Intro To Adv Finite Element Analysis... !!!!

Lecture Notes
Advanced Finite Element Methods
Dr.-Ing. habil. D. Kuhl

Univ. Prof. Dr. techn. G. Meschke
May 2005
Ruhr University Bochum

Institute for Structural Mechanics
Lecture Notes
Advanced Finite Element Methods
Dr.-Ing. habil. D. Kuhl

Univ. Prof. Dr. techn. G. Meschke
May 2005
Ruhr University Bochum

Institute for Structural Mechanics
Universitätsstraße 150 IA6
D-44780 Bochum
Telefon: +49 (0) 234 / 32 29055
Telefax: +49 (0) 234 / 32 14149
E-Mail: detlef.kuhl@ruhr-uni-bochum.de
www: http://www.sd.ruhr-uni-bochum.de
Contents
1 Fundamentals of Linear Structural Mechanics 1

1.1 Continuum Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Definition of a Non-Linear Strain Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Definition of a Linear Strain Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Continuum Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Cauchy’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Balance of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Initial Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.1 Classification of Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Dirichlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.3 Neumann Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.4 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Hyperelastic Constitutive Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Fundamental Assumptions and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.2 Elastic Material Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.3 Isotropic, Elastic Material Relation of Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.4 Plane Stress State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.5 Plane Strain State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.6 The Classical Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 Initial Boundary Value Problem of Elastomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.1 Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.2 Geometrically and Materially Linear Elastodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5.3 Geometrically and Materially Linear Elastostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 Weak Form of The Initial Boundary Value Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6.1 Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6.2 Properties of The Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2 Spatial Isoparametric Truss Elements 31

2.1 Fundamental Equations of One-dimensional Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
i
ii Kuhl & Meschke, Finite Element Methods in Linear Structural Mechanics
2.1.2 Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.3 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.4 Constitutive Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.6 Euler Differential Equation and Neumann Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 Finite Element Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.1 Partitioning of The Structure into Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.2 Approximation of Variables of One-dimensional Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.3 Truss Element with Linear Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.4 Truss Element with Quadratic Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.5 Truss Element with Cubic Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.6 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3 Assembly of the Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.1 Transformation of the Element Matrices and Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.2 Assembly of the Elements to the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4 Solution of the System Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.4.1 Linear Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.4.2 Linear Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.4.3 Solution of the Linear System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.5 Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.5.1 Separation and Transformation of the Element Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . 79
2.5.2 Computation of Strains, Stresses and Section Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.5.3 Aspects of Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3 Plane Finite Elements 81

3.1 Basic Equations of Planar Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1.2 Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.1.3 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.1.4 Constitutive Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.6 Euler Differential Equation and Neumann Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2 Finite Elemente Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.1 Partitioning into Elements and Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.2 Classification of Plane Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2.3 Shape Functions of Plane Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3 Bilinear Lagrange element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.3.1 Ansatz functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.3.2 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3.3 Jacobi transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3.4 Approximation of element quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Institute for Structural Mechanics, Ruhr University Bochum, May 2005 iii
3.3.5 Strain vector approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

3.3.6 Appproximation of internal virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.3.7 Approximation of dynamic virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.3.8 Approximation of virtual work of external loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3.9 Rectangular Bilinear Lagrange Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.4 Rectangular biquadratic Lagrange element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.4.2 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.4.3 Jacoby transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.4.5 Approximation of the strain vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.4.6 Element matrices and vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.5 Biquadratic serendipity element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.5.2 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.6 Triangular plane finite elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.6.1 Natural coordinates of a triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.6.3 Isoparametric approximation of continuous quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.6.4 Element matrices and vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.6.5 Constant Strain Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.7 Numerical integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.7.1 Quadrangular elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.7.2 Triangular elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4 Finite volume elements 143

4.1 Fundamental equations of three-dimensional continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.2 Finite element discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.2.1 Natural coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.2.2 Ansatz Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.2.3 Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.2.4 Jacobi transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.2.5 Differential Operator B(ξ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.2.6 Element Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.2.7 Element Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5 Basics of non-linear structural mechanics 151

5.1 Non-linearities of structural mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.2 Material non-linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.2.1 Mathematical formulation of material non-linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
iv Kuhl & Meschke, Finite Element Methods in Linear Structural Mechanics
5.3 Geometrical non-linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

5.3.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.3.2 Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3.3 Constitutive Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.3.4 Principle of virtual displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.3.5 Internal virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.3.6 Elastic internal potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.3.7 Remarks regarding combined material and geometric non-linearity . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4 Consistent linearization of internal virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4.1 Linearization background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4.2 Gateaux derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4.3 Gateaux derivative of internal virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.4.4 Linearization of Green Lagrange strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.4.5 Linearization of variation of Green Lagrange strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6 Finite element discretization of geometrically non-linear continua 171

6.1 Finite volume elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.1.1 Discretization of internal virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.1.2 Non-linear semi-discrete initial value problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.1.3 Non-linear discrete static equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.1.4 Discretization of linearized internal virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.1.5 Linearization of internal forces vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.2 Finite truss elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.2.1 Non-linear continuum-mechanical formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.2.2 Truss elements of arbitrary polynomial degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.2.3 Linear truss element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7 Solution of non-linear static structural equations 189

7.1 Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.2 Iteration methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.2.1 Single step method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2.2 Pure Newton-Raphson method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2.3 Modified Newton-Raphson method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.3 Control of iteration procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.3.1 Load-incrementing and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.3.2 Arc-length controlling method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References 202
Preface
These lecture notes, which in actual fact are an English translation of the German lecture
notes ’Finite Elemente Methoden I’ of the diploma study course, were created in the context
of the lecture ’Finite Element Methods I’ which was first held in this form during the winter
term 1998/1999. ’Finite Element Methods in Linear Structural Mechanics’ thus represents the
teachings of finite element methods in the area of linear structural mechanics with the focus
on showing of possibilities and limits of the numerical method as well as the development of
isoparametric finite elements. These notes are to support the students in following up the lecture
and to prepare them for the exam. They cannot possibly substitute the lecture or the exercise
entities. In addition to the lecture and the notes, mathematical programmes for deepening
the lecture contents are available at the homepage of the Institute for Structural Mechanics
http://www.sd.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/.
Here, the authors would like to thank Mr. Jörn Mosler and Mr. Stefan Jox for the excellent
conduction of the theoretical and practical exercise entities accompanying the lecture ’Finite
Element Methods I’. Moreover, the authors give their thanks to Ms. Barbara Kalkhoff, graphical
designer, for the high quality drawings as well as to Ms. Monika Rotthaus, Ms. Wiebke Breil,
Ms. Sandra Krimpmann, Ms. Julia Mergenheim, Mr. Christian Becker, Mr. Alexander Beer,
Mr. Sönke Carstens and Mr. Janosch Stascheit for their indispensable efforts in creating these
lecture notes.
Last but not least the authors would like to thank Mr. Ivaylo Vladimirov, Mr. Hrvoje Vucemilovic
and Ms. Amelie Gray who helped to translate the notes into the English language. At the same
time we would like to excuse the fact that the description of the drawings are in German.
Nevertheless, we believe that the meaning becomes clear. The authors are continually working
on improving the lecture notes. Therefore, please feel free to communicate your comments, ideas
and corrections.
For all students who intend to continue with the lecture ’Finite Element Methods II’ with
the emphasis on non-linear structural mechanics, the lecture notes are complemented by the
corresponding chapters 5 to 7 as well as by the indication of further literature. The chapters
concerning the non-linear finite element methods are also available in the form of lecture notes
(’Finite Elemente Methoden II’, 3. edition, October 2002, in German language) at the Institute
for Structural Mechanics, IA 6/127.
Bochum, May 2005 Günther Meschke and Detlef Kuhl
v
Chapter 5
Basics of non-linear structural

mechanics
In the scope of Finite Element discretization in linear structural mechanics presented in the
previous chapters, two major very important simplifying assumptions were made which did not
always result in adequate modelling of real structural behaviour. In these assumptions, it was
postulated that the material behaviour is linear elastic (materially linear) and that deforma-
tions are small (geometrically linear). The former assumption was prescribing the validity of
the Hooke law and a priori excluding the modelling of irreversible material behaviour such
as plastification or damaging. From the latter assumption, it follows that equilibrium can be
established on an undeformed structure and that non-linear terms of Green Lagrange strain
tensor E can be neglected. The so far discussed linear structural mechanics theory makes up
the classic fundamentals of static and dynamic analysis in civil engineering. Inspite of funda-
mental restrictive assumptions just mentioned, this theory will find application in calculations
of deformations and stresses in engineering structures in the future as well, as long as the nec-
essary conditions are met (small deformations and stresses which justify the assumptions of
linear material behaviour), since complexity of FE formulation as well as numerical effort for
solving non-linear problems are notably rising compared to linear problems. What makes a dif-
ference in engineering praxis is that superposition principle is not valid in non-linear cases and
consequently every analysed load case requires a complete computation.
Apart from the classic linear analysis established in engineering, the demands on models of
structural engineering will notably increase due to growing replacement of development and
verification experiments by cost-reducing, transparent and faster computer simulations. For ex-
ample, structures which are slender and light for technical or aesthetic reasons can only be
adequately simulated and examined regarding stability with the help of a geometrically non-
linear calculus (see e.g. Krämer et al. [110]). On the other hand, concrete or reinforced
concrete is a material characterized by distinct non-linear behaviour due to inevitable cracks
(see e.g. Krätzig, Mančevski & Pölling [113]), which has to be taken into account in the
structural analysis calculus. Cupping and shaping processes in the field of industrial produc-
tion (see e.g. Glaser [104]) or car crashes (see e.g. M öller [67]) are application examples
for simulations dependent on modelling of metal plastification with large deformations. On the
one hand it is the lasting deformations and on the other hand the dissipated plastification en-
ergy that is of crucial significance for the product quality, that is, the safety of the passenger.
That shaping processes are impossible without large deformations is self-evident; also the after-
math of a crash seldomly justifies the assumption of small deformations. Other structures are
so intensively loaded that they are impossible with structural exclusion of non-linear material
151
152 Kuhl & Meschke, Adavanced Finite Element Methods, DRAFTversion
behaviour. Plastic deformation during exploitation has to be accepted and simulated accord-
ingly in the design and development process (see e.g. simulation of incineration chambers in
Kuhl [114], Kuhl, Woschnak & Haidn [117]). The previous list of necessities of non-linear
simulation techniques can be extended almost at will, but we nevertheless want to concentrate on
elaboration of geometrically or/and materially non-linear problems, the modelling thereof, and
on numeric-algorithmic conversion. If the body deformations are large, the carrying pattern can
change significantly with the deformation what can reflect on the change of structural stiffness,
or in view of dynamics, on the change of eigenfrequencies. In the extreme case, this can lead to
loss of stability where significant deformations occur without the load increase and the structure
eventually collapses. Especially the slender, thin-walled structures or structures optimized with
respect to linear properties tend to behave in a pragmatic, non-linear way with endangered sta-
bility. Besides the geometrical non-linearity, modelling and discretization of non-linear problems
ought to be investigated, too. Metal materials for example display a linear behaviour until they
reach a certain stress level, the so called flow limit, above which their plastic deformations occur
in connection with a notably reduced material stiffness. The consequence is that the afflicted
structures undergo a load redistribution which still leaves them serviceable even though plas-
tic deformations were already localized. A similar phenomenon can be observed at concrete or
other quasi-brittle materials, particularly ceramics. In these materials microcracks develop due
to loading and degrade the material strength and stiffness.
5.1 Non-linearities of structural mechanics
Structural mechanical simulations can be classified according to the modelled non-linearities and
their combinations in the order of increased complexity, and according to the numerical analysis
effort, as follows (see figure 1.13):
• materially non-linear and geometrically linear
• materially linear and geometrically non-linear
• materially and geometrically non-linear with assumed moderate strains
• materially and geometrically non-linear with finite strains
Compared to figure 1.13, the differentiation of combined material and geometrical non-linearity
with finite strains is of crucial importance for the formulation and numerical conversion of struc-
tural mechanical problematics, but should however not be studied in more detail within the scope
of these lectures. The lectures will limit themselves for most part to pure geometric non-linear
local impulse equilibrium and its formulation, discretization, linearization, numerical solution
with diverse algorithms, as well as to stability observations. The material non-linearity will be
presented only schematically and the corresponding FE discretization will be elaborated briefly.
For material formulations on the material point level, which is equivalent to a Gauß’schen
integration point in the numerical realization of FE methods, and their algorithmic conver-
sion, refer to lectures of Computational Plasticity and to technical literature (e.g. Groß [54],
Hill [108], Krajcinovic [111], Krajcinovic & Lemaitre [112], Lemaitre [118], Lemaitre
& Chaboche [61], Lubliner [119] and Simo & Hughes [133]).
Institute for Structural Mechanics, Ruhr University Bochum, May 2005, DRAFTversion 153
5.2 Material non-linearity
5.2.1 Mathematical formulation of material non-linearity
The rate-independent material non-linearity is, contrary to materially linear formulations (see
chapter 1.4 and equation (1.50)), characterized by the fact that the stress state
σ=C:ε (5.1)
cannot be obtained by linear mapping of the strain state with the help of material tensor C.
The stress tensor or vector σ is rather an arbitrary function of the strain tensor or vector ε,
and other values α, described as internal variables or as time history variables that characterize
non-elastic deformations or damage
σ = σ(ε, α) (5.2)
where the partial derivative of the stress tensor/vector with respect to the strain tensor defines
the tangential material tensor or the tangential material matrix.
∂σ(ε, α)
Ctan (ε, α) = (5.3)
∂ε
In order to make the solution of mechanical boundary problems or initial value problems possible,
the stress function ((5.2) has to be supplemented with the so called evolution equations of internal
variables in the form
α̇ = α̇(ε, α) (5.4)
In the special case of non-linear elastic material laws, the stress state is only a function of the
strain state
∂σ(ε)
σ = σ(ε) Ctan (ε) = (5.5)
∂ε
and the evolution equations are dropped. For the simulation of the non-linear material law
mostly
• non-linear elastic,
• elasto-plastic
• and elasto-damaged
material models and presented ground type combinations are in use. As shown in figure 5.1, the
curves of three materially non-linear phenomena can basically be one and the same for loading
sequence, whereas the differences in material formulations are decisive in the unloading sequence.
In the non-linear elastic case, the stress-strain diagram for unloading runs along the loading path
and after full unloading a strain-free state is reached and the new cycle is identical to the first one.
In case of the elasto-plastic material model, the unloading sequence runs parallel to the initial
rate E and after full unloading the structure is not strain-free because plastic strains remain.
The next cycle is therefore different from the first one. As opposed to that, upon unloading in the
case of elasto-damage model, no permanent strains remain. Unlike the linear-elastic model, the
(non-linear elastic elasto-plastic elasto-damaged
σ6 σ6 σ6
:

