1.

Basics of Optical Data Communication

1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides

1.1.1 Wave and Quantum Nature of Light

Many of the properties of light such as interference, refraction, and polarization

can be explained with the wave model. Others, such as the photo effect, show that
light does not always behave like a continuous type of radiation, but is rather
made up of very small particles called photons. These photons are elementary
quanta and cannot be divided any further. The energy of a photon is expressed by
the following equation: W = h · f , where W = the energy in Joule [J], h is Planck's
constant = 6.626 · 10-34 Js and f is the frequency of the light in [Hz]. The frequen-
cy of the radiation is calculated from c/O, whereby c is the speed of light in
vacuum = 2.99792458 · 108 m/s and O is the wavelength of light in [m].
If the energy is expressed in eV, the conversion is 1 eV = 1.602 · 10-19 As · 1 V
= 1.602 · 10-19 J, 1 J = 6.25 · 1018 eV. The particle character of light becomes even
more prominent, the shorter the wavelength is or the higher the frequency is.

1.1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 1.1 shows an overview of the electromagnetic spectrum. The zone of opti-
cal waves includes the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared ranges.

frequency [Hz]

1019 1018 1017 1016 1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 1010 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 10 1

10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
wavelength [m]

Fig. 1.1: Overview of the electromagnetic spectrum

2 1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides

The interesting ranges as far as optical transmission is concerned are the near
infrared range between 850 nm and 1,600 nm for SiO2 fibers (glass optical fiber,
GOF) and the visible range between 520 nm and 650 nm for polymer optical
fibers (POF) because these show the least attenuation.
A detailed overview of the optical range is offered in Fig. 1.2; the white line
qualitatively represents the attenuation behavior of PMMA-POF.

10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104

wavelength [m]

wavelength [nm]
300 400 500 800 1000 2000
P G
O O
F F
5 4 3 2 1 energy [eV]
UV range visible range IR range

Fig. 1.2: UV-, IR- and visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum (POF: Polymer
Optical Fiber, GOF: Glass Optical Fiber)

1.1.3 Refraction and Total Reflection

When light propagates in a medium such as a polymer, the speed of this light is
reduced. The ratio of the vacuum light speed cv to the speed in the medium cm is
referred to as the medium's refractive index n, which is expressed as follows:
cv
n
cm

Apart from the speed, the wavelength O of light passing through a medium is
also altered, while the frequency f and thus the energy W remain constant. In
Fig. 1.3 we see a light ray entering the optically denser medium at an angle 4 and
being refracted at an angle D to the axis of incidence. A part of the light is reflec-
ted. Refraction is expressed with:
sin 4 n2
.
sin D n1

By reversing the light path (transition from an optically denser medium to an

optically thinner one, figure at the right), the ray is refracted away from the axis of
incidence. If in this case angle D is continuously increased, the light ray stops
 1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides 3

being transferred to the other medium when angle D reaches a critical value;
instead, it is completely reflected. For the boundary case of total reflection, i.e.
when 4 = 90q, the following applies:
n1
sin D T
n2

axis of incidence axis of incidence

n1 optically
4 4‘ thin 4
n1 < n2

DT
optically
n2 dense
D D‘ D

Fig. 1.3: Light refraction and total reflection

1.1.4 Waveguides and Optical Fibers

An optical fiber consists of a highly transparent core having a refractive index ncore
and a surrounding transparent cladding having a refractive index ncladding. To
ensure that a light ray that has entered the fiber can be guided along it, the
following must hold true: ncore > ncladding (Fig. 1.4), so that below a certain angle
4max total reflection takes place at the interface between the core and the cladding.
The surrounding medium is air with the refractive index n0 | 1.

