UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DEL LITORAL

FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES Y CIENCIAS

CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLES

COMISION 4 LOMAS DE ZAMORA
2004

Seminario lengua extranjera

Prof. Maria de las Mercedes Luciani

Language:
The Tip of the Iceberg

Maria Isabel Hoffmann Diana Rosenfeld

mhpec@datafull.com diarosen@s6.coopenet.com.ar
21 de Noviembre de 2004
 1

Abstract

Language is the manifestation of cognitive constructions which operate

between domains. According to Fauconnier, a mental space is the domain
allegedly built through discourse so as to enable reasoning and interaction with
the world. Cognitive level constructions link language to the real world, which
trigger off real-world inferences in the individual’s mind and action patterns in Deleted: s
his/her behaviour. Twenty three students at university level were exposed to a Deleted: ,
text which revealed an unexpected standpoint to them. The subjects read a
text and answered a pre and a post-reading questionnaire. We have set out to
explore through linguistic data the addition of an element to a frame. We have
concluded that this experience may have lead them to a change in their frame
of the space mathematics.

Introduction
Since Aristotelian times, man has pondered on the world and his interaction with it, as
well as on the representations man makes of the world that surrounds him.
Representation, Vorstellung in German, is defined as the idea or image that bears a
similitude with an object. Still, this meaning is further extended into three
interpretations; the sense that a representation is that through which something is
known (the idea), the image in the memory (the image), and that which causes the
knowledge (the object) (Abbagnano, 1999:1015). The quest to untangle the way the
brain interprets its surrounding has actually lead to investigations in many fields, to
name but a few, psychology, neurology, neurobiology and even linguistics. In 1943,
Kenneth Craik established that perception, imagination, or the understanding of
discourse give rise to mental concepts as mind constructs of reality that man uses to
anticipate events. This has largely been studied in neurology as the Reptilian
Amygdale, that is, our need to adapt to new environments makes the brain be in
constant alertness so as to reconstruct representations we have. Deleted: ion

Language has been the tool to put through human cognitive constructions. When we Deleted: of the

talk mappings are set up between cognitive domains, these mappings build and link
mental spaces, which according to Fauconnier (1994) are structured sets with
elements and relations holding between them during ongoing unravelling of discourse.
There are projection mappings by which one domain is projected onto another one, for
instance TIME AS SPACE as in Summer is around the corner. Pragmatic function
mappings through which two categories of objects are mapped onto each other by a
pragmatic function, for instance examples of metonymy and synecdoche: The ulcer in
room 92 wants some coffee. And finally, schema mappings when a general frame is
used to structure a situation in context.
The notion of frame has varied through time, in 1975 Fillmore (in Ungerer 1997:208)
defined it as “any system of linguistic choices that can get associated with prototypical
instances of scenes”. Ten years later, he himself states that frames “are specific unified
frameworks of knowledge, or coherent schematizations of experience”. In 1992,
Fillmore and Atkins redefine frames as “cognitive structures … knowledge of which is
presupposed for the concepts encoded by the words”. In recent years it has been
redefined once more as a way of describing the cognitive context which provides the
background for and is associated with cognitive categories.
Cognitive models are of a more general nature than frames so that frames are just one
of a variety of cognitive models, thus a frame is a type of cognitive model which
represents the knowledge and belief pertaining to specific and recurrent situations.
 2

According to Lakoff (1990) knowledge is organized by idealized cognitive models

(ICMs) which are structured by four structuring principles: a propositional structure, an
image-schematic structure, metaphoric mappings and metonymic mappings. ICMs
structure mental spaces; in the propositional structure according to Fillmore’s frame
semantics, a frame is defined in relation to an idealized model, different elements (in
our background) help delineate a frame, for instance the frame for any day of the week
will be structured on the basis of the notion of the existence of other days, the notion of
there being a week which consists of work days and weekend days. Still, ICMs fit the
understanding of the world of a specific group, there are segments of the world which
do not have the same frame for days of the week, or the same frame of time for that
matter.
Let us concentrate on the linguistic field and consider language as the concrete
manifestation of a cognitive mechanism, to be more precise, how a text influences this
mechanism and how the reading of such text may be influenced by a priori structures.
When mentioning representations of a text, we may consider the linguistic aspect as
regards the notion of being exposed to the language.
First, we would like to make a brief revision of some of the mechanisms triggered off by
being exposed to a text. According to Van Dijk (1983), understanding is an “on line”
process through which the structure of a sentence abstractly given a priori will trigger in
the user a tentative interpretation of it, even before it has been fully heard or read. This
mechanism has been largely used, for instance in computational writing devices, even
in modern technological mobile devices such as message sending in cell phones. What
is different for the language user when being exposed to a text is that he/she will have
to consider both text and context information at the same time, and even work out the
phonologic, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels in order to interpret the text.
This process involves representations and meaning in the workings of the memory.
Information is stored in Short Term Memory (STM), which like a computational memory
needs to be emptied once and again to make room for new information. This
information that is removed is then processed, interpreted and stored in the Long Term
Memory (LTM), where the information may be accessed according to the need of the
user. LTM includes an Episodic part which is the representation of the person’s own
experiences.
Deleted: ¶