:
:

:

9
:

:

9

E E E

(1−d)E

- -

-
ε εp - εp - ε ε
no change plastic strain elasticity modulus
Figure 5.1: Cyclic loading and unloading of elastic, elasto-plastic, and elasto-damaged bilinear
material models
unloading sequence does not follow the loading path but it runs linearly to the diagram origin.
A new load introduction is influenced by degradation of stiffness with the damage parameter d,
due to which the repeated load cycles are not identical in their effects on the material and the
structure.
5.3 Geometrical non-linearity
Alterations regarding geometrically linear observation:
• Consideration of non-linear terms of the strain tensor E (kinematics)

• Establishing the forces equilibrium or application of the impulse theorem in the deformed
configuration (kinetics)
We use:
• (total) Lagrange point of view which is also described as the material point of view
• Stress and strain quantities in the undeformed configuration (second Piola Kirchhoff
stress tensor and Green Lagrange strain tensor)
Literature:
Altenbach &Altenbach [38], Antman [84], Başar [88], Betten [43], de Boer [44], Bonet
& Wood [46], Malvern [63], Marsden & Hughes [65], Smith [73], Stein & Barthold [74]
and Truesdell & Noll [78]
5.3.1 Kinematics
The fundamental of the geometrically non-linear formulation of structural mechanics is based on

the material deformation gradient F , which was already used within the scope of deriving the
R e fe r e n z k o n fig u r a tio n A b b ild u n g j ( X ,t )

u n d e fo r m ie r te L a g e
d X q
Y
P d x
e y p
2
X
x
e 1 d e fo r m ie r te L a g e
e M o m e n ta n k o n fig u r a tio n
3
Figure 5.2: Current and reference configuration of a deformable material body
linear strain tensor with the help of a non-linear deformation analysis of a material body, and
within the scope of subsequent linearization in chapter 1.1.2, equation (1.5), but not elaborated
because in linear observations it possesses no further significance. Non-linear observations are
a different story where the material deformation gradient defines the transformation from
reference to current configuration or from undeformed to deformed state and vice versa. These
transformations are referred to in technical literature as push forward and pull back. The
material deformation gradient is defined by a transformation of a line element dX of the
reference configuration to the current configuration dx (see figure 5.2).
∂x
dx = F · dX F = = ∇x (5.6)
∂X
The Green Lagrange strain tensor E was also already derived and is given in equation
(1.12) as function of the displacement gradient ∇u and its transpose ∇ Tu. If we describe the
motion of the material point from the reference to the current configuration with help of the
displacement vector x = X + u, the Green Lagrange strain tensor
1 T 1 1 T
E= F · F − 1 = ∇sym u + ∇Tu · ∇u = ∇ u + ∇u + ∇Tu · ∇u (5.7)
2 2 2
can be represented as a function of the material deformation gradient.
∂
F = (X + u) = 1 + ∇u (5.8)
∂X
According to this relation, the components of the term

 
1 1
 u1,1 2 (u1,2 + u2,1 ) 2 (u1,3 + u3,1 ) 
 
∇sym u =  1 (u1,2 + u2,1 )
 
u2,2 1 (5.9)
2 (u2,3 + u3,2 )

 2 
 
1 1
2 (u1,3 + u3,1 ) 2 (u2,3 + u3,2 ) u3,3
of the linear part of the strain tensor E, given explicitly in equations (1.13) and (1.14), are
supplemented by the term 1/2∇Tu · ∇u, in the scope of geometrically non-linear theory, which
can again be calculated with the displacement vector gradient according to eq. (1.7)
 
 u1,1 u1,2 u1,3 
 
 
∇u =  u2,1 u2,2 u2,3  (5.10)
 
 
u3,1 u3,2 u3,3
by matrix multiplication.
 
 uk,1 uk,1 uk,1 uk,2 uk,1 uk,3 
1 T 1 


∇ u · ∇u =  uk,2 uk,1 uk,2 uk,2 uk,2 uk,3  (5.11)
2 2  
 
uk,3 uk,1 uk,3 uk,2 uk,3 uk,3
It should be noted that the summation is performed over k = 1, 2, 3, respectively. The compo-
nent presentation of the Green Lagrange strain tensor finally yields the following:
1
Eij = (ui,j + uj,i + uk,i uk,j ) E = Eij E i ⊗ E j (5.12)
2
In order to formulate the non-linear Finite Element methods, it remains to convert the calcula-
tion rule of the strain tensor, given in eq. (5.7) or (5.12), into the calculation rule of the strain
vector in a suitable way . The linear part of the strain tensor can be expressed as a vector by
application of the differential operator D ε to the displacement vector u, as described in eq.
(1.16). However, for the non-linear part of the strain tensor, no suitable operator presentation
can be found.
     
E11 u1,1 1/2 (u1,1 u1,1 + u2,1 u2,1 + u3,1 u3,1 )
 E22   u2,2   1/2 (u1,2 u1,2 + u2,2 u2,2 + u3,2 u3,2 ) 
     
 E   u3,3   1/2 (u u + u u + u u ) 
 33     1,3 1,3 2,3 2,3 3,3 3,3 
E(u) =  = +  (5.13)
 2E12   u1,2 + u2,1   u1,1 u1,2 + u2,1 u2,2 + u3,1 u3,2 
     
 2E23   u2,3 + u3,2   u1,2 u1,3 + u2,2 u2,3 + u3,2 u3,3 
2E13 u1,3 + u3,1 u1,1 u1,3 + u2,1 u2,3 + u3,1 u3,3
According to eq (5.13), the Green Lagrange strain tensor of geometrically non-linear

deformations is obtained by addition of the well-known linear part D ε u and the non-linear part
E nl (u),
E(u) = Dε u + E nl (u) (5.14)

where Dε u and E nl (u) are defined as follows (summation over k = 1, 2, 3).
   
u1,1 1/2 uk,1 uk,1

 u2,2 


 1/2 uk,2 uk,2 

 u3,3   1/2 uk,3 uk,3 
E nl (u) = 
   
Dε u =    (5.15)
 u1,2 + u2,1   uk,1 uk,2 
   
 u2,3 + u3,2   uk,2 uk,3 
u1,3 + u3,1 uk,1 uk,3
Formulation of Dirichlet boundary conditions (eq. (1.33))
u(X) = u? (X) ∀ X ∈ Γu (5.16)
and of initial conditions remains unaltered compared to linear structural mechanics (eq. (1.45)).

u(X, t = 0) = u? (X)  
oder ∀ X ∈Ω (5.17)
? 

ü(X, t = 0) = ü (X)
5.3.2 Kinetics
Unlike the linear structural analysis, its non-linear counterpart requires that the dynamic or
the static forces equilibrium be observed in the deformed configuration. This firstly calls for
the evaluation of mass distribution which gives the relation between density in the current
configuration ρc and the one in the reference configuration ρ, with the help of determinant |F |
of the material deformation gradient (see e.g. Marsden & Hughes [65]).
ρ = |F | ρc (5.18)
The forces equilibrium of a geometrically linear approximation, presented in chapter 1.2, eq.
(1.25), was obtained by pure kinetic analysis of a differential volume element. Analoguous anal-
ysis of a volume element in a deformed configuration gives us the Cauchy motion equation in
the so called spatial or Euler formulation.
ρc ü = divσ + ρc b ∀ x∈Ω (5.19)
divσ symbolises the tensor divergence of the real stresses or the Cauchy stress tensor, related
to the current configuration. As the first description of this stress tensor might lead us to antic-
ipate, this stress quantity is defined by a differential load in the current configuration, effecting
a deformed surface element da, arbitrarily oriented with a normal vector n inside the body,
leading to the consequence that the actual stresses occurring in the material can be described.
It is of advantage to numerical conversion in structural mechanics to utilize the motion equation
in the materialor Lagrange formulation. To perform this it is necessary to relate the Cauchy
motion equation to the undeformed configuration. Multiplication of motion equation (5.19)
by determinant of the material deformation gradient already transforms the density in the
reference configuration, according to (5.18).
|F | ρc ü = |F | divσ + |F | ρc b ρ ü = |F | divσ + ρ b (5.20)
It remains to transform the middle term of the equation. Since this transformation requires the
profound familiarity with non-linear continuum mechanics, we shall leave out the derivation
procedure and resort to the related literature for the result (e.g. Malvern [63], Marsden
& Hughes [65], Smith [73]). To clarify the outcome,we shall give the resulting identity in
symbolic presentation and it component notation.
∂σij ∂(Fik Skj )

|F | divσ = DIV(F · S) |F | = (5.21)
∂xj ∂Xj
DIV symbolises the divergence operator with respect to the reference configuration. Tensor 1
S, which is here used for the first time, is the second Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor defined with
respect to the reference configuration. It should be noted that the Piola Kirchhoff stress
tensor S, unlike the Cauchy stress tensor σ, does not refer to actual stresses but to ’pseudo
stresses’. They are defined with respect to the reference configuration by a differential load
effecting a surface element of the reference configuration dA, which is oriented with a normal
vector N . Introduction of equation (5.21) into equation (5.20) eventually yields the material or
the Lagrange formulation of impulse rule, that is, the Cauchy motion equation.
ρ ü = DIV(F · S) + ρ b ∀ X∈Ω (5.22)
In order to formulate a well-defined problem, it is necessary to supplement the impulse rule

with the static or Neumann boundary condition. The latter is given in spatial formulation
analogous to equation (1.40). It is possible to apply the procedure for derivation of equilibrium
at the boundary, demonstrated in the geometrically linear case, to the deformed configuration
σ · n = t? ∀ x ∈ Γσ (5.23)
and thereupon to transform it. Material formulation of the Neumann boundary conditions is
in the geometrically non-linear case defined by
F · S · N = T? ∀ X ∈ Γσ (5.24)
(see e. g. Marsden & Hughes [65]), where N presents the normal vector of reference
configuration. Stress vector T ? (first Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor) is defined by a differential
load vector of current configuration acting on a surface element of the reference configuration
dA parallel to t? .
T ? dA = t? da (5.25)
5.3.3 Constitutive Law
For moderate strains, to which we shall limit ourselves here, we can introduce the Saint
Venant Kirchhoff material model to project the Green Lagrange strains on to second
1
The Product P = F · S presents the first Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor, which is not used or discussed in the
lectures
Piola Kirchhoff stresses in analogy with equation (1.56) of linear structural mechanics.
S=C:E C = 2µ I + λ 1 ⊗ 1 (5.26)
5.3.4 Principle of virtual displacements
5.3.4.1 Weak formulation of initial value problem
Weak formulation of the initial value problem of geometrically non-linear structural mechanics
can be obtained in a way analogous with linear formulation in chapter 1.6.1, by choice of dis-
placement vector transformation δu as special test function, and by applying the calculation
rule (1.87) to δu · DIV(F · S), = DIV(δu · (F · S)) − ∇δu : (F · S) , where the volume integral
of the first right-hand side term DIV(δu · (F · S)) can be transformed to upper surface integral
via δu · F · S · N, by applying the Gauß integral law (see chapter 1.6.1). With the help of
mentioned transformations we get the virtual displacements principle.
Z Z Z Z
δu · ü ρ dV + ∇δu : (F · S) dV = δu · b ρ dV + δu · T ? dΓσ (5.27)
Ω Ω Ω Γσ
dV and dΓ describe the volume element, that is, the line element in the reference configuration.
First term in equation (5.30) is the virtual work of inertial forces δW dyn , the second term is
the virtual work δWint . The sum of the third and the fourth term makes up the virtual work
of external loads δWext . Internal virtual work in equation (5.27) should be transformed in such
a way that one obtains the form of virtual displacements equivalent to equation (1.94). To get
this form, we first vary the term δE : S according to definition of E in equation (5.7), where in
order to achieve further transformation we use the symmetry of the stress tensor.
1 1
δE : S = δ F T · F − 1 : S = δF T · F + F T · δF : S = F T δF : S = δF : F · S (5.28)
2 2
With the definition of the material deformation gradient in equation (5.6) and the unchanging
coordinates of the reference configuration (δX = 0),
∂ ∂δu
δF = (δX + δu) = = ∇δu (5.29)
∂X ∂X
we can write the virtual displacement principle with equations (5.27), (5.28) and (5.29) in
the form preferred for further derivations (in analogy with equation (1.94) of geometrically
non-linear structural mechanics).
Z Z Z Z
δu · ü ρ dV + δE : S dV = δu · b ρ dV + δu · T ? dΓσ (5.30)
Ω Ω Ω Γσ
It may be noticed once again that the Lagrange formulation of the impulse rule is used, and
as a consequence, the integration over the volume, that is, over the boundary of a material body
has to be performed in the reference configuration. From equation (5.30),it can be concluded
that virtual work of inertial forces δW dyn , and of external loads δWext , did not undergo
any formal change in comparison with linear observations in chapter 1.6.1. This practically
means that for isoparametric one-, two- and three-dimensional finite elements elaborated in
chapters 2 to 4, calculation of the mass matrix m e , and of the kinematically equivalent loads
or the consistent element load vectors r ep and r en , can be inferred from the linear formulation.
This claim is valid for structural elements only in special cases due to rotational degrees of
freedom (see e.g. Argyris [85] or Betsch, Menzel &Stein [91]), used to describe kinematics
and deformation (displacement-based description of rotation parameters, isoparametric shear-
susceptible elements - Timoshenko, Kirchhoff-Love and Nagdi), and needs to be discussed
next. Within the scope of a generalised approach to geometrically non-linear formulation of
finite element methods we shall limit ourselves to finite elements which allow the assumptions
made. The necessary changes are occasionally considered, discussed, and in some cases replaced
by approximations.
As opposed to the terms of virtual work of inertial forces and of external loads, the internal
virtual work δWint for geometrically non-linear observations is crucially different. Instead of
variation of Green strain tensor that is strain vector ε, comes the Green Lagrange strain
tensor E that is strain vector E, given in equation (5.7) or equation (5.14). The Cauchy stress
tensor/vector σ has to be replaced with the second Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor/vector S
which is linked with the Green Lagrange strain tensor/vector through equation (5.26) in the
materially linear case.
Z Z Z
δWint = δE : S dV = δE : C : E dV = δE · C E dV (5.31)
Ω Ω Ω
5.3.4.2 Variation of Green Lagrange strains
Equation (5.31) contains the variation of Green Lagrange strain tensor δE. Before we de-
rive this variation, we first review the geometrically non-linear theory. In case of geometric
non-linearity, the Green strain vector ε could be computed with the help of the deformation-
independent differential operator D ε and the displacement vector u , ε = D ε u (see equation
(1.16)). Accordingly, the variation of Green strain vector was obtained by variation of the linear
mapping just mentioned δε = Dε δu. The corresponding relation should be derived as prepara-
tion for the variation of Green Lagrange strain vector, needed to discretize and formulate
finite elements in chapter 6.
T
δE = δE11 δE22 δE33 2δE12 2δE23 2δE13 (5.32)
Variation of strain components Eij with i, j = 1, 2, 3 can be calculated as follows with equation
(5.12)

1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂uk ∂uk
Eij = + + (5.33)
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xi ∂Xj
and with the exchangeability of sequence of variation and partial derivatives when applying the
product rule.

