system to control the boost
pressure, temperature and Exhaust Gas Recirculation Piezo-
(EGR) level. Values were chosen based on a 2.0 and ceramic
Pressure
2.1 litre, 4cylinder, Variable Geometry Turbine (VGT) Acutator
Balanced
equipped engine. Comparisons have been made Valve
between these engines and multi-cylinder engines to
estimate a friction correction factor [6]. This factor has
Low
been applied to all estimates of BMEP. High Pressure
Pressure Return Motion
Control Amplifier
Table 1. Engine details
Engine 1 Engine 2 Control
Piston
Engine Type 4 stroke diesel 4 stroke diesel Needle
Needle
Light Duty Light Duty
Nozzle
Direct Injection Direct Injection Nozzle
1 cylinder 1 cylinder,
Spray
Research Research
Bore x Stroke 85 x 89 mm 85 x 94 mm
Swept Volume 0.5 litres 0.533 litres
Compression TM
Ratio 16.5:1 16:1 Figure 1. Multec Solenoid and Direct Acting CR
Injectors
Cylinder-head 4 valve 4 valve
variable swirl variable swirl TM
Fuel Injection Common Rail Injectors: MULTEC DFI 1 INJECTOR – This solenoid injector is
TM
-Multec Solenoid (DFI 1 family) based on a unique design with balanced servo valve
-Direct Acting (DFI 3 family) technology. The small size of this valve/actuator allows it
to be packaged in-line and in close proximity to the
Pump Mounting Electrically Engine mounted
needle providing fast actuation and precise metering.
Driven
With this approach closing and opening of the servo
valve can be completed, depending on model (DFI 1.1 –
The engines were mounted on a steady state test bed 1.5), within 100-250 μsec [5]. This performance, with the
and were fully instrumented for the measurement of proven durability of the solenoid actuation principle, is
performance, smoke (AVL 415S heated smoke meter for equal or better than the servo-piezo driven injector
filter smoke number - FSN) and gaseous emissions technologies currently available. The compact DFI 1
(Horiba MEXA 7100 DEGR). Fuel consumption was injector requires less force to operate (20N) and
measured by a gravimetric method (using an AVL 733 therefore less energy, so the standard voltage supply of
fuel meter). The CO2 measurements were made in the 12 V available from the battery is sufficient. The
exhaust and were used to calculate changes of airflow, elimination of the control piston (a device that connects
and hence levels of EGR. The soot emissions were not the control chamber with the needle-Figure 1) provides
measured directly but estimated from the smoke using the potential to reduce back-leakage, which improves
the AVL correlation.
hydraulic efficiency and reduces the amount of cooling The overall result is an injection rate which approaches
required on the fuel return path. an ideal square wave. This provides the potential for
much better spray formation, particularly at low rail
DIRECT ACTING DFI 3 INJECTOR – In comparison to pressures and for very small injection quantities (0.5
conventional servo (solenoid or piezo) hydraulic mg). It also allows a shorter injection period for the
injectors, the DFI 3 operates with completely different same rail pressure and injection quantity [5].
technology. This technology eliminates the usual four-
step servo hydraulic concept (actuation of the Another advantage of the volume of fuel in the injector
solenoid/piezo, opening the servo valve, release of the and the absence of a back-leak is a reduction in the size
pressure from the control chamber through a of pressure oscillations in the pipe leading into the
restriction/orifice and opening the needle) down to a injector. When combined with the fast needle speed,
single step: The direct actuation of the needle through a which is independent of rail pressure, the interaction
hydraulic amplifier by a piezo-ceramic actuator (Figure between pilot quantity and separation and main quantity
1). is reduced (Figures 3 and 4). This feature increases the
flexibility of operation of the injection in terms of the
The DFI 3 concept allows both a fast and controlled range and number of injections. Pilot-main separation
opening and closing of the nozzle needle independent of can consequently be varied to find the optimum
rail pressure. This is possible because unlike a servo- separation from a combustion stand-point rather than the
controlled injector, the force change needed for needle optimum from a hydraulic stand-point.
opening is provided by a piezo-actuator that is decoupled
from the rail pressure supply. It is therefore possible to 60 2000
adapt the force change delivered by the actuator Servo injector
electronically as required. This leads to an improved Direct acting
50
multiple injection capability. This injector contains an 1600
30
Servo Injector
26
Direct Acting
22
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Hydraulic separation (ms)
SMOKE (FSN)
0.9
The fast operation of the nozzle needle brings an
improvement in the spray momentum, which in turn 0.6
increases the rate of fuel break-up and air entrainment.