Another important element present in representations is “knowledge”. The user Deleted: Acá hay un espacio demás
pero no lo puedo sacar.
“presupposes” the social-cultural 'world' knowledge which will enable him/her to define
Deleted: ¶
coherence in relations between linguistic elements so as to understand the text.
Schank and Abelson (1977) make reference to this same issue but name them
'scripts'. The scripts are the abstract way in which people organize their knowledge
about stereotypical events, for instance, eating out or driving. So as to make sense of a
text, these scripts are activated and language users select the relevant information
needed in the construction of a Text Representation in Episodic Memory. Later,
together with Kintsch, Van Dijk added the notion of a “situation” model. This notion
points out that language users do not just build a semantic representation of the text in
their episodic memory, but they add a representation of the event, or a situation the
text is about, that is to say the “context”. This aided to define a model by which
sentences would make up a coherent sequence. In like manner, the structures of the
text are related to higher macrostructures of models, which will actually explain how a
person resorts to memory, and at times will even “falsely” recall data that was not
stated in the text. We may interpret this as the fact that, in their attempt to understand,
people build models of an event, which may be derived from previous sociocultural
knowledge, then these 'presupposed' recalls may be interpreted as a model
constructed for a text. To be more precise, what people remember is not the content of
 3

the information in a given text, but rather the model built about the event the text is
about, which in turn is what might give rise to a new model.
Many linguists have considered it relevant to study how linguistic manifestation may be
the surface manifestation of cognitive mechanisms. As Fauconnier has put it “words are
just the tip of the iceberg” of cognitive construction (Fauconnier, 1994:xviii) There are
domains appearing, abstract mappings operating, focus shifts, spreads, our reasoning
is supported by abstract, mental creation, and the grammar is just the tool that guides it.
Language does not carry meaning, it guides it, the words in themselves do not say
anything independent of the detailed knowledge and powerful cognitive processes
(Turner, 1991). Likewise, Fauconnier (1999) mentions that any language expression is
meaning potential and will become meaning bearer only within a complete discourse
and in context, the grammatical information is applied to an existing cognitive
configuration. In this constant unfolding of discourse there is one cognitive configuration
after another, which the context and the grammar pressure on. These configurations
are pragmatically elaborate and partition information relative to other different domains;
that is domains are constructed in subordination to an existing space which is in focus.
Thus space is generated by discourse in some kind of ordered repetition of patterns, a
lattice where there is a base and a space which is in focus.
Space builders are manifested through prepositional phrases (in the morning),
adverbials (early), conjunctions (and), subject/verbs (Mary believes). Names (Mary) and
descriptive nouns and adjectives (the teacher, the mean teacher) set the new elements.
Tense and mood determine what space is in focus. Presuppositional constructions,
which propagate to neighbouring spaces, are manifested through aspectuals, cleft and
pseudo-cleft sentences. The connectors between spaces are carried out thorugh trans-
spatial operators such as copula verbs (be) and copulative verbs. The most important
element is the Access Principle, a.k.a. Identification Principle since “one element in one
mental space is used to access a counterpart of that element in another mental space ”
(ibid:41)
In previous times, it was considered that a linguistic manifestation could have a
context-independent truth-conditioninal meaning. Fauconnier posits that there are three
dynamic notions: the Base, the starting point of the mental space which will constantly
be gone back to, the Viewpoint, the point from which others are accessed and
structured, and the Focus, which is structured internally. These three elements are
under constant construction, therefore, at times they may not be distinctly
distinguished.
The relationship of the linguistic manifestation, discourse, and the ongoing cognitive
construction is presented by Fauconnier as follows:
“Elements and spaces structure a space internally by following lattice
spaces, external connectors link those spaces so as to indicate the
focus (i.e. mood, tense). Some structures may be transferred to
higher spaces (i.e. presupposition), elements are accessed (i.e.
names and descriptions). The last steps involve implicatures such as
roles to the preset values, deductive reasoning (i.e. setting
conditions) and canceling default (i.e. contrast, concession)”.
Deleted:
According to Fauconnier, grammar is the “visible link” between cognition and the
behaviour of human thinking organism. For there to be thinking and communication
activity, elaborate constructions resort on conceptual capacities, highly structured
background and contextual knowledge, schema-induction and mapping capabilities.
Language does not, by any means, build cognition, it is just what provides us with clues
that there are domains and principles causing the construction of a model in a given
situation. These clues are combined with configurations, cognitive principles and
background framings, which have been constructed at a previous stage. We are
unaware of the constructions we are constantly performing and the vast amounts of
 4