1 ∂δui ∂δuj ∂uk ∂δuk ∂uk ∂δuk
δEij = + + + (5.34)
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xi ∂Xj
Here it is summated over k = 1, 2, 3. Setting i, j = 1, 2, 3 yields the components of the strain

vector variation.
∂δu1 ∂uk ∂δuk

δE11 = +
∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1
δE22 = +
∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2
δE33 = +
∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3 (5.35)
∂δu1 ∂δu2 ∂uk ∂δuk ∂uk ∂δuk
2δE12 = + + +
∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X2
2δE23 = + + +
∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X3
2δE13 = + + +
∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X3
Having precised the components of the variation of strain vector δE ij in matrix form taking
into account the summation convention of k and l, yields the following presentation which is
examinable by multiplication:
  
∂ +u ∂ ∂ ∂
δE11 1,1 u2,1 u3,1
  ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1 
 
 δE22   ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂  
u1,2 + u2,2 u3,2 
  ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2 
  ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂  δu1 
 δE33   u1,3 u2,3 + u3,3  



= ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3  
 δu2 (5.36)
 2δE   ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂  
 12   + u1,2 + u1,1 + u2,2 + u2,1 u3,2 + u3,1 
  ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2  δu3
  ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
 2δE23   u1,3 + u1,2 + u2,3 + u2,2 + u3,3 + u3,2 
  ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X3 
∂ ∂ +u ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
2δE13 + u1,3 ∂X 1,1
∂X3 u2,3 + u2,1 + u3,3 + u3,1
∂X3 1 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X3
If we have a closer look at the equation, it becomes evident that the differential operator which
maps the displacement vector variation to the Green Lagrange strain vector is composed by
addition of the constant part already defined in equation (1.16)
 
∂
 ∂X1 0 0 
 ∂ 
 
 0 0 
 ∂X2 

 0 ∂ 
 0 

Dε =  ∂X3  (5.37)
 ∂ ∂ 

 ∂X2 0 
 ∂X1 

 ∂ ∂ 
 0 
 ∂X3 ∂X2 
 ∂ ∂ 
0
∂X3 ∂X1
and of the deformation-dependent part.
 
∂ ∂ ∂
 u1,1 u2,1 u3,1 
 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 

 u1,2 u2,2 u3,2 

 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 

 u1,3 u2,3 u3,3 

nl
Dε (u) =  ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3  (5.38)
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 

 u1,2 + u1,1 u2,2 + u2,1 u3,2 + u3,1 

 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 

 u1,3 + u1,2 u2,3 + u2,2 u3,3 + u3,2 

 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
u1,3 + u1,1 u2,3 + u2,1 u3,3 + u3,1
∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3
The connection between variation of continuous displacements and variation of the Green
Lagrange strain tensor can be demonstrated with assistance of the differential operator D ε
and Dnl nl
ε (u), where the product Dε δu stands for the variation of the non-linear strain vector
nl
term δE (u).

nl
δE(u) = Dε δu + δE (u) = Dε + Dnl
ε (u) δu (5.39)
5.3.5 Internal virtual work
With developments of strains and their variation in linear and non-linear parts, we can now
transform the internal virtual work according to equation (5.31). Parts of Green Lagrange
strain vector E that arise and their variation δE are described in equations (5.13) and (5.39).
We can also infer the material matrix of a three-dimensional continuum from equation (1.62)
or equation (1.63).
Z Z h i h i
δWint = δE · C E dV = Dε + Dnl
ε (u) δu · C Dε u + E nl (u) dV (5.40)
Ω Ω
5.3.6 Elastic internal potential
Because of its importance for derivation of solution algorithms in geometrically non-linear struc-
tural mechanics and for development of direct methods which determine singular points (sta-
bility), we should write down the internal potential Π int shall be written as function of elastic
potential function W (E) or of Green Lagrange strain tensor E in connection with the ma-
terial tensor C.
Z Z Z
1 1
Πint = W (E) dV = E : S dV = E : C : E dV (5.41)
2 2
Ω Ω Ω
The variation of internal potential is identical with the internal virtual work, with assumption
of a material law having a potential character (see equation (5.31)).
Z Z Z
1
δΠint = (δE : C : E + E : C : δE) dV = δE : C : E dV = δE : S dV = δWint (5.42)
2
Ω Ω Ω
5.3.7 Remarks regarding combined material and geometric non-linearity
If one should combine the non-linearities dealt with in this and the previous chapter 5.2, namely
material and geometric non-linearity, one should note that non-linear material models are for-
mulated in true, that is in Cauchy stresses but also in strains (Euler strain tensor) related
to current configuration. For this reason, the actual Green Lagrange strain tensor generally
has to be related to the momentary configuration with a push forward. There, the Cauchy
stress tensor is computed with the help of the used material model and thereafter related to the
reference configuration with a pull back. The second Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor, which is
the result of this procedure, is thereby a function of the Green Lagrange strain tensor, of the
material deformation gradient (push forward and pull back) and of internal variables dependent
on the material model.
S = S(E, F , α) (5.43)
Compared to a pure material non-linearity, the reference configuration related stress and strain
quantities have to be utilized here instead of σ and as well as the material deformation
gradient.
5.4 Consistent linearization of internal virtual work
The basis for the solution of geometrically non-linear finite element systems is the linearization
of internal virtual work. Before we perform the linearization in the next chapter 6, we must
define the directional or the Gateaux derivative of a scalar or a vector.
5.4.1 Linearization background
5.4.2 Gateaux derivative
Gâteaux derivative of a scalar, vector, matrix or a tensor will henceforth be designated with
a ∆ symbol. The definition is given with the help of an arbitrary scalar function f (u).
d ∂f (u)
∆f (u) = [f (u + η∆u)]|η=0 = · ∆u (5.44)
dη ∂u
In this definition, u stands for the actual displacement vector and ∆u stands for an incremental
change of u. d [f (u + η∆u)] is the increase or the derivative of function f along a direction

dη
or a straight line set by ∆u. If this derivative is evaluated at η = 0, we get the function f
derivative of the displacement state u in direction ∆u. On the other hand, the scalar product of
the normal vector defined by ∂f (u)/∂u gives, along with the vector of incremental displacement
∆u , the change ∆f of function f for the change ∆u in a tangential plane at f (u). The second
identity can be shown if f (u + η∆u) is replaced by f (u(η)) with u(η) = u + η∆u, and if we
apply the chain rule.
d d ∂f (u(η)) ∂u(η) ∂f (u + η∆u)

f (u + η∆u) = f (u(η)) = · = · ∆u (5.45)
dη dη ∂u ∂η ∂u
Equation (5.45) evaluated at η = 0 finally gives the sought second identity of equation (5.44).
5.4.3 Gateaux derivative of internal virtual work
Application of Gâteaux derivative definition (5.44) to the internal virtual work δW int , according
to equation (5.40) with variation of the strain tensor according to equation (5.39), determines
the linearization of internal virtual work.
Z h i
∂δWint d
∆δWint = ∆u = Dε δ(u + η∆u) + δE nl (u + η∆u) · C
∂u dη
Ω
h i (5.46)
nl

Dε (u + η∆u) + E (u + η∆u) dV
η=0
Gâteaux derivative is assembled by differentiation with respect to scalar η and by applying

the chain rule and evaluating at η = 0.
Z
d
∆δWint = [Dε δ∆u + (δE nl (u + η∆u))] · C
dη
Ω
nl

[Dε (u + η∆u) + E (u + η∆u)] dV
Z η=0
+ [Dε δ(u + η∆u) + δE nl (u + η∆u)] · C

Ω (5.47)
d nl

[Dε ∆u + (E (u + η∆u))] dV
dη η=0
Z
d
= [Dε δ∆u + (δE nl (u + η∆u))|η=0 ] · C [Dε u + E nl (u)] dV
dη
Ω
Z
d
+ [Dε δu + δE nl (u)] · C [Dε ∆u + E nl (u + η∆u)|η=0 ] dV
dη
Ω
If we observe the Gâteaux derivative definition in equation (5.44) applied to the derivatives
yet to be performed in equation (5.47), and if we take into consideration that, according to its
properties formulated in chapter 1.6.1, the virtual displacement δu is arbitrary that is indepen-
dent of the displacement state u, making ∆δu = δ∆u = 0, we get the G âteaux derivative of
internal virtual work,
Z
∆δWint = ∆δE nl (u) · C [Dε u + E nl (u)] dV
Ω
Z (5.48)
+ [Dε δu + δE nl (u)] · C [Dε ∆u + ∆E nl (u)] dV
Ω
which can further be transformed after introduction of equation (5.39) applied to the term
δE nl (u).
Z
∆δWint = ∆δE nl (u) · C [Dε u + E nl (u)] dV
Ω
Z (5.49)
+ [(Dε + Dnl
ε (u))
nl
δu] · C [Dε ∆u + ∆E (u)] dV
Ω
This equation represents the Gâteaux derivative or the directional derivative of internal virtual
work related to the incremental change of displacement state by ∆u. The G âteaux derivative
is also called the consistent linearization of internal virtual work due to its strict mathematical
derivation. This consistent linearized virtual work presents a milestone of non-linear structural
mechanics since it is the basis of all iterative, incremental solution strategies (see chapter 7).
We should notice that Dε ∆u + ∆E nl (u) presents the linearization of the Green Lagrange
strain vector ∆E(u) and that the Gâteaux derivative of the second Piola Kirchhoff stress
vector for materially non-linear models is given by
∆S(u) = C [Dε ∆u + ∆E nl (u)] = C ∆E(u) (5.50)
We should further notice the identity of linearization of the Green Lagrange strain vector
variation and its non-linear part
∆δE(u) = Dε ∆δu + ∆δE nl (u) = ∆δE nl (u) (5.51)
due to the vanishing linearization of the linear part. Consequently we can write the linearized
internal virtual work (5.49) in a compact form with equations (5.14), (5.50) and (5.51).
Z
∆δWint = [∆δE(u) · S(u) + δE(u) · ∆S(u)] dV (5.52)
Ω
In order to discretisize the directional derivative or linearize the internal virtual work, according
to equation (5.49) or (5.52), the linearization of the non-linear part of the Green Lagrange
strain vector ∆E nl (u) and its variation ∆δE nl (u) needs to be determined. The non-linear part
of the Green Lagrange strain vector E nl (u) and differential operators Dε and Dnl ε (u) are
already given in equations (5.14), (5.38) and (5.39).
5.4.4 Linearization of Green Lagrange strains
When using a linear material law, the linearization of the Green Lagrange strain vector,
according to equation (5.50), multiplied by the material matrix is equivalent to the linearization
of the second Piola Kirchhoff stress vector. In order to determine the linearization of the
Green Lagrange strain vector, it suffices to investigate the non-linear part since the linear
part is already known to be Dε .∆u.

nl d nl

∆E(u) = Dε ∆u + ∆E nl (u) ∆E (u) = (E (u + η∆u)) (5.53)
dη η=0
In order to generate ∆E nl , the components of the non-linear part of the strain vector should be
observed in index notation and linearized according to equation (5.12) that is equation (5.33).
nl 1 ∂ ∂
Eij = uk uk (5.54)
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj
The application of formalism of the G âteaux derivative yields:

nl 1 d ∂ ∂
∆Eij = (uk + η∆uk ) (uk + η∆uk )
2 dη ∂Xi ∂Xj η=0

1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ∆uk (uk + η∆uk ) + (uk + η∆uk ) ∆uk
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xj
η=0 (5.55)
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ∆uk uk + uk ∆uk
1 ∂ ∂
= uk,j ∆uk + uk,i ∆uk
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj
By comparing the last row of the above equation with the variation of the corresponding strain
component δEij nl in equation (5.34), we showed the equivalence of variation and linearization
of strains. As a consequence, we conclude that linearization of the Green Lagrange strain

vector is given directly with equation (5.39), where the variation symbol δ needs to be replaced
by the linearization symbol ∆.

∆E(u) = Dε ∆u + ∆E nl (u) = Dε + Dnl
ε (u) ∆u (5.56)
5.4.5 Linearization of variation of Green Lagrange strains
The linearization of variation of Green Lagrange strains follows from considering equation (5.51)
based on equation (5.34) with the help of the G âteaux derivative in components.
nl
∆δEij = ∆δEij

1 d ∂ ∂
= δ(uk + η∆uk ) (uk + η∆uk )
2 dη ∂Xi ∂Xj
∂ ∂
+ (uk + η∆uk ) δ(uk + η∆uk )
∂Xi ∂Xj η=0

1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= δ∆uk (uk + η∆uk ) + δ(uk + η∆uk ) ∆uk (5.57)
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ ∆uk δ(uk + η∆uk ) + (uk + η∆uk ) δ∆uk
∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xj η=0

1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= δ∆uk uk + δuk ∆uk
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ ∆uk δuk + uk δ∆uk
∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xj
As already elaborated in 5.4.3, the linearization of the virtual displacement δ∆u k = 0 vanishes
and therefore also all terms in equation (5.57) which contain this term.

nl 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∆δEij = ∆δEij = ∆uk δuk + ∆uk δuk (5.58)
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xj ∂Xi
Executing equation (5.58) for all permutations of i, j = 1, 2, 3 and summation over k = 1, 2, 3,

we get components of linearized variation of the Green Lagrange strain vector.
∂ ∂
∆δE11 = ∆uk δuk
∂X1 ∂X1
∂ ∂
∂X2 ∂X2
∂ ∂
∂X3 ∂X3
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(5.59)
∆δE12 = ∆uk δuk + ∆uk δuk
2 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X1
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
2 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X2
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
2 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X1
In order to obtain greater clarity on linearization of variation of the strain vector we should, as
alternative to the above derivations, vary Green Lagrange strains in tensor notation according
to equation (5.7), with exchangeability of variation and linearization sequence,
1 T
δE = ∇ δu + ∇δu + ∇Tδu · ∇u + ∇Tu · ∇δu (5.60)
2
and thereupon linearize them with the help of G âteaux derivative definition according to (5.44),
where the identity ∆δu = 0 must be heeded.

