ogic analyser tutorial

- an overview of the logic analyzer used for monitoring digital signals.

This logic analyzer tutorial is split into several pages each of which addresses
different aspects of logic analyser technology and operation:

[1] Logic analyzer basics [2] Logic analyzer specifications explained

Logic analyzers or logic analysers are widely used for testing digital or logic circuits.
They appeared shortly after the first microprocessors were used because to fault find
these circuits required the instrument to have access to a large number of lines, more than
could be seen using a conventional oscilloscope. Since then the need for logic analyzers
has grown, especially as the complexity of circuits has continued to grow.

Although oscilloscopes can perform many of the functions of a logic analyser, the
analyzer is more suited to operating in a digital environment because it is able to display
relative timing of a large number of signals. Essentially a logic analyser enables traces of
logic signals to be seen in such a way that the operation of several lines in a digital circuit
can be monitored and investigated.

Logic analysers come in a variety of formats. One of the most popular is a typical test
instrument case. However it is also possible to utilise the processing power of a computer
and PC based logic analysers are available. The actual choice of logic analyser will
depend upon the cost budget and the actual requirements. TH PC logic analyzers are a
particularly cost effective method of creating an analyzer. However the main drawback of
the PC logic analyzers is that their functionality is not as great as the dedicated logic
analyzers, which is only to be expected in view of the cost differential.

What makes a logic analyzer

Logic analyzers are designed to monitor a large number of digital lines. They possess a
horizontal time axis and a vertical axis to indicate a logic high or low states. As logic
analyzers are optimised for monitoring a large number of digital circuits, typically they
may have anywhere between about 32 and 132 channels they can monitor, each channel
monitoring one digital line. However some specialised logic analyzers are suitably scaled
to be able to handle many more lines, and in this way enable tracking and fault finding on
much more complex systems.

One of the main points to note about a logic analyzer is that it does not give a full
analogue display of the waveform. Although it shows the logical high and low states as a
waveform on the display, it only looks for whether the state of a line is high, i.e. above a
certain trigger voltage, or low, i.e. below the trigger voltage. Having decided whether a
line is high or low, the logic analyzer then displays the relevant level. This means that it
is not possible to see small amplitude variations such as ringing on the signal, however
the state of the lines and their timings are displayed.

To achieve this the logic analyzer will sample the waveforms states and store the level as
either high or low at each sample time. The displayed waveform will then look like a
timing diagram from a simulator or data-book. It will display the state of the lines, and
the timings of any transitions.

In this way it is possible to analyze the waveforms produced by the circuit and ensure
they match those that are expected. Any differences can then be used to trace any
problems in the circuit design

Logic analyzer probes

With the large number of signals required to be monitored, often from a small area on a
board and possibly even from one integrated circuit, the design of the probes can be a
critical issue.

The logic analyzer probes contain an internal comparator where the voltage of the
waveform on the board is compared against the threshold voltage. This can be set using
the main instrument to a variety of levels so that signals from a variety of logic families
can be monitored.

Logic analyzer probes can take a variety of physical forms, but generally fall into one of
three categories:

• Multichannel probes that use a dedicated connector on the circuit board. These
probes enable a large number of points to be accessed using a high density
connector. This facility has to be designed on to the board and may only be
retained for the development phase where access for a logic analyzer is required.
• High density compression probes. These probes use a compression contact that
does not have a dedicated connector. Contacts on the board are required for this
type of connection.
• Flying lead probes. As the name implies, these probes are on a flying lead that is
connected to a small electronic unit that contains the electronics for detecting the
high and low levels. However these flying lead probes are used to monitor points
that may not be included on any of the other access points.

Triggering
One of the key features of a logic analyzer is its triggering capability. When investigating
and debugging complex software driven digital circuits it is necessary to be able to see
the response of the system after a particular occurrence. As this may involve a number of
lines to be in a given state, it is necessary for the logic analyzer to be able to trigger after
this combination occurs. This facility is one of the key advantages of logic analyzers and
enables them to be used to quickly home in on problems that may only occur under a
particular set of circumstances.

Logic analyser operation

Although the operation of a logic analyzer may appear to be fairly complicated at first
sight, a methodical approach to the use of one enables it to be set up correctly and to be
used effectively. Once the probes are connected, the logic analyzer is programmed with
the names of each signal. The analyzer can also associate several signals into groups so
that they can be manipulated more easily.

Wit the basic set-up of the logic anlyzer complete the capture mode for the data needs to
be chosen. This can be set to one of two modes:

• Timing mode Using this mode signals are sampled at regular intervals based
on an internal or external clock.
• State mode Here one or more of the signals are defined as clocks, and data is
smapled on the edges of these clocks.

Once the logic analyzer mode is chosen then the trigger condition can be set. The
analyzer trigger condition may vary from a very simple signal edge to a set of conditions
that must be met across a variety of lines. The complex trigger conditions aid in locating
problems that occur when a particular set of conditions occur.

With the trigger condition set, the logic analyzer can be set to run, triggering once only,
or repeatedly. The data that is captured can then be displayed and analysed.