pre-structured knowledge, which have been selected implicitly by the context,

necessary to form any kind of interpretation.
Language is the manifestation of cognitive constructions which operate between
domains. Projections take place over these domains. A mental space is the domain
built allegedly through discourse so as to enable reasoning and interaction with the
world. This implies that linguistic forms aid in the construction at a cognitive level of
domains which are interconnected. That is to say, cognitive level constructions link
language to the real world, which triggers off real-world inferences in the individual’s
mind and action patterns in behaviour.
Considering that lexis, or a lexical structure for that matter, bears no meaning
whatsoever unless it is immersed in discourse and in context, one may deduce that
there is a “cognitive configuration”, made up of clues that are linguistic, contextual and
situational, which are the meaning generators. This configuration is, in fact, a
succession of configurations by which one cognitive configuration will give rise to
another one which will contain some of the elements of the one that gave rise to it. This
is a never ending process.
It is our intention to show through a case study that subjects exposed to new notions
might use different linguistic elements in their answers which might lead us to believe
that the frame might have been altered in some way.
Deleted: Acá hay un espacio demás
Subjects pero no lo puedo sacar.
Twenty-three students of the School of Philosophy and Letters of the University of Formatted
Buenos Aires took part in this study. They attend their first level of the Reading Deleted: ¶
Comprehension Course in English, they belong to different fields of study, that is,
History, Geography, Education, Letters, Philosophy and Anthropology.
In the Reading Comprehension Courses in English, students read academic texts and
reformulate them in Spanish through writing the main idea as well as drawing
paragraph conceptualization. The texts are chosen on the basis of their relevance to
the fields of study, their text structures and their conceptual and lexical complexity.
Students go through three different stages during the reading process. First, the
“anticipatory stage”, in which students, based on their prior knowledge, their alleged
mental representation and the organization of the text, predict and hypothesize the
content of the text. Then, in the “verifying stage”, they confirm or correct their
hypotheses and read the text thoroughly. Finally, in the “internalizing stage”, they
reformulate the text by writing the main idea. Once, they have finished these three
stages, they go through a metacognitive process in which they develop a reading
portfolio.

Method
The data for this study were obtained from the reading of a text taken from the booklet
used in the course. The students worked with an excerpt of “Western Mathematics” by
Alan Bishop (Appendix A). The work was organized in a similar way as the exercises
students regularly do in the course, that is to say, it was divided into the three stages
explained above. The only different procedure was that before starting to read, they
were given a questionnaire (Appendix B) in which they were asked to look at the
bibliographical data, to define the term mathematics and to predict the author’s
intention when writing about Western Mathematics. This questionnaire was designed in
order to analyze the students’ mental representation of the term mathematics before
being exposed to a text in which the author deals with that term but from a point of view
which we assumed was different from our students’. Then, the subjects were requested
to solve the tasks presented in the anticipatory, verifying and internalizing stages as
they usually dealt with them. The subjects were given 2 hours to fulfill the reading, and
 5