1 d
∆δE = ∇Tδ(u + η∆u) + ∇δ(u + η∆u)
2 dη
T T

+∇ δ(u + η∆u) · ∇(u + η∆u) + ∇ (u + η∆u) · ∇δ(u + η∆u) (5.61)
η=0
1 T T
= ∇ δu · ∇∆u + ∇ ∆u · ∇δu
2
With that ∆δE is determined in a written form. It is evident that this expression does not depend
on the given state of displacement u. For the following discretization of internal virtual work
in a pure and linearized form in chapter 6, some additional considerations and transformations
should by all means be done beforehand. The linearized variation of Green Lagrange strains
appears in the linearized internal virtual work (equation (5.52)) as a scalar valued product with
the second Piola Kirchhoff stresses. In tensor notation, this can be written as follows and
transformed and summarized due to the symmetry of the stress tensor.
1 T 1 T
∆δE : S = ∇ δu · ∇∆u : S + ∇ ∆u · ∇δu : S
2 2 (5.62)
T T
= ∇ δu · ∇∆u : S = ∇ ∆u · ∇δu : S = ∆δE · S
The proof of equation (5.62) comes in components, where symmetry of the stress tensor S ij = Sji
and exchangeability of dummy (summation) indices enable the particular steps of the proof.
1
∆δEij = [δuk,j ∆uk,i + δuk,i ∆uk,j ]
2
1 1 (5.63)
∆δEij Sij = [δuk,j ∆uk,i Sij + δuk,i ∆uk,j Sij ] = [δuk,j ∆uk,i Sij + δuk,i ∆uk,j Sji ]
2 2
1
= [δuk,j ∆uk,i Sij + δuk,j ∆uk,i Sij ] = δuk,j ∆uk,i Sij
2
After this, it remains to specify the expression (analogy with calculation of ∇ Tu · ∇u, given in
equation (5.11))
   
 δuk,1 ∆uk,1 δuk,1 ∆uk,2 δuk,1 ∆uk,3   S11 S12 S13 
   
[∇Tδu · ∇∆u] : S =  δuk,2 ∆uk,1 δuk,2 ∆uk,2 δuk,2 ∆uk,3
   
 :  S12 S12 S23  (5.64)
   
   
δuk,3 ∆uk,1 δuk,3 ∆uk,2 δuk,3 ∆uk,3 S13 S23 S33
and to transfer it into a suitable form in matrix notation.
[∇Tδu · ∇∆u] : S = δ û · Ŝ ∆û (5.65)
Here, û defines a vector component of the displacement vector gradient ∇u.

T
δ û = δu1,1 δu1,2 δu1,3 δu2,1 δu2,2 δu2,3 δu3,1 δu3,2 δu3,3
T (5.66)
∆û = ∆u1,1 ∆u1,2 ∆u1,3 ∆u2,1 ∆u2,2 ∆u2,3 ∆u3,1 ∆u3,2 ∆u3,3
or
       
∂δu1 ∂∆u1
 ∂X   ∇δu1   ∂X   ∇∆u1 
       

δ û =  ∂δu2     ∂∆u2   
 =  ∇δu2  ∆û =   =  ∇∆u2  (5.67)

 ∂X  
 



 ∂X  
 


∂δu3 ∂∆u3
∇δu3 ∇∆u3
∂X ∂X
and Ŝ defines the hyper-diagonal matrix of the second Piola Kirchhoff stress components.
 
S11 S12 S13

 S12 S22 S23 

 
 S13 S23 S33   
 

 S11 S12 S13 
 S
 
Ŝ = 
 S12 S22 S23 ,
 Ŝ =  S  (5.68)
 S13 S23 S33  S
 
 
 S11 S12 S13 
 
 S12 S22 S23 
S13 S23 S33
The validity of identity (5.65) can be examined by calculation of the corresponding scalar
according to both left and right side of this equation, and also by applying definitions (5.66)
and (5.68). Intotal the identity relevant to discretization of linearized internal work is obtained
with equations (5.62) and (5.65).
∆δE · S = δ û · Ŝ ∆û (5.69)

Chapter 6
Finite element discretization of

geometrically non-linear continua
The finite element discretization of the weak form of impulse balance, or of the principle of
virtual work (5.30), gives the static or dynamic equilibrium in the form of a non-linear vector
equation or vector differential equation. For the finite elements dealt with in this chapter, the
latter differs from the discrete formulation of the principle of virtual work for small deformations
(geometrically linear observation) only in the term of discretisized internal virtual work. The
result of discretization of this different term is the deformation-dependent vector of internal
forces.
Besides the discretization of principle of virtual work, when considering definite deformations
(geometrically non-linear), the discretization of linearized internal virtual work (5.49) or (5.52)
is of crucial significance for numerical solution of geometrically non-linear elasto-mechanics.
Discretization of the linearized internal virtual work defines the so called tangential stiffness
matrix. This tangential stiffness, identical to linearization of vector of internal forces, forms the
basis of iterative Newton procedures on the one hand, and is of importance for characterization
of stability properties of the structure on the other hand.
Based on the fundamental understanding of finite element development in linear structural
mechanics, it is effective to first derive the discretization of the three-dimensional non-linear
continuum with isoparametric finite volume elements, and thereafter develop the corresponding
one- and two-dimensional finite elements analogously.
6.1 Finite volume elements
The discretization of the geometrically non-linear three-dimensional continuum can be done

analogously to the linear case (chapter 4). In comparison to geometrically linear observation,
the following developing steps remain unaltered:
• Approximation of continuous values with the ansatz function matrix N(ξ) and of element
vectors X e , ue , δue and üe of a NN -noded hexagon element according to equations (4.10)
and (4.11), where the generation of ansatz functions is performed according to table ??.
• The generation of Jacobi matrix J(ξ) and Jacobi determinant |J(ξ)| according to equa-
tions (4.12) and (4.14) remains the same. Also, the inversion for calculation of Jacobi
matrix inverse J−1 (ξ), which is defined in equation (4.13).
171
• The spatial Gauß-Legendre integration of element matrices and vectors.
• The mass matrix me is identical to linear observation in equation (4.19).
• The calculation of consistent equivalent loads of volume loads r ep (4.20) remains unmodified
as well, and one obtains the consistent equivalent load of boundary loads r en by replacing
boundary stresses t? by boundary stresses T ? , see equations (5.23) and (5.24).
In other words, the internal virtual work and its linearization remain to be discretisized, where
in order to discretisize δWint only the virtual displacement by ansatz functions and variation of
element free values are approximated. Contrarily, to discretisize ∆δW int , the approximation to
δu and ∆u is used. All further displacement-dependent terms remain undiscretisized.
6.1.1 Discretization of internal virtual work
After the preceding derivations, it remains to discuss the discretization if internal virtual work
of a finite element e according to equation (5.31). In order to formulate the isoparametric finite
volume element, the equation (5.40) should be applied to the element volume, and the differential
volume dΩ should be transformed into natural coordinates dΩ = |J(ξ)| dξ 1 dξ2 dξ3 according to
equation (4.14), with the help of the Jacobi determinant |J(ξ)|. In the differential operators
Dε , Dnlε (u) as well as in the non-linear part of the Green Lagrange strain vector E (u),
nl
the derivatives of physical coordinates must be substituted by derivatives of natural coordinates

with the help of the Jacobi transformation. Formally this is designated by index Jacobi. The
differential operator Dεξ was already given in equation (4.15). The explicit generation of further
terms follows in the next two sections. For the further development of internal virtual work,
equation (5.40) is resolved.
Z1 Z1 Z1
e
δWint = δE ξ (u, ξ) ·C E ξ (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
= (Dεξ (ξ) δu(ξ)) ·C Dεξ (ξ) u(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ (Dεξ (ξ) δu(ξ)) ·C E nl
ξ (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3 (6.1)
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ Dnl
εξ (u, ξ) δu(ξ) ·C Dεξ (ξ) u(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ Dnl
εξ (u, ξ) δu(ξ) ·C E nl
ξ (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
The first summand corresponds to the internal virtual work of geometrically linear elastome-
e lin = δue · ke ue according to (1.96), which can again be discretisized with the
chanics δWint e
stiffness matrix (equation (4.18)), which is marked as elastic stiffness matrix k ee for distinction
purposes, and with the element displacement vector u e as well as its variation δu e (equation
(4.10)). Independent of this realization, the simplification of the scientific notation for purposes
of a uniform presentation of all terms, and most of all, in order to effectively compute the
tangential stiffness matrix (should at first not be considered). Since the non-linear part of the
strain vector E nl (u) cannot be obtained by a linear mapping of the displacement vector (see
equation (5.13)), a strategy alternative to linear theory must be applied for discretization of
internal virtual work. For that reason, the strain variation δE ξ (u, ξ) is discretisized with the
help of the approximation of the displacement variation based on the product of matrix of
ansatz functions N(ξ) (equation (4.11)) and variation of the element displacement vector δu e
according to equation (4.10).
h iT
δu(ξ) ≈ δ ũ(ξ) = N(ξ) δue δue = δue1 e1 e1 eNN
1 δu2 δu3 · · · δu3
(6.2)
Dεξ (ξ) δu ≈ Dεξ (ξ) N(ξ) δue = B(ξ) δue
δE nl nl
ξ (u, ξ) ≈ Dεξ (u, ξ) N(ξ) δue = Bnl (u, ξ)δue (6.3)

δE ξ (u, ξ) ≈ Dεξ (ξ) + Dnl
εξ (u, ξ) N(ξ) δue = B(u, ξ) δue
The remaining linear and non-linear terms of the strain vector D εξ (ξ)u and E nl
ξ (u, ξ) are not
subject to discretization. The reason for that is evident in chapter 7 in the scope of iterative
solution procedures of non-linear structural mechanics. Here, the result of investigations that
are yet to come should only be sketched: In order to realize the sought algorithms, the strains
are calculated just for one estimated or approximated displacement state u ek or continuous
displacement state uk (ξ), where the estimated continuous displacements are calculable from
the displacement vector with the help of approximation (4.10). 1
h iT
uk (ξ) ≈ ũk (ξ) = N(ξ) uek uek = uek1
1 uek1
2 uek1
3 · · · u3ekNN (6.4)
Accordingly, also the Green Lagrange strains E nl k

ξ (u , ξ) can be determined with equation
(5.13). These statements are analogously valid for deformation-dependent terms D nl k
εξ (u , ξ) that
nl k
is B (u , ξ) which are contained in equations (6.3). They are determined with the displacement
state uk and equations (5.38) or (6.3). After this elaboration, from now on the so called iteration
index k will be omitted; all undiscretisized displacements should be understood as iteratively
approximated displacements. If we apply the approximation (6.3) to the element-specific
1
Already in advance, in the scope of non-linear algorithms, uek presents the element displacement vector of
the last iteration step
formulation of internal virtual work (6.1), we get its discrete approximation.
Z1 Z1 Z1
e e
δWint ≈ δu · BT (ξ) C Dεξ (ξ) u(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ δue · BT (ξ) C E nl
−1 −1 −1
(6.5)
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ δue · Bnl T (u, ξ) C Dεξ (ξ) u(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ δue · Bnl T (u, ξ) C E nl
−1 −1 −1
The internal virtual work can also be calculated with definition of the deformation-dependent
element vector of internal forces r ei ,
Z1 Z1 Z1
r ei (ue ) = BT (ξ) C Dεξ (ξ) u(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ BT (ξ) C E nl
−1 −1 −1
(6.6)
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ Bnl T (u, ξ) C Dεξ (ξ) u(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ Bnl T (u, ξ) C E nl
−1 −1 −1
and with variation of the displacement vector δu e .

e
δWint ≈ δue · r ei (ue ) (6.7)
Alternatively, the vector of internal forces can be presented in a more compact form if the
partitioning of the strain vector and the differential operator is taken back and the equation
(5.14) is utilized.
Z1 Z1 Z1 h i
r ei (ue ) = BT (ξ) + Bnl T (u, ξ) C E ξ (u, ξ)|J(ξ)|dξ1 dξ2 dξ3 (6.8)
−1 −1 −1
Generally, the internal forces are calculable by integration of the product of the non-linear
differential operator B(u, ξ) = B(ξ) + B nl (u, ξ) and the stress vector S ξ (u, ξ) = CE ξ (u, ξ),
where of course the Jacobi transformation needs to be included.
Z1 Z1 Z1
r ei (ue ) = BT (u, ξ) S ξ (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3 (6.9)
−1 −1 −1
The deformational dependence of internal forces was characterised by the functional dependence
of the displacement vector ue . This implies that for calculation of internal forces in general, and
for calculation of Bnl , Dεξ u as well as E nl
ξ , especially the element displacement vector has to
be either known or assessable.
6.1.1.1 Jacoby transformation of δE
When previously discretisizing the internal virtual work, the variation of the strain vector
δE ξ (u, ξ) formulated in natural coordinates was already used, but not determined. By means of
the Jacobi transformation of equation (5.39), δE ξ (u, ξ) can be expressed with the assistance
of Dεξ (ξ) and Dnlεξ (u, ξ).

δE ξ (u) = Dεξ δu + δE nl
ξ (u) = D εξ + D nl
εξ (u) δu (6.10)
The differential operator Dεξ and consequently also the B-operator B(ξ) are already known
from the development of a finite volume element of linear structural mechanics (equations (4.15)
to (4.17)). It now only remains to proceed with the development of the operator D nl εξ (u, ξ) and
nl nl
of the result of its application to the matrix of ansatz functions D εξ (u, ξ)N(ξ) = B (u, ξ). The
differential operator Dnlε (u, ξ), defined in equation (5.38), contains derivatives of displacement
components with respect to physical coordinates as well as differentiation rules with respect to
physical coordinates of a generalised form:
∂ ∂uj ∂
uj,k = (6.11)
∂Xl ∂Xk ∂Xl
With the help of components of the inverse Jacobi matrix according to equation (4.13), the
transformation can be performed in natural coordinates
∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂uj ∂ξn ∂uj

= uj,k = = (6.12)
∂Xl ∂Xl ∂ξm ∂Xk ∂Xk ∂ξn
where the summation is over m = 1, 2, 3, that is over n = 1, 2, 3. Derivatives of the displacement

vector with respect to natural coordinates are set by the derivative of ansatz functions.
NN
∂u(ξ) ∂uj (ξ) X i
= N;n (ξ) ue = N;n (ξ) uei
j (6.13)
∂ξn ∂ξn
i=1
For generation of the differential operator D nl

εξ , we write only the derivative ∂/∂X l . The deriva-
tives of displacement components with respect to natural coordinates are implicitly included
according to equations (6.12)2 and (6.13).
 
∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂
u1,1 u2,1 u3,1
 ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξm 
 ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ 
 u1,2 u2,2 u3,2 

 ∂X2 ∂ξm ∂X2 ∂ξm ∂X2 ∂ξm 

 ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ 
 u1,3 u2,3 u3,3 
nl
Dεξ (u, ξ) =  ∂X3 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm (6.14)
 ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ 
 u1,2 + u1,1 u2,2 + u2,1 u3,2 + u3,1 
 ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X2 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X2 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X2 ∂ξm 
 ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ 
 u1,3 + u1,2 u2,3 + u2,2 u3,3 + u3,2 
 ∂X2 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm ∂X2 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm ∂X2 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm 
 ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξm ∂

u1,3 + u1,1 u2,3 + u2,1 u3,3 + u3,1
∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X3 ∂ξm
Application of the differential operator D nl i

εξ to the matrix of ansatz functions N (ξ) belonging
to node i, yields the non-linear part of B-operator B nl nl i
i (u, ξ) = Dεξ (u, ξ)N (ξ),
 
∂ξm i
uj,1 N

 ∂X1 ;m 

 ∂ξm i 
 uj,2 N 

 ∂X2 ;m 

 ∂ξm i 
 uj,3 N 
nl

Bij (u, ξ) =  ∂X3 ;m  nl
 Bi (u, ξ) = Bnl Bnl Bnl (6.15)
 ∂ξm i ∂ξm i  i1 i2 i3
 uj,2 N;m + uj,1 N 

 ∂X1 ∂X2 ;m 

 ∂ξm i ∂ξm i 
 uj,3 N + uj,2 N 

 ∂X2 ;m ∂X3 ;m 

 ∂ξm i ∂ξm i 
uj,3 N;m + uj,1 N
∂X1 ∂X3 ;m
where the non-linear operator of the finite volume element is assembled analogously to equation
(4.17).

nl
B (u, ξ) = Bnl
1 (u, ξ) Bnl
2 (u, ξ) ··· Bnl
NN (u, ξ)
(6.16)
6.1.1.2 Jacoby transformation of E
The derivatives of physical coordinates of the non-linear part of the strains E nl can be replaced
by derivatives of natural coordinates, too. If the observed strains are composed from the linear
and the non-linear part of equation (5.14), one gets the strains in natural coordinates after the
Jacobi transformation,
E ξ (u) = Dεξ u + E nl
ξ (u) (6.17)
in case of which the linear part Dεξ u is already determined (equation (4.15)). The vector
E nl (u) contains, according to equation (5.12) that is (5.13), terms of the form u j,k that can be
transformed with the help of components of the Jacobi matrix according to equation (6.12).
nl 1 ∂ ∂ nl 1 ∂ξm ∂ ∂ξn ∂
Eij = uk uk Eξij = uk uk (6.18)
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj 2 ∂Xi ∂ξm ∂Xj ∂ξn
As an example of generation of E nl nl
ξ , the normal component Eξ11 is derived.
nl 1
E11 (u, ξ) = (u1,1 u1,1 + u2,1 u2,1 + u3,1 u3,1 )
2 (6.19)
nl 1 ∂ξm ∂u1 ∂ξn ∂u1 ∂ξm ∂u2 ∂ξn ∂u2 ∂ξm ∂u3 ∂ξn ∂u3
Eξ11 (u, ξ) = + +
2 ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξn ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξn ∂X1 ∂ξm ∂X1 ∂ξn
Further components of the strain tensor can be derived in the same manner.
6.1.2 Non-linear semi-discrete initial value problem
Due to the spatial discretization presented in preceding sections, the principle of virtual work
can be approximated in the element plane.
δue · me üe + δue · r ei (ue ) = δue · (r ep + r en ) (6.20)
By summing equation (6.20) or explicitly, the vector of internal loads,

NE
S
r i (u) = r ei (ue ) (6.21)
e=1
with the vector of external loads r ep + r en and the mass matrix me in analogy with equation
(2.146), we obtain the system-related spatially discrete formulation of the principle of virtual
work,
δu · M ü + δu · r i (u) = δu · r (6.22)
which can be transferred to the semi-discrete initial value problem of non-linear elasto-dynamics
by application of the fundamental lemma of variation calculus (see chapter 2.2 and 2.3). The
problem is defined by the semi-discrete differential equation of motion of the second order
M ü + r i (u) = r (6.23)
and by the discretisized initial conditions.
ü(0) = ü? u(0) = u?

(6.24)
r i (u(0)) = [r(0) − M ü(0)] ü(0) = M−1 [r(0) − r i (u(0))]
The substantial difference to linear elasto-dynamics is that due to geometric non-linearity, there
is a non-linear equation of motion with the deformation-dependent vector of internal loads
r i (u), instead of the product of constant stiffness matrix, and with the displacement vector
Ku. As a further characteristic, we should bring up the non-linearity of the initial condition
when prescribing accelerations ü(0) = ü? .
6.1.3 Non-linear discrete static equilibrium
For static or quasi-static problems of structural mechanics we can formulate the discrete
equation of non-linear static equilibrium by neglecting the inertial forces M ü = 0.
r i (u) = r (6.25)
This equation presents a non-linear algebraic vector equation. The solution of the non-linear
coupled vector equation (6.25) requires the discretization of linearized internal virtual work
(chapter 5.4) and the solution of incremental equilibrium relations with special numerical
procedures, elaborated in chapter 7.
6.1.4 Discretization of linearized internal virtual work
For finite element discretization of the linearized internal virtual work, formed in equation (5.49)
and (5.56) that is equation (5.52), the integrands first have to be applied to the element volume
and thereafter transformed to natural coordinates ξ 1 ξ2 and ξ3 .
Z1 Z1 Z1
e
∆δWint = [∆δE ξ (u, ξ) · S ξ (u, ξ) + δE ξ (u, ξ) · ∆S ξ (u, ξ)] |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
= ∆δE nl
ξ (u, ξ) · C E ξ (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1 (6.26)
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ [(Dεξ (ξ) + Dnl
εξ (u, ξ)) δu] · C
−1 −1 −1
[Dεξ (ξ) + Dnl

εξ (u, ξ)] ∆u |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
After the derivations of the previous chapter 6 and 5.4.3, only the discretization of this
expression requires the discretization of the non-linear part of strain vector linearization
∆E ξ (u, ξ), that is of stress vector ∆S ξ (u, ξ) and of term ∆δE ξ (u, ξ) · S ξ (u, ξ). Due to analogy
with the variation and linearization, the linearization of the Green Lagrange strain vector
∆E ξ (u, ξ) can be written directly in natural coordinates, in analogy with equation (6.10),

∆E ξ (u) = Dεξ ∆u + ∆E nl
ξ (u) = D εξ + D nl
εξ (u) ∆u (6.27)
and be discretisized.
Dεξ (ξ) ∆u ≈ B(ξ) ∆ue ∆E nl nl

ξ (u, ξ) ≈ B (u, ξ) ∆u
e
(6.28)
Thereby, the second summand of ∆δWint e can be written according to the operators, their
variation, linearization, linearized variation and discretization, in its spatially discretisized form
already derived in equation (6.26). This should however be postponed until the first summand
e is discretisized, too. Therefore, the transformation is used which was derived in the
of ∆δWint
preceding section (equation (5.69)) in which the stress matrix Ŝ and the vectors δ û that is
∆û, must be given in natural coordinates ( Ŝξ , δ ûξ and ∆ûξ ). The components of the stress
matrix Ŝξ can be computed based on strains Eξ , according to equation (6.17) that is (6.18)
with the help of the constitutive law (5.26). The Jacobi transformation from δ û is analoguous
to those with ∆û, which is why this vector δ û is shown as an example. The derivatives of
physical coordinates δui,j are replaced by derivatives of natural coordinates with the Jacobi
transformation according to equation (6.12) (summation over k = 1, 2, 3).
   
∂ξk ∂ ∂ξk ∂
δu1

 ∂X1 ∂ξk  
  ∂X1 ∂ξk 

 ∂ξk ∂   ∂ξk ∂ 
 δu1   

 ∂X2 ∂ξk  
  ∂X2 ∂ξk 

 ∂ξk ∂   ∂ξk ∂ 
 δu1   

 ∂X3 ∂ξk  
  ∂X3 ∂ξk 

 ∂ξk ∂   ∂ξk ∂  
 δu2   
  δu1 

 ∂X1 ∂ξk  
  ∂X1 ∂ξk  
 ∂ξk ∂   ∂ξk ∂ 
  δu 
δ ûξ = 
 δu2 =
   2  (6.29)
 ∂X2 ∂ξk   ∂X2 ∂ξk  

 ∂ξk ∂   ∂ξk ∂ 
 δu3

 δu2  
  
 ∂X3 ∂ξk   ∂X3 ∂ξk 

 ∂ξk ∂  
  ∂ξk ∂ 

 δu3   
 ∂X1 ∂ξk   ∂X1 ∂ξk 

 ∂ξk ∂  
  ∂ξk ∂ 

 δu3   
 ∂X2 ∂ξk   ∂X2 ∂ξk 
 ∂ξk ∂   ∂ξk ∂ 
δu3
∂X3 ∂ξk ∂X3 ∂ξk
With the discretization of vector δu, which was defined in equation (4.10) with the help of the
matrix of ansatz functions N(ξ) (equation (4.11)), and variation of the element displacement
vector δue (δu = N(ξ)δue ), we obtain the approximation of δ ûξ . The same can be done for
∆ûξ analogous to δ ûξ .
δ ûξ ≈ Bg (ξ) δue ∆ûξ ≈ Bg (ξ) ∆ue (6.30)
The differential operator Bg (ξ), which is dependent solely on natural coordinates, can be
composed with the differential operator
   
∂N i (ξ) ∂ξk i
 ∂X   ∂X N;k (ξ) 
  i  1 
g  ∂N i
(ξ)  ∂N (ξ)  ∂ξ k i

Bi (ξ) =   = N;k (ξ)  (6.31)
 ∂X  ∂X 
 ∂X 2


 ∂N i (ξ)   ∂ξk
i

N;k (ξ)
∂X ∂X3
associated with the element node i.

Bg (ξ) = Bg1 (ξ) Bg2 (ξ) · · · Bg (ξ) (6.32)
NN
Therefore, it is possible to approximate the scalar product of the linearized variation of Green
Lagrange strains and the second Piola Kirchhoff stresses with the help of differential
operator Bg (ξ), and with the hyper-matrix of stresses Ŝξ (u, ξ) (equations (5.69) and (6.30)):
∆δE ξ (u, ξ) · S ξ (u, ξ) = δ û · Ŝξ (u, ξ) ∆û ≈ δue · Bg T (ξ) Ŝ ξ (u, ξ) Bg (ξ) ∆ue (6.33)
The linear internal virtual work can finally be entirely discretisized. Furthermore, we take
advantage of the independence of element displacement vector u e from natural coordinates ξ
in order to extract δue and ∆ue from the integral expressions.
Z1 Z1 Z1
e
∆δWint = ∆δE ξ (u, ξ) · S ξ (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
(6.34)
+ [(Dεξ (ξ) + Dnl
εξ (u, ξ)) δu] · C
−1 −1 −1
[Dεξ (ξ) ∆u + ∆E nl
ξ (u, ξ)] |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
Z1 Z1 Z1
e e
∆δWint ≈ δu · Bg T (ξ) Ŝ ξ (u, ξ) Bg (ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3 ∆ue
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
(6.34)
+ δue · (BT (ξ) + Bnl T (u, ξ)) C
−1 −1 −1
(B(ξ) + Bnl (u, ξ)) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3 ∆ue
The compact form of linearized internal virtual work is obtained with definitions of the
deformation-dependent geometric element stiffness matrix
Z1 Z1 Z1
keg (ue ) = Bg T (ξ) Ŝ ξ (u, ξ) Bg (ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3 (6.35)
−1 −1 −1
and the deformation-dependent material element stiffness matrix
Z1 Z1 Z1 h i h i
kem (ue ) = BT (ξ) + Bnl T (u, ξ) C B(ξ) + Bnl (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3 (6.36)
−1 −1 −1
with the sum of the two yielding the tangential element stiffness matrix:
e

∆δWint ≈ δue · keg (ue ) + kem (ue ) ∆ue = δue · ket (ue ) ∆ue (6.37)
If we use the additive composition of the B-operator of the material stiffness matrix, we
can break up the elastic element stiffness matrix k ee , identical to the linear theory, and the
deformation-dependent matrix of initial displacements k eu (ue ).
kem (ue ) = kee + keu (ue )

Z1 Z1 Z1
e
ke = BT (ξ) C B(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1 h i (6.38)
keu (ue ) = BT (ξ) C Bnl (u, ξ) + Bnl T (u, ξ) C B(ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
Z1 Z1 Z1
+ Bnl T (u, ξ) C Bnl (u, ξ) |J(ξ)| dξ1 dξ2 dξ3
−1 −1 −1
It is obvious that all parts of the tangential stiffness matrix are symmetric. Symmetry of element
stiffness matrices keg (ue ), kem (ue ) and kee can be inferred directly from respective definitions. The
symmetry of keu (ue ) follows from the symmetry of kem (ue ) and kee and equation (6.38).
6.1.5 Linearization of internal forces vector
In the scope of the iterative solution of non-linear dynamic differential vector equations (6.23)
or the non-linear static vector equation (6.25), the linearization of internal forces will be of
great importance. In the element plane, the linearization of internal forces r i (u) is defined by
linearization of the internal virtual work in equation (6.7), what, by comparison to equation
(6.37), can be put down to the tangential element stiffness and the increment of the element
displacement vector.
e ∂r ei (ue )
∆δWint ≈ δue · ∆r ei (ue ) = δue · ∆ue = δue · keg (ue ) + kem (ue ) ∆ue (6.39)
∂u e
By summing the linearized internal forces and parts of the tangential stiffness matrix
NE
S NE
S
∆r i (u) = ∆rei (ue ) Kg (u) = keg (ue )
e=1 e=1
(6.40)
NE
S NE
S
Kt (u) = ket (ue ) Km (u) = kem (ue )
e=1 e=1
we eventually get the linearization of the system vector of internal forces ∆r i (u) as function of
the material system stiffness matrix K m (u), the geometric system stiffness matrix K g (u), the
tangential system stiffness matrix K t (u) and the increment of the system displacement vector
∆u.
∆r i (u) = (Kg (u) + Km (u)) ∆u = Kt (u) ∆u (6.41)

6.2 Finite truss elements
6.2.1 Non-linear continuum-mechanical formulation
6.2.1.1 Kinematics
The Green Lagrange strain in the longitudinal direction of the truss E 11 is determined based
on equation (5.12) that is (5.13) with u 2,1 = u3,1 = 0.
1 1
E11 = (u1,1 + u1,1 + u1,1 u1,1 ) = u1,1 + u1,1 u1,1 (6.42)
2 2
The presentation of the Green Lagrange truss strain, analoguous with the presentation of the
differential operator (5.14) can be acquired by the following transformation.
∂ 1 nl
E11 = u1 + u1,1 u1,1 = Dε u1 + E11 (u1 ) (6.43)
∂X1 2
6.2.1.2 Kinetics
The Lagrange formulation of the forces equilibrium of a truss element is obtained with equation
(5.22) for S22 = S33 = S12 = S23 = S13 = 0, and the vanishing derivatives in e 2 and e3 directions
(divergence DIV)