Summary

Logic analyzers are an essential tool for many applications where digital circuits
employing a large number of lines that need to be monitored. They are used to assist in
the development of many of the circuits involving digital hardware and software. By
using a logic analyzer is it possible to be able to look at these lines in a practicable
fashion and be able to trigger on a preset pattern of a given number of lines. In this way
the events that happen after a predetermined occurrence can be viewed for investigation.
This is invaluable in enabling fault finding of complex software driven circuits.
Although with the enormous increase in the complexity of circuits, other techniques are
often applicable, logic analysers are still used for many applications

ey logic analyzer specifications or specs

explained
- the key points about logic analyzer specifications or specs explained in an
easy to understand fashion for anyone buying a logic analyser.

This logic analyzer tutorial is split into several pages each of which addresses
different aspects of logic analyser technology and operation:

[1] Logic analyzer basics [2] Logic analyzer specifications explained

There are many specifications used to defined the performance of a logic analyser.
Fortunately it is possible to focus on some of the more important or key specifications
when investigating the purchase of a logic analyzer to narrow down the choice of the best
analyzer for the purpose. This can make the task of choosing a logic analyser to purchase
far simpler.

Key points

The specification for a logic analyzer covers many areas of its performance, but there are
a number of parameters that are key to ensuring that it will meet the majority of its
operational requirements and be fit for the purpose for which it was intended. It is a fine
balance between buying a logic analyzer that will meet the current and reasonable future
requirements and one that will not cost too much, and may not be able to meet all the
future requirements. Although it is not possible to define all the current and future needs,
the major parameters for a logic analyzer that are of importance can usually be defined.
Some are included below:

• Speed
• Channels
• Memory

These three areas are normally the key logic analyzer specifications for most
applications. Once the requirements in these areas have been determined, then it is
possible to reduce the field of possible analysers. These can then be compared, and any
other requirements and specifications can be compared and contrasted.
Logic analyzer speed

One of the major requirements for any logic analyzer is the speed of the instrument. It is
obviously necessary for the instrument to be able to cater for the highest speeds in the
circuits being analyzed. This will not just be the clock speed, and it is necessary to look at
the fastest events that can happen anywhere on the circuit under test. With today's high
speed circuits it will be necessary to the logic analyzer to typically deliver sub nano-
second resolution.

The speed of the logic analyser is chiefly governed by the timing resolution. This is the
smallest time element that the analyser can see. If the resolution is too coarse then it will
not be possible to see many of the fast occurrences happening in the circuits.

The speed of the analyzer must be such that it is able to capture and display a variety of
scenarios ranging from transient glitches, any variety of software instructions which may
lead to problems occurring, timing violations, or set-up conditions. It is often within these
areas that the difficult problems can be found, and it is here that the capability of the logic
analyzer is needed. Without sufficient speed many of these elements will not be seen.

Logic analyzer channels

Today's digital circuits are becoming more complicated, and they are normally software
driven. This means that it is important to ensure that sufficient channels are available
within the logical analyzer. Often high end processor designs require between 50 and 150
channels to cover all the lines that are relevant to the testing. If a logic analyzer with
insufficient number of inputs is purchased, then this will considerably hamper testing.

Unfortunately, increasing the number of channels in a logic analyzer considerably

increases the complexity of the instrument. Not only is the capture circuitry required, but
the mechanical considerations including the probe adaptors become more complex.
Furthermore a greater number of channels require increased memory, and processing
within the instrument. Thus increasing the number of channels considerably increases the
cost and complexity.

To help reduce this problem, most logic analyzers have only a proportion of their
channels that support the full specification in terms of speed in resolution. As it is un-
necessary for all the channels to be able operate at the maximum spec, reducing the
performance of some simplifies the circuitry and reduces the requirements for memory
and processing.

The number that support the top resolution speed is of importance because it is necessary
to ensure that there are sufficient to be able to perform the actions that will be required.
To few at the top speed, then it will not be possible to undertake the more exacting
investigations. Too many top specification channels and the cost increases.

Logic analyzer memory

In order that the logic analyzer can display the information it retrieves, it must store it in
memory. If only a small amount of memory is available then it will only be able to store
short sequences, and this may be insufficient to analyze all the events occurring.
Additionally a greater the number if inputs, longer sequences that need to be stored, and
greater levels of resolution increase the requirement for memory. As memory can be
expensive, it is necessary to gain a sensible balance between memory requirements and
cost for the logic analyzer.

When looking at the memory requirements for different analyzers it is necessary to

ensure that the additional resolution, sequences and inputs are not included at the cost of
removing some of the essential features that are required. Often memory requirements
may be reduced by turning off some functions such as time stamping, etc that may be
essential for some debugging. It is worth checking that functions that may be essential for
some jobs are not removed under some circumstances to save memory as this can become
a false economy.

Further requirements

Although speed and resolution, the number of channels, and the memory with their
associated specifications, are the main requirements for a logic analyzer, it is also
necessary to look at the other elements of the specification for the instrument. Many logic
analyzers come with debug software and this enables a far greater level of visibility of
what is happening within the circuit.

Additionally other parameters such as the screen size and ease of reading are important.
While they may not be as important as the basic elements of the logic analyzer, they are
nevertheless very important. A poor screen can be a significant disadvantage when
someone is working with an instrument over an extended period.

Summary

It is not easy to balance the requirements for a logic analyzer against its cost. However by
carefully considering the requirements against the budget available, a reasoned decision
can be taken, and an instrument that is fit for purpose can be bought.