once they handed in their work, they were asked to answer a second questionnaire
(Appendix C) in which they were required to express their opinion about the excerpt
and to make comments about the fact of having considered on the author’s position. Deleted:
These answers helped us compare the previous and the post reading information and Deleted: their thoughts/
analyze if there had been some alteration in the linguistic data used by them in the Deleted: thought
answers after being exposed to new information.
Deleted: yo insisto en que no les
preguntamos sobre lo que piensan
sino si lo habían pensado antes
Results
The answers given to question 2 in the pre-reading stage show that most of the
participants in this study defined the concept mathematics as universal, whether as a
science or as a paradigm. This idea is repeated twenty-two times in statements such
as: “utiliza operaciones lógicas y abstractas”, “desarrolla el razonamiento”, “puede
aplicarse a teorías / ciencias”, “una herramienta esencial del conocimiento”. Some
social aspects are mentioned seven times, stated in the three different ways, as
follows: “estudia una porción de la realidad”, “es importante para la organización del
individuo”, “interviene en la economía”. The fact that it is either something difficult or a
mystery is mentioned twice.
When asked, in question 3, which words they relate to Western Mathematics, the idea
that it is a notion in close relationship to the geographic West is mentioned twenty-three
times, for instance, “metodología del mundo occidental”, “matemática occidental”,
“enseñanza y aprendizaje en la zona oeste”, “conocimiento de occidente”, “modelos
matemáticos de occidente”. The idea that there might be a contraposition between
East and West is mentioned twice, “contraposición este-oeste matemático”, “otro
aspecto del mundo de la matemática”. The concept that mathematics is a tool is
mentioned eight times: “influencia de occidente en oriente”, “poder a partir de la
matemática”, “neoliberalismo”, “independencia de la ciencia”, “cultura económica”. One
subject mentioned its everyday aspect and another one stated “matemática correcta”.
Four different kinds of responses were given to question 4, in which they were required
to justify the author’s reason for entitling the text Western Mathematics and not just
Mathematics. In the first group, it is mentioned fourteen times that the notion of
Western Mathematics is that of a geographical notion of west in opposition to east,
stated as follows: ”la matemática en general y la matemática en un lugar particular”,
“énfasis en la matemática del oeste”, “diferencia entre saberes de Europa y Oriente”.
The notion of a different kind of mathematics is stated seven times, as “ existe otro tipo
de matemática” or “marca una diferencia”. Another notion mentioned seven times is
that maths is a tool of control; “es un arma para colonizar otras culturas”, “occidente
exportó su manera de ser, aprender/enseñar matemática”, “modo de dominación
cultural”, “idea de pelea de vaqueros”, “ciencia occidental que se impone en el mundo”,
and that maths is linked to economy is mentioned three times.
In question 5, the subjects were requested to express their perception of the author’s
intention. That maths is used as a tool of control is mentioned fourteen times in
expressions such as “un arma de dominación”, “relación entre el imperialismo y la
matemática”, “vínculo entre la ciencia y la política”, y “desarrollo de imperios”. Another
group mentions that the author will concentrate on differences: “diferencia entre una
matemática y otra”, “entre la cultura de oriente y occidente”, y “entre dos sistemas
económicos”. This idea is mentioned five times. A third group believes it will be about
the importance of mathematics, this is referred to in two instances, and there is only
one instance that considers that it will be about a criticism; “crítica a la importancia
otorgada a todo aquello que viene del mundo occidental”.
When the subjects were asked in question 6 if they supposed the author would show a
different position, 16 subjects (70%) answered affirmatively, 2 subjects (8 %)
answered negatively and 5 subjects (22%) did not know.
 6

The answers to the second questionnaire, that is, after having read the text, show that
18 subjects (79%) agreed with the author’s position explaining that “la matemática no
es independiente de una posición cultural”, “el imperialismo impuso la lengua y la
religión, porque no la matemática”, “imposición de matriz de pensamiento, imposición
de categorías y concepciones del mundo”; 3 subjects (13%) disagreed and 2 (8%)
stated they did not know.
In answer to whether had it ever crossed their mind that there might be other kinds of
mathematics, 5 subjects (21%) answered affirmatively, while 18 subjects (79%)
answered in a negative form.