ncladding cladding
n0
ncore J

Dmax core

4 max

refractive index n

Fig. 1.4: Wave guiding within the optical fiber

Rays that strike the end face of the fiber at an angle greater than 4max are no
longer completely reflected at the core/cladding interface; instead they are partly
refracted into the cladding so that they are no longer completely available for
4 1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides

transmitting a signal. The following example illustrates how even small diffe-
rences here can have great effects: with a core refractive index of 1.56 and a clad-
ding refractive index of 1.49 the critical angle of total reflection is 72.77º. Thus,
light rays with a maximum angle of Įmax = 17.23º with respect to the fiber axis,
can propagate.
Should the propagation angle exceed this value by only 0.001º, then the
reflection coefficient is reduced from 100% to 95%. With this angle 310 reflec-
tions per meter will result in a fiber with a diameter of 1 mm. The remaining light
output power would then be 0.95310 = 1.2 · 10-7 which corresponds to a loss of
69 dB.
The shape of the waveguide can vary greatly as the three examples in Fig. 1.5
demonstrate. On the left is a singlemode glass fiber which is almost exclusively
used today in the field of telecommunications. A planar waveguide can be seen in
the middle and on the right a semiconductor laser in cross-section with which an
optical waveguide is also formed.

singlemode fiber planar waveguide laser diode

n = 1.466 n = 1.55 n = 3.55
n = 3.60
n = 1.47 n = 1.60

Ø: 10 μm 5 u 5 μm 2 u 0.5 μm
Fig. 1.5: Examples for optical waveguides

Should the waveguide have very small dimensions in the light wave length
ranges, then the ray optics description is not sufficient. As can be read in standard
works, e.g. [Vog02], the number of possible propagation angles (modes) dimi-
nishes with decreasing diameter. An extreme case thereby is the singlemode wave-
guide which will be introduced in the next section.

1.1.5 Singlemode and Multimode Waveguides

The number of modes in an optical waveguide is determined by the so-called

V-parameter. The parameters thereby are the core radius a, the light wavelength Ȝ
and the numerical aperture AN.
2˜S˜a
V ˜ AN
O
As long as V is smaller than 2.405, only one mode can propagate; otherwise it
is a multimode fiber. The number of modes results approximately thus:
 1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides 5

N | V2 2 (step index profile)

2
N|V 4 (graded index profile)
Strictly speaking, there are also two propagation states in a singlemode fiber,
namely the two orthogonal polarization directions. As long as the waveguide is
exactly rotationally symmetrical, or also square, and the material is completely
homogenous, then both polarization directions propagate at the same speed.
The number of modes always depends on the wavelength. A fiber is thus a
singlemode fiber as of a certain wavelength (cut-off wavelength). The fibers dealt
with in this book always have a large number of modes as shown in Table 1.1.
(See Chap. 2 for a more detailed description of the fiber types.) Furthermore, you
must keep in mind that in spectrally wide sources each wavelength occurring has
its own modes. In a POF system with LEDs you not only have to keep the several
million fiber modes in mind, but also all emitted wavelengths (a source can be
considered ideally monochromatic when the coherence time is large in relation to
the differences in propagation time which arise).

Table 1.1: Number of modes in optical fibers

Fiber type Profile NA Radius Otransmitter V Number

a [μm] [nm] of Modes
Standard-POF SI 0.50 490 650 2,368 2,804,369
Optimedia-POF GI 0.37 450 650 1.609 647,592
MC37-POF (single core) SI 0.50 65 650 314 49,348
PCS SI 0.37 100 850 274 37,402
MC-GOF (single core) SI 0.50 27 650 130 8,515
MC613-POF (single core) SI 0.50 18.5 650 89 3,997
®
Lucina GI-POF GI 0.22 60 1,200 69 1,194
GI-GOF (Europe) GI 0.17 25 850 31 247