∂ ∂x1
ρ ü1 = S11 + ρ b1 (6.44)
∂X1 ∂X1
6.2.1.3 Constitutive law
The one-dimensional special case of the constitutive equation (5.26) can be described only with
the assistance of the elasticity modulus.
S11 = E E11 (6.45)
6.2.1.4 Principle of virtual work
The principle of virtual displacements of a one-dimensional continuum is obtained by reduction

of the three-dimensional formulation (5.30), or by adjusting the linear formulation ((2.24). In
case of the latter procedure, the Green strain ε 11 and the Cauchy stress σ11 have to be replaced
by the Green Lagrange strain E11 and the second Piola Kirchhoff stress S 11 , respectively,
and the non-specified length l by the reference length L.
L L L
Z2 Z2 Z2
δu1 ü1 ρ A dX1 + δE11 S11 A dX1 = δue1 e1 e2 e2
1 N1 + δu1 N1 + δu1 p1 dX1 (6.46)
−L
2
−L
2
−L
2
The inertial term as well as terms of internal and external loads are the same as in the linear
observation. For the internal virtual work, the integrand is already known, with the exception of
the variation of the Green Lagrange strain. δE 11 is obtained by reduction of equation (5.34)
for the one-dimensional continuum or by variation of equation (6.42).
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
δE11 = δu1 + δu1 u1 + u1 δu1 = δu1 + u1,1 δu1 (6.47)
∂X1 2 ∂X1 ∂X1 2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1
This can be presented by means of analogy to equation (5.39) with the help of the differential
operator Dε and Dεnl (u1 ).

nl
δE11 = Dε δu1 + δE11 (u1 ) = Dε + Dεnl (u1 ) δu1 (6.48)
6.2.1.5 Linearization of internal virtual work
The linearized internal virtual work can be extracted from the internal virtual work of the three-
dimensional continuum (5.49), or much simpler, by linearization of internal virtual work given
in equation (6.46).
L
Z2
∆δWint = A (∆δE11 S11 + δE11 ∆S11 ) dX1 (6.49)
−L
2
In this expression, we need to generate the linearization of variation of the Green Lagrange
strain and of the second Piola Kirchhoff stress. The first linearization yields:
nl nl
∆δE11 = Dε ∆δu1 + ∆δE11 (u1 ) = ∆δE11 (u1 ) = ∆u1,1 δu1,1 + u1,1 ∆δu1,1 = ∆u1,1 δu1,1 (6.50)
The linearization of the second Piola Kirchhoff stress can be put down to the linearization of
the Green Lagrange strain with the help of the constitutive equation (6.45), which is defined
by the equivalence of variation and linearization in analogy to equation (6.48).

∆S11 = E ∆E11 = E Dε + Dεnl (u1 ) ∆u1 (6.51)
For the discretization of linearized internal virtual work of the three-dimensional continuum,
it has turned out to be favourable to properly transform the expression ∆δE · S equivalent
to ∆δE11 S11 . For a deeper understanding of this transformation, we should do it for the one-
dimensional continuum. Since ∆δE11 and S11 are scalar expressions, this transformation is of
no further significance.
∂ ∂
∆δE11 S11 = δu1,1 ∆u1,1 S11 = δu1,1 S11 ∆u1,1 = δu1 S11 ∆u1 = δû1 Ŝ11 ∆û1 (6.52)
∂X1 ∂X1
6.2.2 Truss elements of arbitrary polynomial degree
In order to develop a family of truss elements for the modelling of geometrically non-linear
structural behaviour, we should assume equidistant element nodes. The development is separated
into determination of the element vector of internal forces by discretization of the internal virtual
work, and generation of the tangential element stiffness matrix based on linearized internal
virtual work. Afterwards, one derives the special case of the linear truss element.
6.2.2.1 Element vector of internal forces
As shown within the scope of finite volume element development, the element vector of internal
forces is, developed with the discretization of virtual displacement in the internal virtual work
expression (6.46). The basis of standardized discretization is the formulation of internal virtual
work in natural coordinates, where the Jacobi matrix and the Jacobi determinant are identical
to formulations of geometrically linear truss elements (chapter 2.2.2), as long as they are formed
with the reference truss length L.
Z1 Z1
L nl L
δWint = A δEξ11 Sξ11 dξ1 = A Dεξ + Dεξ (u1 ) δu1 Sξ11 dξ1 (6.53)
2 2
−1 −1
nl (u ) as well as the stress S

The differential operators Dεξ and Dεξ 1 ξ11 are formed with the Jacoby
transformation of corresponding values in physical coordinates (see equation (2.38)).
∂ξ1 ∂ 2 ∂
Dεξ = =
∂X1 ∂ξ1 L ∂ξ1
nl ∂ξ1 ∂u1 ∂ξ1 ∂ 4 ∂u1 ∂
Dεξ (u1 ) = = (6.54)
∂X1 ∂ξ1 ∂X1 ∂ξ1 L2 ∂ξ
1 ∂ξ1
∂ξ1 ∂u1 1 ∂ξ1 ∂u1 ∂ξ1 ∂u1 2 E ∂u1 1 ∂u1 ∂u1
Sξ11 (u1 ) = E + = +
∂X1 ∂ξ1 2 ∂X1 ∂ξ1 ∂X1 ∂ξ1 L ∂ξ1 L ∂ξ1 ∂ξ1
The discretization of virtual displacement δu 1 is done by applying equation (2.42), by means

of which also the derivation of displacement u 1 with respect to natural coordinate ξ 1 can be
computed for an approximate displacement state u e , with equation (2.46).
 
NN h i δue11
X ..
δuei i e
 
δu1 (ξ1 ) ≈ 1 N (ξ1 ) = N 1 (ξ1 ) · · · N NN (ξ1 )  .  = N(ξ1 ) δu
i=1
δueN
1
N
e1
  (6.55)
NN h i δu 1
∂u1 (ξ1 ) X ei i ..
 = N;1 (ξ1 ) ue
 
≈ u1 N;1 (ξ1 ) = N;11 (ξ1 ) · · · N;1NN (ξ1 )  .
∂ξ1
i=1
δueN
1
N
Insertion of equation (6.55) into equation (6.53) yields the approximation of internal virtual
work.
Z1
nl L
δWint ≈ A Dεξ + Dεξ (ue ) N(ξ1 ) δue Sξ11 (ue ) dξ1
2
−1
(6.56)
Z1 L
= A B(ξ1 ) + Bnl (ue , ξ1 ) δue Sξ11 (ue ) dξ1 = δue · r ei (ue )
2
−1
Here, the approximation of the Green Lagrange strain was accomplished with the help of the
B-operator B(ξ1 ) and Bnl (ue , ξ1 ) and the functional dependence on the displacement vector u e
was specified as consequence of equation (6.55).

nl
δEξ11 ≈ Dεξ + Dεξ (ue ) N(ξ1 ) δue = B(ξ1 ) + Bnl (ue , ξ1 ) δue (6.57)
By transformation of equation (6.56), the internal forces vector
Z1 L
r ei (ue ) = A BT (ξ1 ) + Bnl T (ue , ξ1 ) Sξ11 (ue ) dξ1 (6.58)
2
−1
can be developed with the differential operator B(ξ 1 ) of geometrically linear truss elements
(generalisation of equation (2.60)) and the non-linear deformation-dependent differential
operator Bnl (u1 , ξ1 )
2 4 ∂u1
B(ξ1 ) = N;1 (ξ1 ) Bnl (ue , ξ1 ) = N;1 (ξ1 ) (6.59)
L L2 ∂ξ1
with the second Piola Kirchhoff stress in natural coordinates S ξ11 being computable with
the help of equations (6.54) and (6.55) for a prescribed displacement state u e .
6.2.2.2 Tangential element stiffness matrix
By discretization of linearized internal virtual work (6.49) in natural coordinates,
Z1
L
∆δWint = A (∆δEξ11 Sξ11 + δEξ11 ∆Sξ11 ) dξ1 (6.60)
2
−1
the tangential stiffness matrix of hierarchically generated truss elements is derived. From the
terms in equation (6.60), Sξ11 is already known (equations (6.54) und (6.55)) and δE ξ11 is already
derived in equations (6.53) and (6.54) and discretisized in equation (6.57). The approximation
of ∆Sξ11 can be done with the help of the constitutive law (6.45) and with the equivalence of
variation and linearization based on equation (6.57).

nl
∆Sξ11 = E∆Eξ11 ≈ E Dεξ + Dεξ (ue ) e
N(ξ1 ) ∆u = E B(ξ1 ) + B (u , ξ1 ) nl e
∆ue (6.61)
∆δEξ11 is derived from (6.50), by applying the Jacobi transformation (see (6.54)).
2 ∂ 2 ∂ 4 ∂ ∂
∆δEξ11 = ∆u1 δu1 = 2 ∆u1 δu1 = Dεξ ∆u1 Dεξ δu1 (6.62)
L ∂ξ1 L ∂ξ1 L ∂ξ1 ∂ξ1
The approximation of term ∆δEξ11 is performed with the help of differential operator B g (ξ1 ),
which in the special case of one-dimensional elements corresponds to the differential operator
of geometrically linear truss elements. This can be shown with discretization of incremental
displacement ∆u1 and the virtual displacement δu1 in equation (6.62).
∆δEξ11 ≈ δue · Bg T (ξ1 ) Bg (ξ1 ) ∆ue = δue · BT (ξ1 ) B(ξ1 ) ∆ue (6.63)
Insertion of equations (6.57), (6.61) and (6.63) into equation (6.60) yields the approximation of
the linearized internal virtual work

∆δWint ≈ δue · keg (ue ) + kem (ue ) ∆ue (6.64)
with the deformation-dependent geometric element stiffness matrix (B g (ξ1 ) = B(ξ1 ))
Z1
L
keg (ue ) = A Bg T (ξ1 ) Sξ11 (ue ) Bg (ξ1 ) dξ1 (6.65)
2
−1
and the deformation-dependent material element stiffness matrix.
Z1 L
kem (ue ) = EA BT (ξ1 ) + Bnl T (u1 , ξ1 ) B(ξ1 ) + Bnl (u1 , ξ1 ) dξ1 (6.66)
2
−1
Linearization of the element vector of internal forces is also determined with equation (6.64).

∆r ei (ue ) = keg (ue ) + kem (ue ) ∆ue (6.67)
It should be noted once more that the utilization of the B-operator B(ξ 1 ), instead of Bg (ξ1 )
operator, in equation (6.65) is limited to the special case of one-dimensional elements.
6.2.3 Linear truss element
The detailed elaboration of the two-noded linear finite truss element, as part of the family
of hierarchically generated finite truss elements, presented in chapter 6.2.2, is performed by
reduction of element vectors, differential operators, matrix of ansatz functions and element
matrices. The definition of the matrix of ansatz functions N(ξ 1 ), the element displacement vector
ue , as well as the differential operator B(ξ 1 ) = B can be inferred from derivations dealing with
the linear theory in chapter 2.2.2 (equations (2.52), (2.53) and (2.60)). The non-linear part of the
B-operator Bnl (u1 , ξ1 ) = Bnl (u1 ) is calculated according to (6.59) by introducing the derivatives
of ansatz functions N;11 = −1/2 and N;12 = 1/2 according to (2.51),

1 2 ∂u1
B(ξ1 ) = B = Bg = −1 1 Bnl (u1 ) = −1 1 (6.68)
L L2 ∂ξ1
with the approximation

∂u1 1
≈ N;1 (ξ1 ) ue = N;1 ue = −1 1 ue (6.69)
∂ξ1 2
being constant in ξ1 . When generating the element vector of internal forces according to (6.58),
especially when integrating, it turned out to be advantageous that, due to the linear displacement
ansatz, the B operators (6.68) and the normal stress ((6.54) be independent of the natural
coordinate ξ1 .

r ei (ue ) = A L Sξ11 (ue ) BT + Bnl T (ue ) (6.70)
The use of differential operators according to equation (6.68) in the end yields the element
vector of internal forces of the two-noded truss element.
" #
2 ∂u1 −1
r ei (ue ) e
= A Sξ11 (u ) 1+ (6.71)
L ∂ξ1 1
By executing the products of matrices in equations (6.65) und (6.66) with differential operators
of the two-noded truss element (6.68) we get the geometric
" #
A 1 −1
keg (ue ) = Sξ11 (ue ) (6.72)
L −1 1
and the material element stiffness matrix.
2 " #
AE 2 ∂u1 1 −1
kem (ue ) = 1+ (6.73)
L L ∂ξ1 −1 1
For ue = 0, the material element stiffness matrix equals the elastic element stiffness matrix
kem (ue = 0) = kee = ke given in (2.67).
Chapter 7
Solution of non-linear static

structural equations
The revolving point of this chapter is the numerical solution of non-linear vector equations
(6.25)
r i (u) = r (7.1)
of time-independent structural mechanics as well as the assessment of deformation states

regarding the stability of the structure involved, as part of a geometrically non-linear finite
element analysis.
7.1 Strategies
The procedures for solving equation (7.1) consist of two components:
• - The control methods or control procedures describe the successive load application.
• - The iteration procedures serve the purpose of finding the equilibrium states for an incre-
mental load change.
Only the combination of both, however, enables the solution of high degree non-linear problems
in civil engineering.
As shown in figure 7.1, the load application control is realized by controlling the load, the
displacement or the so called arc length along the equilibrium path which characterises the
equality of internal forces and external loads. The control of load application is accomplished
by parametrization of equation (7.1) with the load factor λ,
N
[T
r i (u) = λr [0, λ] = λn+1 − λn (7.2)
n=1
where λ is applied step-wise for the numerical transformation of the solution. The load steps
induced in such a way are numbered in analogy with the time steps of transient problems,
189
λ λ
λn+1
λn+1
λn Iteration
λ2
Control parameter
λ1 Load
Displacement λn
Arc-length
λ0
un+1 u un = u0n+1 u1n+1 ukn+1 uk+1 u
u0 u1 u2 un n+1 un+1
Figure 7.1: Load parameter control (λ n → rin ) and local iteration (Newton-Raphson)
with n = 1, . . . , N T . The equilibrium state corresponding to the load factor λ n , is described