Discussion
Some subjects consider maths as having a social edge. This is reinforced by the
spatial answer given by the subjects (fourteen times) as there being a geographical
limit between areas determined by the west and the east. Some subjects (7 times)
have interpreted this as a tool of influential power of one spatial element on the other.
Both these notions are restated in the answers to question 4 of the pre-reading section,
in which many of the subjects made a distinction of western mathematics and
mathematics in a spatial relation in which geography and culture are intertwined.
The fact that mathematics is mentioned by most of the participants as a universal
notion leads us to believe that the subjects may have an element in their frame, a
mathematics and b universal, thus the outcoming relation between both elements is
that BE ab, that is to say “mathematics is universal”.
Since ICMs fit the understanding of the world of a specific group and since there are segments of the
world which do not have the same frame we, thus, might suppose that the subjects who took part in this
case study at the University of Buenos Aires might be proof of having an ICM whereby mathematics is
universal, for instance, in comparison to that of an indigenous individual in the middle of Africa or in a far
off land where there is no contact with formal education as such, the concept of mathematics will vary
largely with that of a University student in a city. Nevertheless, it is interesting to note that although most
of the participants (95 %) consider maths universal, apparently their answers seem to show that they were
open to think of other posible views, 70 % admit they supposed they would be exposed to a different
position (Appendix D). It is also noteworthy that not only 79 % of the subjects show, in the
Deleted: . Fauconnier nunca habla
post-reading answers, they had never thought of the possibility of viewing mathematics de openess, tal vez omitiria despues
from another perspective, but the same percentage also agrees with the idea of maths del ) yo buscaría otra palabra si te
parece (por ejemplo attitude?) pero
being culturally-loaded (Appendix D). Moreover, we find it important to remark that most creo que el comentario vale la pena
of the participants mention their interest in delving deeply into this different viewpoint. ya que es parte de la discusión y no
es solo la descripción de los
resultados.¶
Another aspect that called our attention is the fact that a large number of subjects
associated the idea of politics to the notion of maths. It is not just politics but the idea of
imposition which, we suppose, has been triggered off by the caption in the title Cultural
Imperialism, which is further delved into by stating that:

“la matemática no es independiente de una posición cultural”

“el imperialismo impuso la lengua y la religión, ¿porque no la
matemática?”
“la imposición de matriz de pensamiento, la imposición de categorías y
concepciones del mundo.”
“un arma de dominación, relación entre el imperialismo”
“la matemática, vinculo entre la ciencia y política, y desarrollo de
imperios”.

Some statements given by the subjects after reading the text on Western Mathematics
bear the following phrases:
“Es cierto que...”
 7

“A mi entender ...”
“Considero que ...” Deleted: Acá hay un espacio demás
pero no lo puedo sac
“No hay dudas de que …”
These phrases might show that the subjects might have resorted to grammatical Deleted: ¶
devices which according to Fauconnier are space builders, the use of such verbs as Deleted: Acá hay un espacio demás
think, hope or want and the lexis maybe (pienso, creo, tal vez, quizás) , among others pero no lo puedo sacar.

are examples of a space having been built. Therefore, we might assume that this Deleted: ¶
linguistic evidence might be proof of the process undergone by the students after Deleted: We are aware that this is
having been exposed to an uncommon point of view to them. just a sample that applies to a group
of students who have volunteered to
undergo this case study. We consider
that there is need for further study to
Conclusions see if this concepts can displace the
entreched idea that maths is universal
and if the frame has actually been
This study has proved to be most enriching in the sense we have seen how subjects adapted to become a new base.
going through a new situation, in this case reading a text exposing them to an
Deleted: Acá hay un espacio demás
unexpected standpoint, may have lead to an alteration in their frame. pero no lo puedo sacar.¶
We are aware that this is just a sample that applies to a group of students who have Deleted: YO PREVIAMENTE HABIA
volunteered to undergo this case study. Our aim here has just been to show that PENSADO LA CONCLUSIÓN ASI,
VOS PASASTE PARTE DEL
linguistic data might be a way of revealing alterations at cognitive level in the ongoing PARRAFO DE LOS BLENDS PARA
process of discourse. Moreover, we consider that our study is very limited considering LA INTRODUCCIÓN PERO CREO
QUE PUEDE QUEDAR EN AMBOS
the wealth of information available through it and propose furhter study is compulsory LADOS. DE TODOS MODOS
considering this far reaching developing field. DEJALO COMO TE PAREZCA¶
This study has proved to be most
A further enriching aspect of this paper is that, unawares, we have noticed that the enriching in the sense we have seen
concept of mathematics has given rise to the implications of it being a tool of imposing how subjects going through a new
situation, in this case reading a text
power and culture, thus we also suggest further study should be carried out to state if exposing an unexpected standpoint to
MATHS IS POWER may be considered a conceptual metaphore. them, may have lead to a new space
in their cognitive
elements/strategies/structures, which
will in turn lead to a change in their
mental representation. Understanding
a text means being able to construct
a model for the text, taking into
account amounts of socio-cultural
world knowledge (Van Dijk, 1983) and
adapting them to the new situation.¶
We are aware that this is just a
sample that applies to a group of
students who have volunteered to
undergo this case study. We cannot
avoid mentioning that we have not
taken into account the different
blends and projections and cross
space mappings that may arise in this
process, but that is material we will
have to consider in another research.
Our aim here was just to show that
mental spaces do undergo changes,
and we consider these changes are
never ending in view of the constant
bombardment of information we are
exposed to. Moreover, we consider
that there is need for further study to
see if the new concept can displace
the entreched idea that maths is
universal and if the frame has actually
been adapted to become a new base.¶
A further enriching aspect of this
paper is that unawares we have
noticed that the concept of
mathematics has given rise to the
implications of it being a tool of
imposing power and culture, thus we
suggest there should be further study
carried out to state if MATHS IS
POWER may be considered a
conceptual metaphore.¶
 8