0.3
244 0.0
Servo Injector
BSFC (g/kWh)
CO [ppm]
236 -3% 3000
232 1500
228 0
1.5 1800
Sm oke (FSN)
-30%
THC [ppm]
1.0 1200
0.5 600
0.0 0
19.0 234
BM EP (bar)
ISFC [g/kWh]
18.5
+5%
226
18.0
218
17.5
17.0 210
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
This improves the mixing within the fuel jet (i.e. Figure 6. 1380rpm, 1.1bar BMEP: Reduction of THC and
increasing the rate of fuel-air mixing) and hence reduces CO at equivalent smoke with triple injection strategy
the smoke emissions (Figure 5). This feature, together (Injection timings vary with EGR over the range of
with a needle speed which is independent of the rail 18ºBTDC to 1ºBTDC)
pressure, gives an additional freedom for the engine
calibration to achieve emission targets without
compromising fuel consumption
Furthermore, the low interaction allows an increase in the
flexibility in delivery of multiple injection events and the
As the emissions legislative cycles (NEDC, FTP and minimum separation time between two injections can, if
Japan 10-15) are largely concentrated in the part load
necessary be reduced even to 0 μsec [5]. This gives the
region, then there is a scope for improvement in
potential to perform close coupled multiple injections (i.e.
emissions with using different injection, air and EGR
‘injection trains’) that could be more suitable for the
strategies. This will be explained in more detail later in
advanced types of combustion (low temperature,
the text.
premixed, partially premixed, etc.). Some of these results
are presented in Figures 6 and 7, which show very low
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION NOx concentrations achieved using an advanced type of
combustion. The tests were performed on Engine 2 with
MULTIPLE EARLY INJECTIONS the DFI 3. Minimum NOx emissions were reached using
Two of the key features of the direct acting injector, as very high levels of EGR (43% - 64%) and by injecting
previously discussed, are the independence of the early enough so as to avoid diffusion combustion. This
needle speed from rail pressure and a very low was all done at a constant boost pressure and
interaction between injection events. These features combustion timing.
Reducing the rail pressure effects the penetration of the
0.4 spray, thus effecting mixing, but it also typically lowers
the momentum and mixing energy. This can result in an
SMOKE (FSN)
0.3
increase in the soot emission [8]. An alternative solution
0.2 is to use a multiple injection strategy to reduce
penetration. This can also be done in conjunction with
0.1 reduced rail pressures (∼250 bar instead of 450 bar) for
the lowest load (Figure 6) or at increased rail pressures
0.0 as the load increases (Figure 7). With triple injection but
with the lower rail pressure the THC is reduced by ~ 55-
4500
60% and CO by ~ 25-40% dependent on EGR when
CO [ppm ]
4.0
S M OKE [FS N]
1.0
As can be seen in the results, the emissions of THC and
CO are several times higher than would be produced 0.0
with conventional combustion. A typical solution is to
use after treatment (Diesel Oxidation Catalyst) to clean 210
IS FC [g/kW h]
Weighted CO (g/km)
0.15
A 2-stage turbo charging system might be expected to
allow an increase in the absolute inlet manifold pressure 0.10
from 1.7bar to 2.2bar. This increased boost allows an
increase in the maximum EGR from 26% to 38%, which 0.05
Weighted HC (g/km)
0.06
the system maximum of 2000bar and high levels of
boost EGR may be increased to 45%, which reduces 0.04
90
86
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32
Pilot Quantity (ms)
102
Com bustion noise (dBA)
100 Slower
Slowest 90
80
86
S ta c k V o lta g e
PM Particulate Matter
RP Rail Pressure