1.1.6 Overview of Optical Fibers

The different types of optical fibers are described in detail in this chapter; an over-
view of the standards can be found in Chap. 7.2. The two following pictures show
an overview of the different refractive index profiles. It can easily be seen that not
only the index profiles, but also the refractive index differences - which determine
the numerical aperture - and the core diameter vary considerably.
The fibers with the greatest core diameter used in data transmission can be seen
in Fig. 1.6. Standard SI-POF has an approx. diameter of 1 mm at a NA of 0.50.
GI-POF with this diameter, but with a somewhat smaller NA, has also been
available for a short time ([Yoo04]).
6 1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides

refractive index difference

0.09
0.08 PMMA-
0.07 standard step index graded index fiber
polymer fiber AN = 0.39
0.06
AN = 0.50
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02 ‡core = 900 μm
0.01 ‡core = 980 μm

0.00

Fig. 1.6: Index profiles of different polymer optical fibers

The index profiles of different glass and polymer fibers can be seen in the next
fig. 1.7. A hybrid is the so-called PCS - polymer clad silica - i.e. a silica glass fiber
with a polymer cladding.
The singlemode glass fibers have the smallest core diameters. For use in the
1300 nm to 1600 nm range these fibers only have a core diameter of about 10 μm.
Special fibers, e.g. for erbium-doped fiber amplifiers or for fibers with non-linear
properties, can even lie in the range of only 2 μm for the core diameter. These
fibers are not the subject of this book. We can recommend [Vog02] as a work with
an excellent overview for this area.

refractive index difference

0.040
0.035 MM-GOF MM-GOF
0.030 (US) (Europe)
PCS AN=0.275 AN=0.20
0.025 PF-GI-POF AN=0.37
0.020 AN = 0.20 semi-GI
0.015 PCS
AN=0.4
0.010 SM-GOF
0.005 AN=0.10

0.000

‡core=120μm ‡core=200μm ‡core=200μm ‡core= ‡core= ‡core=

62μm 50μm 10μm

Fig. 1.7: Index profiles of different glass optical fibers

 1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides 7

1.1.7 Designations of Optical Fibers

There are no general international guidelines for the designation of optical fibers.
Due to the enormous variations in the different parameters it is hardly possible to
give all fibers clear-cut designations since these would otherwise be much too
long. The following list of parameters could be used for providing names.

Table 1.2: Parameters in fiber names with possible versions

Parameter Description and Variants Example

number of mostly it is distinguished between singlemode fiber (SMF)
modes single- and multimode (with
V > 2.405)
core material General there are the variants polymer optical fiber
glass, SiO2 or polymers (POF)
special core primarily special polymers are polycarbonate fibers
material marked (PC-POF, PMMA-POF
etc.)
cladding Special hybrid fibers, for example polymer clad silica fiber
material SiO2-fibers with polymer cladding (PCS)
index profile The index profiles of GOF and POF
can have very different variants:
¾Step index profile SI-POF
¾Double step index profile DSI-POF
¾Graded index profile GI-POF
¾Multi step index profile MSI-POF
¾Semi-graded index profile semi-GI-PCS
number of In GOF and POF there are variants multicore fiber
cores of fibers with many cores (MC-POF)
polarization (only in singlemode fibers) polarization maintaining
behavior special fibers maintain the state of fiber (PMF)
polarization or only one state of
polarization can propagate
chromatic (only in singlemode fibers)
dispersion ¾dispersion shifted fibers DSF
¾fibers with flattened dispersion DFF
¾dispersion compensating fibers DCF
Numerical for single and multimode-fibers high NA fiber (HNA)
Aperture (e.g. high NA for small bending radii)
microstructure Bragg fibers are built by holes, photonic crystal fiber
or the effective refractive index is (PCF); microstructured
changed fiber; photonic band gap
fiber
bending losses fibers optimized for minimal bending bend insensitive fibers
losses (by high NA or micro (BIF)
structuring)
8 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

standard many fibers are accurately standard-SMF

described in ITU-Standards e. g. (G.652 B1.1)
singlemode fibers in ITU-G.652 -
G.656
application use in special applications, e.g. MOST-POF
mobile networks