with displacements un . This explains why with the numerical solution of the non-linear
equation (7.1), only discrete supporting points of the path can be acquired, not the continuous
equilibrium path. The number, the separation, and the arrangement of supporting points
is determined by the control procedure which shall be derived in detail in chapter 7.3. The
step-wise numerical solution from one supporting point to the other is accomplished for example
by means of the pure Newton-Raphson method, the modified Newton-Raphson method
or the Quasi-Newton methods. Starting from an equilibrium state characterised by the
displacement state un and the internal forces r i (un ) calculable from that state, we numerically
compute the equilibrium point for the load factor λ n+1 , by means of solution (un+1 , r i (un+1 )).
In figure 7.1, we see an example of the schematic presentation of equilibrium iteration of the
load-controlled pure Newton-Raphson procedure of a one-dimensional non-linear equation
ri (u) = r. The derivation and the numerical properties of this and the other methods are
discussed in chapter 7.2.
7.2 Iteration methods
All methods presented here are based on the multi-dimensional Taylor row expansion of the
internal forces vector at a deformation state determined by the structural displacement vector
ukn+1 .
∂r i (ukn+1 ) 1 ∂ 2 r (uk ) 2
i n+1
r i (uk+1 k
n+1 ) = r i (un+1 ) +
k+1
un+1 − ukn+1 + 2
u k+1
n+1 − u k
n+1 + · · · (7.3)
∂ukn+1 2 ∂ukn+1
The result of a Taylor row is approximated by the vector of internal forces of the displacement
state uk+1 k
n+1 in the neighbourhood of point u n+1 . It should be noted that the index k, used to des-
ignate both neighbouring displacement states, stands for the iteration index in dealing with the
iteration procedure. To generate the iteration procedure, the Taylor row expansion is aborted
after the linear term and the difference of both displacement states is termed displacement
increment ∆u = uk+1 k
n+1 − un+1 .
∂r i (ukn+1 )
r i (uk+1 k
n+1 ) = r i (un+1 ) + ∆u (7.4)
∂ukn+1
The partial derivative of the system vector of internal forces with respect to the actual
displacement state ukn+1 contained in this equation is the tangential stiffness matrix of this
state (see chapter 6.1.5).
r i (uk+1 k k
n+1 ) = r i (un+1 ) + Kt (un+1 ) ∆u ∆u = uk+1 k
n+1 − un+1 (7.5)
According to equation (6.41), Kt (ukn+1 )∆u is identical to the linearization of the vector of
internal forces ∆r i (ukn+1 ), so that the equation (7.5) can be interpreted as incremental change
of internal forces for an incremental change of the displacement state.
7.2.1 Single step method
Single step methods are no iteration methods of course. For reasons of completeness of discussion
and possibility of comparison to true iteration methods, these procedures should nevertheless
be shortly elaborated. The quality of the numerical solution of single step methods is poor in
direct comparison to iteration procedures. These procedures were however frequently used in the
past and implemented in commercial FEM programs as well. The reasons for this were smaller
computation times compared to iteration procedures and the programming structure of FEM
software which is transferable nearly without any alterations. Today, these procedures are no
longer in use thanks to advanced development of computers and FEM software.
The fundamental guideline of the single step methods rests on the incremental load application,
where within one step the displacement state u n goes over to the displacement state u n+1 by
means of a quasi-linear calculation. For that we use the Taylor row expansion (7.5) at the state
un and we seek the fulfilment of the non-linear equation (7.2).
r i (un+1 ) = r i (un ) + Kt (un ) (un+1 − un ) = λn+1 r (7.6)
If we further postulate the equality of internal forces r i (un ) and the external loads λn r - which
by the way, is far from being true - we can obtain u n+1 .
un+1 = K−1
t (un ) (λn+1 − λn ) r + un (7.7)
Since the internal forces are approximated only linearly, the solution vector u n+1 does not
satisfy the equilibrium condition (7.2) resulting in the fact that for a successive load increase
the equilibrium condition is generally not fulfilled in the beginning of the load step. Thereby,
the solution path gets more and more remote from the equilibrium path.
7.2.2 Pure Newton-Raphson method
The development of the vector of internal forces into a Taylor row according to equation (7.5),
and the requirement for fulfilment of the equilibrium relation (7.2), comprise the basis of the
Newton-Raphson method which was first published by Cauchy in 1847.
r i (uk+1 k k
n+1 ) = r i (un+1 ) + Kt (un+1 ) ∆u = λn+1 r (7.8)
In this context, the displacement increment ∆u is often denoted as the Newton correction. As
it will soon become clear, in the beginning of load step n + 1 we can set out from an equilibrium
state.
r i (un ) = λn r (7.9)
In order to locate the equilibrium for load factor λ n+1 , we now demand that the approxima-
tion of internal forces of the deformation state u 1n+1 , based on Taylor row expansion at the
development point un = u0n+1 , fulfils the equilibrium relation at the end of the load step.
r i (u1n+1 ) = r i (u0n+1 ) + Kt (u0n+1 ) ∆u = λn+1 r (7.10)
The solution of this equation yields the displacement increment, which gives the approximation
of solution (u1n+1 ) with equation (7.5).
0 0

∆u = K−1
t (un+1 ) λn+1 r − r i (un+1 ) u1n+1 = u0n+1 + ∆u (7.11)
Generally, the first calculation step of an iteration method is termed predictor. The quality of
solution u1n+1 can be evaluated by means of the so called residuum λ n+1 r − r i (u1n+1 ). In the
case of equilibrium which is attainable only hypothetically, the residuum vanishes. In order to
close in on this hypothetical ideal case, we can repeat the procedure defined by equations (7.10)
and (7.11) for calculating the displacement vector u 2n+1 based on u1n+1 . The displacement
k+1
vector un+1 is generally calculated based on the approximated solution u kn+1 . The method
for iterative solution of the non-linear vector equation (7.2) generated by this is the pure
Newton-Raphson procedure, or shortly Newton-Raphson method. The updating relation,
described as corrector, and the resulting improvement of the solution vector u k+1n+1 follow from
transformation of equation (7.8), having in mind the definition of the displacement increment
∆u.

k
∆u = K−1
t (un+1 ) λn+1 r − r i (ukn+1 ) uk+1 k
n+1 = un+1 + ∆u (7.12)
The procedure of solution improvement according to (7.12) is repeated until the equilibrium is
reached approximately (see figure 7.2). Here it should be stressed that the exact equilibrium
cannot be reached. Since this is a vector-value problem, we generate a scalar-valued criterion, a
so called convergence criterion in order to judge whether a sufficient accuracy of the equilibrium
approximation is reached. Due to the versatility of possibilities and the general application of
this criterion to arbitrary iteration procedures, the derivation of suitable convergence criteria
is left to inquiries of chapter ??. If the criterion is fulfilled, (here, because of completeness of
derivations, as example the criterion
k∆uk
ηuk+1 = ≤ ηu (7.13)
kuk+1
n+1− un k
is given as an example (ηu is given by the user) the solution uk+1

n+1 is approximated accurately
enough and the next load step can be solved analogously.
The pure Newton-Raphson method has the following properties (see Deuflhard &
Hohmann [51]):
λn+1 r − ri (uk+1
n+1 )
ri
ri (un+1 ) = λn+1 r
ri (uk+1
n+1 )
λn+1 r − ri (ukn+1 )
ri (u1n+1 )|ri (ukn+1 )
Kt (ukn+1 )
λn+1 r − ri (u0n+1 )
Kt (u0n+1 )
ri (u0n+1 ) = λn r
∆u ∆u
un = u0n+1 u1n+1 |ukn+1 uk+1

n+1 un+1u uk+1 k
n+1 = un+1 + ∆u
Figure 7.2: Pure Newton-Raphson Iteration
• - The pure Newton-Raphson method converges to a solution if the start vector u 0n+1 is
close enough to the solution.
• - The pure Newton-Raphson method converges locally quadratic.
The condition for convergence of the Newton-Raphson method can be fulfilled by succes-
sive loading of the structure. If convergence is not reached, the load step must be smaller. We
can, for example, adapt the size of the load step based on the convergence behaviour (see e.g.
Reitinger [127]), which guaranties the convergent pursuit of the equilibrium path within the
scope of a non-linear FEM analysis. It remains to clarify the notion of local quadratic conver-
gence. Local means that the quadratic convergence is reached in the vicinity of solution, which
practically means in the last one to two steps. The convergence rate describes the number of
necessary iterations, the higher the convergence rate, the less iteration steps are needed to solve
the non-linear equilibrium. It can be determined by means of evolution of the displacement
increment. The convergence rate ... is defined by the following equation (see equation (7.13)).
If the displacement icrement decreases by the square, we talk about a quadratic convergence.
With the pure Newton-Raphson method we have presented the standard tool of modern non-
linear FEM analysis. We can grade it as robust in connection with suitable procedures for load
parameter control. For solution of larger systems with a correspondingly higher number of DOF,
this method however has proven to be very computation-time-consuming, since in each iteration
step a linear equation system (7.12) must be solved. In order to circumvent this equation solution,
which often needs to be performed and on top of that is costly, methods were developed which
approximate the deformation-dependent tangential stiffness matrix or its inverse. One of these
methods is the modified Newton-Raphson method; an entire group of such methods comprise
the Quasi-Newton procedures.
7.2.3 Modified Newton-Raphson method
The development of the modified Newton-Raphson method requires that we replace, in

equation (7.12), the deformation-dependent tangential stiffness matrix, which therefore must
λn+1 r − ri (uk+1
n+1 )
ri
ri (un+1 ) = λn+1 r
λn+1 r − ri (ukn+1 ) ri (uk+1

n+1 )
ri (u1n+1 )|ri (ukn+1 )
Kt (un )
λn+1 r − ri (u0n+1 )
Kt (un )
ri (u0n+1 ) = λn r
∆u ∆u
un = u0n+1 u1n+1 |ukn+1 uk+1

n+1 un+1u uk+1 k
n+1 = un+1 + ∆u
Figure 7.3: Modified Newton-Raphson Iteration
be generated anew in each step, with the tangential stiffness matrix K t (ukn+1 ) of the last known
equilibrium state Kt (un ) = Kt (u0n+1 ) which is constant throughout the iteration.

0
∆u = K−1
t (un+1 ) λn+1 r − r i (ukn+1 ) uk+1 k
n+1 = un+1 + ∆u (7.14)
The tangential stiffness has to be generated in the first iteration step and then inverted. In
the next load steps it suffices to multiply the inverse tangent with the iteratively changeable
right side. Here, we have a practically convenient operation of triangle projection and then the
back-substitution. As a consequence, the number of required operations per iteration step is
notably reduced in comparison with the pure Newton-Raphson method. It is unfavourable,
on the other hand, that with this modification the property of quadratic convergence is lost,
which calls for more iteration steps than originally, within a single load step. To go on, the
modified method is not as robust as the pure Newton-Raphson method, which practically
means that with this reduced procedure a convergent solution is impossible, unlike the original
procedure which converges to the equilibrium state.
7.3 Control of iteration procedures
After the derivations in chapter 7.1, we now must develop strategies for controlling the load
parameter λ. The latter globally controls the successive load increase, and, within the scope of
arc-length procedures and the displacement-controlled calculus, locally the applied external load
(λn+1 is altering with k).
7.3.1 Load-incrementing and control
The simplest possibility to control the loads acting on the system is the step-wise increase of the
load with each load step n. This external load is constant during the equilibrium iteration which
Load step loop n = 0, N T − 1
Generation of external loads λn+1 r, Pre-described displacements u0n+1 = un (7.2)
Iteration step loop k = 0,konv
Calculation of internal forces r i (ukn+1 ) (6.8)
Calculation of tangential stiffness matrix K t (ukn+1 ) (6.35-6.37)
Calculation of increment ∆u = K−1 k k (7.12)

t (un+1 ) (λn+1 r − r i (un+1 ))
Updating of displacements uk+1 k

n+1 = un+1 + ∆u (7.12)
Convergence criterion check, e.g. η uk+1 ≤ ηu (??)

k + 1 −→ k
n + 1 −→ n
Figure 7.4: Algorithm of load-controlled pure Newton-Raphson iteration
ensures the attainment of equilibrium state correlated to the corresponding load λ n+1 , after
successful iteration. The equilibrium path and the equilibrium states obtained in the scope of
load-controlled pure Newton-Raphson iterations were already sketched in figure 7.1, showing a
one-dimensional NEQ = 1) example. By combining the load control and the iteration procedures
presented in chapter 7.2, the following algorithms for numerical solution of non-linear vector
equation (7.1) are generated:
• In connection with the pure Newton-Raphson method the algorithm sketched in the
figure 7.4 should be used.
• In the iteration step k = 0, the vector of internal forces is given according to equation (7.2)
with r i (u0n+1 ) = λn r, assumming that the system is in equilibrium at the beginning of the
load step. Further we can drop the check of the convergence criterion since the solution
after one iteration step is the correct one only in the linear case. This makes the pure
Newton-Raphson method easier to arrange with less numerical effort, if the algorithm
is executed as a predictor-corrector method.
• The algorithm of the modified Newton-Raphson method differs from the predictor-
corrector formulation of the original method as follows: inversion of tangent stiffness in
the predictor is accomplished by means of triangle projection, in the corrector the tangent
does not need to be calculated, and instead of inversion of up-to-date tangential stiffness,
the back-substitution with the triangle-projected tangent K t (u0n+1 ) comes into play
• In order to realize the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno-procedure, in compar-