Appendix A

The scanned copy has not been included because of its virtual weight. We include a
xerox of it in the paper copy.
 9

Appendix B

Pre reading questionaire

Nombre: Fecha:

Cuestionario

A) Datos personales

Carrera:
Fecha de ingreso a la carrera:
Cantidad de materias cursadas:
Cantidad de materias aprobadas:
Conocimientos previos de inglés: (indique lugar, cantidad de años y nivel
alcanzado)
Edad:
Estudios previos: Secundario estatal / privado Capital Federal / Provincia: ......
Otros estudios:

B) Western Mathematics

B.1. Anticipate

1. Lea la bibliografía, título y subtítulo.

2. ¿Qué es para Ud. la matemática?

3. ¿Qué ideas / palabras puede relacionar al leer “Western Mathematics”?

4. ¿Por qué cree Ud. que el autor titula este texto “Western Mathematics” y no solamente
“Mathematics”?
5. ¿Qué supone usted que el autor intentara demostrar?

6. ¿Considera que el autor postula una posición diferente con respecto de la

matemática?
SI - NO - NO SE
 10

Appendix C

After reading questionaire

Western Mathematics

B.2. Think Aloud

1. ¿Coincide Ud. con la postura del autor? Si / No ¿Por qué?

2. ¿Había pensado Ud. con anterioridad este planteo? Si / No. En caso

afirmativo, ¿cuál había sido su pensamiento al respecto?

3. Por favor, expláyese en cuanto a su punto de vista con respecto al planteo del
autor.

Muchas gracias por la colaboración

 11

Appendix D

Answers given in the pre and post reading stages

Student # ¿Considera que el autor ¿Coincide con la postura ¿Había pensado con
postula una posición del autor? (post-reading) anterioridad este planteo?
diferente? (pre-reading)
Si No No Si No No Si No No
sabe sabe sabe

1 X X X
2 X X X
3 X X X
4 X X X
5 X X X
6 X X X
7 X X X
8 X X X
9 X X X
10 X X X
11 X X X
12 X X X
13 X X X
14 X X X
15 X X X
16 X X X
17 X X X
18 X X X
19 X X X
20 X X X
21 X X X
22 X X X
23 X X X
Total 16 2 5 18 3 2 5 18

Percentage 70 8 22 79 13 8 21 79
%
 12

References
Abbagnano, N.; (1999) , Diccionario de Filosofia, México: Fondo de cultura
económico. Deleted: economico

Bishop, A.; (1995) , “Western Mathematics” in Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., Tiffin, H. eds,
The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. London: Routledge.
Craik, K., Mental Models, URL:
http://www.tcd.ie/Psychology/Ruth_Byrne/mental_models/ (23-06-04)
Fauconier, G.; (1994) , Mental Spaces. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fauconier, G.; (1999) , Mappings in Thought and Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Lakoff, G.; (1990), Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago and London.
Schank, R.C. & Abelson, R. , Script Theory, URL: http://tip.psychology.org/schank.html
(12-07-04)
Turner, M.; (1991) , Reading Minds. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ungerer, F.& Schmid, H.-J.; (1997) , An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. London
and New York: Longman.
Van Dijk, T.; From Text Grammar to Critical Discourse Analysis, URL:
http://www.discourse-in-society.org/beliar-e.htm (28-06-04)

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l.php (8-07-04)
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