In addition, there are numerous differences in diameter, in the numerical aper-

ture, fiber qualities, kind, thickness, and construction of the primary coating, etc.
In order to include all these parameters in fiber names it would be necessary, for
example, to say: 500 μm PMMA GI-POF with NA 0.30 and black PE cladding,
1.5 mm. Some of the most common fibers are:
¾standard glass fiber (singlemode, Øcore = 10 μm, NA: 0.10)
¾standard POF (PMMA, Øcore = 980 μm, NA: 0.50)
¾PCS (SiO2 core, Øcore = 200 μm, NA: 0.37)
¾multimode fiber (MMF, GI profile, Øcore = 50 μm, NA: 0.17)

1.2 Digital and Analog Optical Signal Transmission

For the communications engineer there is no doubt that, apart from spectral
attenuation, the most important parameter of an optical fiber is its bandwidth. In
waveguides there are usually different optical paths possible (with the exception
of the very thin singlemode waveguides). The different lengths of travel along
these different light paths lead to different time delays for an optical pulse, as
illustrated schematically in Fig. 1.8.

propagation length = fiber length/cos(D)

propagation length = fiber length

t
input pulse output pulse

Fig. 1.8: Different time delay due to different propagation paths

 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 9

For a standard POF it is valid e.g.:

core refractive index: ncore = 1.49
cladding refractive index: ncladding = 1.42
maximum propagation angle: Dmax = 17.6°
different flight times: 4.9 %
Only two light paths have been shown in this illustration. However, in a real
experiment there are always many rays paths so that the individual pulses overlie
each other to form one more or less broadened overall pulse. Figure 1.9 shows the
effects of such a pulse broadening on a digital signal.

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
a)

fiber b)
length
c)
d)
e)
Fig. 1.9: Influence of mode dispersion to data transmission

An optical signal is launched into the fiber and is switched on and off at the
respective bit rate (curve a). With the increase in pulse broadening, the bit edges
get more and more fuzzy (signal sequence with downwards increasing trans-
mission length). As long as the amount of broadening is clearly less than the bit
time, the signal will remain easily identifiable (curves b and c). If the width of the
edges exceeds the bit time, the signal can no longer be detected (curves d and e).
The process of pulse broadening is called dispersion. The difference between
different light paths described here is called mode dispersion (any possible con-
dition of the propagation of light in a waveguide is called a mode). Apart from
mode dispersion there is also the phenomenon of chromatic dispersion (different
time delays for different wavelengths) and polarization mode dispersion; however,
we will not be dealing with these two phenomena at this stage.
The second important quantity which determines signal quality is the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR). In POF systems the optical receiver alone is almost always res-
ponsible for the noise. Under certain circumstances you have to pay attention to
mode distribution noise within thin multimode glass fibers. In modern singlemode
glass fiber systems there are even many more sources of noise, e.g. fiber ampli-
fiers.
The following sections provide a short insight into the fundamentals of analog
and digital transmission methods, especially in regard to the various sources of
interference. The effects which are important for short-range communication are
particularly elucidated.
10 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

1.2.1 Digital Optical Signal Transmission

1.2.1.1 Analog and Digital Signals

For readers less familiar with the fundamentals of signal theory, a brief expla-
nation of the various basic terms is provided here for a better understanding of the
requirements of the different methods for the components.
Generally speaking, transmission systems are classified according to the signal
values to be transmitted, i.e. whether they have discrete or random values. In
nature, information can be expected to be fully analog (see Fig. 1.10). We will
assume that the signal of interest (for example, an acoustic signal) is to be conver-
ted into electrical voltage U(t) with the help of an electronic measuring instrument
(in this case a microphone).

U(t)

Fig. 1.10: Analog signal

Here, analog has two meanings. First, the signal is measured at any random
time t. Furthermore, U(t) can take on any value. When a signal is digitized, two
things usually happen. While the signal is being sampled, the values are not read
in continuously but rather at discrete points (Fig. 1.11).

U(t)

sampling points
t

Fig. 1.11: Sampling an analog signal

 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 11

The second step is that the voltage U must not take any random value but only
particular or discrete ones (quantization, Fig. 1.12).