ison to the modified Newton-Raphson method, the inverse tangential stiffness matrix in
the predictor should be stored and the approximated inverse of tangential stiffness matrix
in the corrector should be updated. The back-substitution is replaced by multiplication of
the right equation side with the approximated inverses of the tangential stiffness matrix.
Figures 7.5 and 7.6 show the results of the pure Newton-Raphson and the modified Newton-
Raphson method within the scope of a load controlled analysis of a one-dimensional (NEQ = 1)
example1 .
1
Three-joint-frame in exercises
λ λ
λn+1
λn+1
λn
λ2
λ1
λn
λ0
un+1 u un = u0n+1 u1n+1 ukn+1 uk+1 u
u0 u1 u2 un n+1 un+1
Figure 7.5: Combination of load control and pure Newton-Raphson method
λ λ
λn+1
λn+1
λn
λ2
λ1
λn
λ0
u0 u1 u2 un un+1 u un = u0n+1 u1n+1 ukn+1 uk+1 un+1u
n+1
Figure 7.6: Combination of load control and modified Newton-Raphson iteration
7.3.2 Arc-length controlling method
Literature: Monographies Wessels [137], Wagner [134], Crisfield [19] und Reitinger [127].
Essays: Batoz &Dhatt [90], Crisfield [96], Crisfield [99], Crisfield [97], Crisfield [98],
Kouhia & Mikkola [109], Ramm [124], Ramm [125], Riks [128], Riks [129], Riks [130],
Schweizerho & Wriggers [131], Wempner [136]
In order to control the load application in the arc-length method, the load parameter can
vary during the iteration. This evolution of the load parameter is formulated with a generally
non-linear scalar additional condition of the form f (u, λ) = 0, dependent on the up-to-date
displacement state u, and the load parameter λ. As illustrated in figure 7.7, this additional
λ λ
λn +1
λn+1
Additional condition s0 1
f (un+1 , λn+1 ) = 0 s ∆λ
Equilibrium path
ri (u) − λr = 0 Kt (un )
λn λn
∆u
∆uλ
un un+1 u un u1n+1 un + ∆uλ u
Figure 7.7: Extended system (7.16) and construction of predictor (7.29)-(7.32)
condition supplements to the non-linear vector equation (7.2) both forming the so-called
extended system.
N
[T
r i (u) − λr = 0
[0, λ] = λn+1 − λn (7.15)
f (u, λ) = 0
n=1
If we want to work out alternative extended systems, we need to specify additional conditions
in form of equation (7.15). Firstly, we should discuss the general solution of extended systems
defined by equations (7.15). Starting from an equilibrium state of load step n, which becomes
an abstract numerical solution step, we should calculate the equilibrium state n + 1, which
ought to satisfy both equilibrium relation and the additional condition.
r i (un+1 ) − λn+1 r = 0
(7.16)
f (un+1 , λn+1 ) = 0
The methods for solving the extended system (7.16) can be classified into the exact or the
linearized form, regarding the inclusion of the additional condition into the procedure. The real
execution of the arc-length method of both categories, which is elaborated next, requires the
specification of the function of additional condition f (u, λ). There is a multitude of possibilities
in the specialized literature for this (see Wagner [134], Reitinger [127] und Crisfield [97]).
As examples, the development of two methods will be demonstrated in the remainder of this
manuscript. All other extended systems can be developed in analoguous procedures. The first
method is the iteration in the tangential plane. In this method, the additional condition which
describes the tangential plane of the previous iteration step is introduced exactly. The iter-
ation in the tangential planes presents a modification of the iteration in the initial normal
plane (Riks [128, 129] und Wempner [136]) and of the iteration in the updated normal plane
(Ramm [124, 125]).
The second method discussed here was suggested by Crisfield [96]. In this method, the ad-
ditional condition is the equation of a general sphere, which is characterized by radius s and
the mid-point designated by un and λn . The inclusion of the additional condition is common
in the exact as well as in the linearized form. Crisfield [96] and Ramm [124] concluded that
for multiple DOF systems (In the order of FEM simulations), the load parameter has small
significance in the iteration on the sphere surface, and suggested that this term be neglected.
This way the method of iteration on the cylinder surface (ψ 2 = 0) was created.
7.3.2.1 Iterative solution of extended equation system
As in the case of solution of the non-linear equilibrium, the numerical solution of non-linear
extended system (7.16) is based on the Taylor row expansion of the equilibrium relation, to
which the Taylor row expansion of additional condition is added. The development point of
Taylor rows regarding parameters u and λ is defined by the prescribed state u kn+1 , λkn+1 . Here
it should be noted that due to the functional dependence of equilibrium on the load parameter,
additional terms appear in the linearization, compared to equation (7.5). The row expansion of
equilibrium, halted after the linear term, is given by the following equation.
r i (uk+1 k+1 k k
n+1 ) − λn+1 r = r i (un+1 ) − λn+1 r
∂r i (ukn+1 ) ∂(λkn+1 r)
+ (uk+1 k
n+1 − un+1 ) − (uk+1 k
n+1 − un+1 )
∂ukn+1 ∂ukn+1
| {z } | {z } | {z }
Kt (ukn+1 ) ∆u 0 (7.17)
∂r i (ukn+1 ) ∂(λkn+1 r)
+ (λk+1 k
n+1 − λn+1 ) − (λk+1 k
n+1 − λn+1 ) ∆λ
∂λkn+1 ∂λkn+1
| {z } | {z } | {z }
0 r
In this equation, we can recognize the partial derivatives of internal forces with respect to
displacements, the tangential stiffness matrix as well as the increment of displacements ∆u and
the analogously defined increment of load parameter ∆λ.
∆u = uk+1 k
n+1 − un+1 ∆λ = λk+1 k
n+1 − λn+1 (7.18)
The internal forces are independent of the load parameter and the external loads are deformation-
dependent, what makes the corresponding derivatives vanish. The generation of derivatives of
external loads λkn+1 r according to the load parameter can be written directly. With that, we
eventually obtain the Taylor expansion of equilibrium relation, the right side of which equals
zero.
r i (uk+1 k+1 k k k
n+1 ) − λn+1 r = r i (un+1 ) − λn+1 r + Kt (un+1 )∆u − r∆λ = 0 (7.19)
The Taylor row expansion of additional condition can be done purely formally without detailed
specification.
∂f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) ∂f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 )

f (uk+1 k+1 k k
n+1 , λn+1 ) = f (un+1 , λn+1 ) + ·∆u + ∆λ (7.20)
∂ukn+1 ∂λkn+1
| {z } | {z }
k k k k
f,u (un+1 , λn+1 ) f,λ (un+1 , λn+1 )
With definitions
∂f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) ∂f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 )

f,u (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) = f,λ (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) = (7.21)
∂ukn+1 ∂λkn+1
equation (7.20) can be formed compactly. Here, the validity of (7.16) is reguired.
f (uk+1 k+1 k k k k k k
n+1 , λn+1 ) = f (un+1 , λn+1 ) + f,u (un+1 , λn+1 ) · ∆u + f,λ (un+1 , λn+1 ) ∆λ = 0 (7.22)
Equations (7.19) and (7.22) together yield, along with conditions r i (uk+1 k+1
n+1 ) − λn+1 r = 0 and
f (uk+1 k+1
n+1 , λn+1 ) = 0, a linear equation system with the solution vector of displacement and load
parameter increments.
    
 Kt (ukn+1 ) −r  ∆u λ k
  n+1 r − r i (u k
)
n+1 
  =  (7.23)
T k k k k k k
f,u (un+1 , λn+1 ) f,λ (un+1 , λn+1 ) ∆λ −f (un+1 , λn+1 )
Since this equation system is non-symmetric, and unlike the tangential stiffness matrix has a
banded configuration, the direct solution calls for a substantial numerical effort. To circumvent
this problem, the so-called partitioning techniques or block elimination procedures were first
suggested by Batoz & Dhatt [90] to obtain the solution. To develop this procedure, the first
row of (7.23) is solved for the displacement increment.
k k k k
∆u = K−1
t (un+1 )(λn+1 r − r i (un+1 )) + Kt (un+1 )r∆λ
−1
(7.24)
Since ∆λ is not known, the displacement increment cannot be calculated. Instead, it is possible
to generate block solutions,
k k k k
∆ur = K−1
t (un+1 )(λn+1 r − r i (un+1 )) ∆uλ = K−1
t (un+1 )r (7.25)
which give the displacement increment ∆u for the known ∆λ.
∆u = ∆ur + ∆uλ ∆λ (7.26)
To determine the load factor increment, the second row of (7.23) is solved and the displacement
increment ∆u is replaced by block solutions ∆u r and ∆uλ according to (7.26).
f,u (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) · ∆u + f,λ (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) ∆λ = −f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 )

(7.27)
f,u (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) · (∆ur + ∆uλ ∆λ) + f,λ (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) ∆λ = −f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 )
This equation contains ∆λ as the only unknown, which makes it the appropriate equation for
determination of ∆λ.
f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) + f,u (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) · ∆ur

∆λ = − (7.28)
f,u (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) · ∆uλ + f,λ (ukn+1 , λkn+1 )
Thus it possible to replace the solution of the non-symmetrical linear equation system (7.23)
by a series of evaluations of equations (7.25), (7.28), and finally (7.26). At the end of this
solution process, ∆u and ∆λ are determined, so that the displacements and the load parameter
can be updated by means of (7.18). The iterative repetition of the procedure, generated with
increment calculation and updating of system variables, gives us, after the fulfilment of the
convergence criterion (e.g. equation (??)), an equilibrium solution characterized by u n+1 , which
simultaneously fulfils the additional condition f (u n+1 , λn+1 ) = 0.
7.3.2.2 Predictor
If we observe the additional conditions of extended systems, we find out that the additional
conditions are not determined in the predictor step. That means the application of arc-length
methods, which are next elaborated, is limited to corrector iteration. That implies that
procedures other than those already shown must be derived to calculate the predictor. The
procedure elaborated here was developed in Wagner [134], based on another extended system.
Still, we want to rely on a transparent argumentation to develop this procedure (see figure 7.7).
Starting from the last equilibrium state (u n , λn ), the load parameter is increased by one and
the corresponding displacement increment
∆uλ = K−1
t (un ) [(λn + 1) − λn ] r = Kt (un ) 1 r
−1
(7.29)
is calculated as well as the distance to the previous equilibrium point.

p
s0 = ∆uλ · ∆uλ + 1 (7.30)
It should be noted that ∆uλ of the predictor is identical to displacement increment ∆u, since
r i (un ) = λn r describes an equilibrium state. This statement can be verified by means of
equation (7.25) with ∆λ = 1.
∆ur = K−1
t (un )(λn r − r i (un )) = 0 ∆u = ∆ur + ∆uλ ∆λ + ∆uλ 1 (7.31)
By comparing the distance s0 and the prescribed arc-length, we can scale load parameter
increments and displacements.
s s s s
∆λ = 0 1=
p ∆u = 0 ∆uλ =
p ∆uλ (7.32)
s ∆uλ · ∆uλ + 1 s ∆uλ · ∆uλ + 1
The updating of displacements and load parameters follows in a standard way.
u1n+1 = un + ∆u λ1n+1 = λn + ∆λ (7.33)

7.3.2.3 Iteration on a general sphere
The additional condition introduced by Crisfield [96] describes a general sphere defined by
NEQ system displacements and the load parameter, the centre point of which is determined by
the ultimately reached equilibrium state and the radius of which s (arc-length) is prescribed.
q
f (uk+1 k+1
n+1 , λn+1 ) = (uk+1 k+1 2 k+1 2
n+1 − un ) · (un+1 − un ) + ψ (λn+1 − λn ) − s = s
k+1
−s (7.34)
In equation (7.34), the scaling factor ψ was introduced in the formulation according to Re-
itinger [127]. This factor enables the adjustment of physical units as well as weighting of the
displacement term and the load parameter term. For ψ = 0 equation (7.34), in the additional
condition of iteration, turns into a cylinder surface. For ψ = 1, we get the formulations as they
were utilized by Wagner [134] and for ψ 2 = Ψ2 r · r, we get the formulation by Crisfield [19].
The limit value ψ → ∞ defines a procedure equivalent to the load control analysis. In order
to perform the block elimination procedure, we must generate the linearization of additional
conditions with respect to the displacements and the load parameter. While the gradient with
respect to up-to-date displacements is determined by means of G âteaux derivative,
q
∂f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) d k 2 2 k 2

k
· ∆u = kun+1 + η∆u − un k + ψ (λn+1 − λn ) − s
∂un+1 dη η=0
∆u · (ukn+1 − un ) + (ukn+1 − un ) · ∆u
= q (7.35)
2 (ukn+1 − un ) · (ukn+1 − un ) + ψ 2 (λkn+1 − λn )2
ukn+1 − un
= · ∆u
sk
for the derivative with respect to λ the ordinary differentiation with respect to the scalar-valued
load factor is sufficient.
∂f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) ukn+1 − un ∂f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) λkn+1 − λn

= = (7.36)
∂ukn+1 sk ∂λkn+1 sk
Based on equation (7.28) and the just generated derivatives, we can calculate the load factor
increment in order to iterate on a general sphere surface according to (7.28).
f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) sk + (ukn+1 − un ) · ∆ur

∆λ = − (7.37)
(ukn+1 − un ) · ∆uλ + ψ 2 (λkn+1 − λn )
By introducing sk = f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) + s according to (7.34), we obtain the following form for
calculating the load increment ∆λ.
f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) (f (ukn+1 , λkn+1 ) + s) + (ukn+1 − un ) · ∆ur

∆λ = − (7.38)
(ukn+1 − un ) · ∆uλ + ψ 2 (λkn+1 − λn )
The displacement increment ∆u can be calculated upon evaluation of the above equation by
means of block solutions ∆ur and ∆uλ according to (7.26). After this, the displacements and
the load parameter must be updated according to (7.18) and convergence of the solution must
be checked.
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Lecture Notes

Advanced Finite Element Methods

Dr.-Ing. habil. D. Kuhl

Ruhr University Bochum

Advanced Finite Element Methods

Dr.-Ing. habil. D. Kuhl

Ruhr University Bochum

1 Fundamentals of Linear Structural Mechanics 1

2 Spatial Isoparametric Truss Elements 31

3 Plane Finite Elements 81

3.3.5 Strain vector approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

4 Finite volume elements 143

5 Basics of non-linear structural mechanics 151

5.3 Geometrical non-linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

6 Finite element discretization of geometrically non-linear continua 171

7 Solution of non-linear static structural equations 189

Bochum, May 2005 Günther Meschke and Detlef Kuhl

Basics of non-linear structural

5.1 Non-linearities of structural mechanics

• materially non-linear and geometrically linear

• materially linear and geometrically non-linear

• materially and geometrically non-linear with assumed moderate strains

• materially and geometrically non-linear with finite strains

5.2 Material non-linearity

5.2.1 Mathematical formulation of material non-linearity

(non-linear elastic elasto-plastic elasto-damaged

    

no change plastic strain elasticity modulus

5.3 Geometrical non-linearity

Alterations regarding geometrically linear observation:

• Consideration of non-linear terms of the strain tensor E (kinematics)

The fundamental of the geometrically non-linear formulation of structural mechanics is based on

R e fe r e n z k o n fig u r a tio n A b b ild u n g j ( X ,t )

Figure 5.2: Current and reference configuration of a deformable material body

can be represented as a function of the material deformation gradient.

According to this relation, the components of the term

According to eq (5.13), the Green Lagrange strain tensor of geometrically non-linear

E(u) = Dε u + E nl (u) (5.14)

where Dε u and E nl (u) are defined as follows (summation over k = 1, 2, 3).

Formulation of Dirichlet boundary conditions (eq. (1.33))

u(X) = u? (X) ∀ X ∈ Γu (5.16)

ρc ü = divσ + ρc b ∀ x∈Ω (5.19)

|F | ρc ü = |F | divσ + |F | ρc b ρ ü = |F | divσ + ρ b (5.20)

∂σij ∂(Fik Skj )

ρ ü = DIV(F · S) + ρ b ∀ X∈Ω (5.22)

In order to formulate a well-defined problem, it is necessary to supplement the impulse rule

5.3.3 Constitutive Law

5.3.4 Principle of virtual displacements

5.3.4.1 Weak formulation of initial value problem

5.3.4.2 Variation of Green Lagrange strains

Here it is summated over k = 1, 2, 3. Setting i, j = 1, 2, 3 yields the components of the strain

∂δu1 ∂uk ∂δuk

and of the deformation-dependent part.

5.3.5 Internal virtual work

5.3.6 Elastic internal potential

5.3.7 Remarks regarding combined material and geometric non-linearity

5.4 Consistent linearization of internal virtual work

5.4.1 Linearization background

5.4.2 Gateaux derivative

change of u. d [f (u + η∆u)] is the increase or the derivative of function f along a direction

d d ∂f (u(η)) ∂u(η) ∂f (u + η∆u)

5.4.3 Gateaux derivative of internal virtual work

Gâteaux derivative is assembled by differentiation with respect to scalar η and by applying