U(t)
sampling points
quantization
steps

Fig. 1.12: Quantization of a signal

Figure 1.12 shows that the values no longer lie exactly on the actual curve but
always at the next quantization level.
The digitalization of a signal always distorts the original one. Initially, the
range of the recorded frequencies is limited by the choice of the sampling rate
(sampling points per second). According to the Sampling Theorem, only signals
whose upper limit frequency ful is equal or smaller than the half of the sampling
rate fs (ful d fs/2) are fully transformed into the digital signal. Figure 1.13 graphi-
cally illustrates this problem.

U(t) U(t)

t t

sufficient sampling rate sampling rate is too low

Fig. 1.13: Choice of sampling rate

In the left figure, the sampling points are spaced sufficiently close to each
other. In the right figure, the signal also changes very quickly between the samp-
ling points (higher frequencies are present). The original signal cannot be recon-
structed from the points that are too far away from each other. Quantization also
distorts the signal. The difference between the actual value and the quantization
level can be interpreted as added noise (Fig. 1.14).
12 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

U(t) quantized signal

quantization
noise (deviation
from the original
signal)
t

Fig. 1.14: Generation of the quantization noise

The signal of a CD player is a good example of a digital signal. The human ear
can detect frequencies up to 15 kHz to 18 kHz. Music is stored on a CD with
44,200 values per second. Thus, signal frequencies up to 22.1 kHz can be recor-
ded. Each of these sampling values is divided into 65,536 amplitude steps (216).
The original continuous signal is thus broken into 44,200 numbers per second, for
example,
23,546; 22,125; 19,714; 13,120 etc.
The errors that occur as a result of this quantization are negligible. If the avail-
able levels are equally distributed to positive and negative voltages, for example to
the range between +1 V and -1 V, the deviation of the real value to the next quan-
tization level can be at most 15 μV. This is a difference of approximately 96 dB.
This is the equivalent of the difference between a whisper and the sound of a loud
airplane propeller 5 m away.
In the world of digital signal processing, the numbers are represented with the
symbols “1” and “0”. 65,536 values can be represented by 16 binary characters
(16 Bit). As a binary number, the signal above would then look like this:
0101101111111010,0101011001101101,0100110100000010,0011001101000000
When the signal is transmitted, the commas are, of course, omitted. Both sym-
bols are characterized by various signal states, for example, -1 V for the “0” and
+1 V for the “1” or also “light off” for the “0” and “light on” for the “1”.
Figure 1.15 illustrates the difference between the original analog signal and the
binary signal generated by means of digitalization.

U(t) analog signal

t
U(t) digital signal
t

Fig. 1.15: Analog and digital signal

 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 13

The figure shows that the digital signal changes much faster than the analog
signal. This is easier to see if you consider that music at a maximum frequency of
approximately 20 kHz must transfer 44,20 × 16 = 707,200 bit/s. Why digital
signal processing still has many advantages over analog processing is explained in
the next paragraph.

1.2.1.2 Transmission Quality of Analog and Digital Signals

The analog signal from Fig. 1.10 will again serve as our starting point. A data
cable will be used for data transmission. In reference to the signal, the trans-
mission link represents an obstacle replete with many interference effects. At first,
an amplifier is needed at the transmitter to create the required voltage level. He
can be limited in his bandwidth and consequently distort the signal through non-
linearity. Similarly, the actual transmission line has a limited bandwidth. Other
influences can also distort the signal such as a nearby source of radio interference.
The receiver too will only have a limited bandwidth. The signal was attenuated
while on the transmission line and thus only has a weak signal level. This is why
inherent receiver noise is often the most conspicuous source of interference.
Figure 1.16 summarizes the most important sources of interference.

U(t)

transmitter transmission line receiver

fg f fg f fg f

input distortion attenuation noise output

signal bandwidth external bandwidth signal
limitation perturbations limitation

Fig. 1.16: Influences on an analog signal transmission

Even though some of the sources of interference have been somewhat exagge-
rated, they are intended to show the problems involved in transmitting analog
signals. Each element involved in the transmission can distort the original signal.
These forms of interference can only be eliminated in exceptional cases and are
also relevant to digital transmission, as Fig. 1.17 illustrates.
14 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

U(t)

transmitter transmission line receiver

fg f fg f fg f
input distortion attenuation noise output
signal bandwidth limitation ext. perturbations bandwidth limitation signal

Fig. 1.17: Influences on a digital signal transmission

The signal behind the receiver appears to be strongly distorted; but this is where
the digital „trick” sets in. The receiver knows that the signal can only have one of
two levels and that the signal was transferred with a specific bit rate. This know-
ledge is then used to reconstruct the signal free of error.
The signal is at first filtered to eliminate as much noise as possible. A decision
threshold is then defined. For binary signals, this is the border between “0” and
“1”. At the sampling points that correspond precisely to the bit raster, the signal is
compared with the threshold and then reconstructed. This procedure is shown
schematically in Fig. 1.18.

U(t)

010011
t
received filtering decide sampling reconstructed
signal threshold signal

clock recovery
Fig. 1.18: Signal reconstruction in digital transmission systems

Although the signal was clearly distorted, the complete reconstruction of the
original bit sequence is possible. This is what users recognize as “CD quality”.
The question still remains as to how the analog signal, i.e. the music, is restored. A
digital analog converter is used for this purpose. In the example shown, the con-
verter uses 16 bits in the 65,536 intervals between -1 V and +1 V. The signal is
then subsequently filtered to eliminate the resulting harmonic waves and then is
ready for use (for example, to be fed into a loudspeaker). This step is not needed
for communication between the digital devices.
 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 15

1.2.1.3 Bit Error Probability and Error Correction

An analog signal can usually be described quite accurately with the Signal to
Noise Ratio (SNR). This is done by comparing the average signal power to the
average noise power. Since there is noise in every system, the SNR is always
finite.
As we have seen earlier, this value is not sufficient for digital systems, since the
signal is reconstructed at the receiver. To be sure, a complete error-free trans-
mission is also not possible for digital systems. The cause for this is to be found in
the statistical character of many noise processes. Only thermal noise will be dis-
cussed here. Due to the particle like structure of the electrons, every flow of
current is irregular which leads to voltage fluctuations at resistors. This represents
a physical bottom limit for the noise power of each system. If you apply the pro-
bability of a particular voltage deviation occurrence, this will give you a Gaussian
function. In Fig. 1.19, it is assumed that the binary symbols are transmitted in an
ideal system by -1 V and +1 V and that both symbols are being distorted through
noise.

rel. probability density

1.2
“0” ideal “1” ideal
1.0

0.8 “0” with “1” with

noise noise
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
voltage [V]

Fig. 1.19: Influence of noise on ideal, digital signals

As you can see in Fig. 1.19, the levels +1 and -1 are the most likely ones but
there are also other levels. In the case at hand, the decision threshold is 0 V. It
appears that it is still possible to clearly differentiate between the two symbols
despites the noise. However, the Gaussian curve never drops completely to 0. This
is shown in Fig. 1.20 in which the same curve is scaled logarithmically.
16 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

relative probability density

10 0

10 -1
Symbol “0” Symbol “1”
10 -2 with noise with noise

10 -3

10 -4
optimal
-5
decision
10 threshold

10 -6

10 -7 area of bit
errors
voltage [V]
10 -8
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Fig. 1.20: Generation of bit errors in digital transmission systems due to noise

Here you can see that the curves for “0” and “1” overlap. This means that at
times a “0” can be distorted to such a degree that it is detected as a “1” or vice
versa. The hatched area represents exactly the bit error provided that the decision
threshold is actually 0.
Integrating this area and putting them into relationship with the integrals of the
probabilities for “0” and “1”, yields the bit error probability (Bit Error Ratio
BER). In this case the result would be  ˜ 10-7 . Returning to the CD example, this
would mean one error every 10,000,000 bits or, on the average, one error every
14 s. For normal use, this would not pose a major problem. However for data
transmission, this would be entirely inadequate. If saved as a file, this book would
consist of about 109 bits. At this error rate, 100 bit would be faulty. At best, this
would result in incorrect characters or errors in the illustrations. A more likely
scenario would be, however, that many of the errors would cause the system to
crash and make the file unusable. Considering all the time we authors have
invested in this documentation, this would be anything but a welcome course of
action. Hence, data connections should be considerably more reliable (for
example, BER < 10-15). The characteristics of noise anticipate the conclusion that
error-free data transmission is nothing more than an illusion. But this is where we
can call on statistics for help. If the voltage levels are increased to ±2 V, the error
probability drops to approximately  ˜ 10-25 for the same noise level. For our CD
signal, this would mean one error in 9 billions years, i.e., this book could be trans-
mitted several trillion times without error.
 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 17

However, there are other ways to reduce the error probability. Particular coding
schemes make it possible to detect individual errors on the receiver end (FEC:
Forward Error Correction). This is achieved by adding so-called „control bits” to
the signal flow. The bit rate is usually increased by only a few percent. On the
receiver end, practically all errors can be corrected. These procedures are often
used in mobile communications where, for example, the less than ideal trans-
mission channels cause an inordinate amount of errors.

1.2.1.4 Noise in Optical Systems

As mentioned above, there is a large number of sources of noise in optical systems
all of which could hardly be dealt with in a single book. There are entire books,
e.g. [Pet88], just on noise in optical transmitters - which are usually laser diodes.
In systems for short-range data communication, however, you only have to pay
attention to a few noise processes which are dealt with briefly here.

Laser Noise:
Laser diodes and LEDs are normally very low noise and stable sources. Clean
driving is especially important for signal quality. Edge emitting laser diodes in
particular can show high noise if light is reflected back from the transmission link.
This can hardly be avoided since about 4% of the light is already reflected at the
very first frontal area of the fiber. All reflections which appear within the cohe-
rence length are disruptive. These can be on occasion many kilometers when using
high quality laser diodes. In order to avoid fluctuations in laser performance
caused by reflections, anti reflection coatings, optical insulators and special low-
reflecting plug-in connections are used.
The LEDs used in most POF systems have a coherence length of a few μm and
are hardly influenced by reflections. Conventional LDs or VCSELs can be dis-
turbed by reflections. One advantage of using multimode fibers is their greater
diameter compared with the emitting surface of the laser. Even if much light is
reflected, only a small fraction reaches the active surface of the laser (Fig. 1.21) so
that the effect is negligible.

reflected light

PCS
‡core = 200 μm
VCSEL
‡active = 10 μm

Fig. 1.21: Influence of reflections in POF/PCS-systems

18 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

Quantum Noise of the Light and the Diode Dark Current:

Light and current have a basic quantum noise as they are quantized energy flows.
Noise in light - called shot noise - is caused by the power and energy of the pho-
tons, i.e. by the wavelength. With reference to the photon flow, which is also
determined by the responsivity, the following is true:

quantum noise current: iQ2 2 ˜ e ˜ IPH ˜ B 2 ˜ e ˜R ˜P ˜B

with the quantities:

B: signal bandwidth (determined by bit rate)
e: elementary charge
IPH: photodiode current
P: received power
R: spectral sensitivity (mA photocurrent per mW optical power)
As an example, we shall consider a data transmission of 1.25 Gbit/s at a wave-
length of 650 nm (R = 0.4 mA/mW). The received power is -24 dBm (4 μW). At a
bandwidth of 700 MHz a medium shot noise current of 19 nA results. With refe-
rence to the signal photon current of 1.6 μA the result is a SNR of 38.5 dB, conse-
quently, the noise is negligible. In fact, practically all optical transmission systems
are limited by electronic receiver noise and not by shot noise. The dark current
flowing in most photodiodes also generates quantum noise. The strength of this
noise is:

iD2 2 ˜ e ˜ ID ˜ B

ID is dark current and lies in the nA range with normal pin-photodiodes so that
the additional noise is also negligible.

Receiver Noise:
The most important source of noise for the systems under consideration in this
book is receiver noise. In principle, every optical receiver can be described, at
least in a rough comparison, as a combination of a photodiode, an ohmic input
resistor and an amplifier (transistor or operational amplifier, Fig. 1.22).

POF

amplifier
input
resistance

Fig. 1.22: Optical receivers’ principle

 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 19

The photo current is converted into a voltage at the input resistor which then
continues to be amplified. The greater the resistance, the higher the signal voltage.
On the other hand, however, every resistor generates a thermal noise according to
the following equations.

2 2 4 ˜k ˜ T ˜B
uth 4 ˜ k ˜ T ˜ B ˜ R or: ith
R

with: k: Boltzmann constant (1.38 ˜ 10-23 Ws/K)

T: absolute temperature
B: system bandwidth
R: ohmic resistor
In the example above, the input resistor could lie at 500 Ÿ. The thermal noise
current would then be 152 nA, corresponding to a SNR of 20.4 dB.
The following amplifier will never work ideally. The noise figure indicates how
far the actual noise lies above the theoretical minimum. Depending on the compo-
nents, values of 1 dB to 3 dB are typical. The SNR is diminished correspondingly.
You can easily see that the signal voltage increases proportionally to the
resistance R; the thermal noise current, however, only increases with the root of R.
In principle, the SNR can be raised whenever you like by increasing R. However,
there is a fundamental limit. Every photodiode possesses a junction capacitance
which, together with the input resistor of the circuit, forms a RC low pass filter
which restricts the speed of the receiver. Therefore, you can only select a
resistance as high as allowed by the diode capacitance and the bit rate. With a RC
low-pass bandwidth of:

f3 dB 1 2˜ S ˜R ˜C

and a minimum bandwidth of the receiver - which corresponds to one half the
bit rate - the maximum input resistance may amount to:

1
R
bit rate ˜ S ˜ C
With a diode capacitance of 0.5 pF a R of about 500 Ÿ, as indicated above,
results. This calculation is only a very rough approximation, but it does show the
principle problem involved.
Diodes intended for use in singlemode fiber systems only have to be a little bit
larger than the core diameter of the fiber. A typical size for photodiodes is from
30 μm to 50 μm. Their capacitance only lies at some 10 pF, but they do allow
large input resistances with high data rates and thus have good sensitivity. For
thick polymer fibers and PCS, however, photodiodes with very much larger sur-
face will be needed. Their capacitance lies at some nF or some tenths nF. With
high data rates the input resistance must correspondingly be reduced and thus the
sensitivity. This is the only indirect influence of the fiber diameter on the possible
bit rate with thick optical fibers.
20 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

Modal Noise:
A special kind of noise only appears in multimode fibers: mode distribution noise.
In multimode fibers light propagates in different specific modes, whereby each
one possesses its own distribution of power over the fiber cross-section. The kind
of power distribution between the modes changes with tiny changes in the exterior
conditions, e.g. temperature, wavelength of the transmitter or also vibrations of the
fiber, but the overall power remains constant. Figure 1.23 shows examples of
power distribution of modes (multimode GOF/POF at 650 nm, laser excitation).

Fig. 1.23 Examples for energy distribution of modes in multimode fibers (left: 50 μm
GI-GOF, right: 1 mm SI-POF with much higher mode number)

Steadily fluctuating power distributions only become problematical when the

overall output power is not transmitted at coupling points. Random exchanges of
power occur between the transmitted and the decoupled share which in the end
generates additional noise (schematic depiction in Fig. 1.24).

opt. power

lost power

coupled power in the

second fiber

fiber with
fluctuating cross section of
power the second fiber
distribution time

Fig. 1.24: Origin of modal noise

 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 21

The intensity of the modal noise depends on the number of the power maxima
on the cross-section (in the order of magnitude of the number of modes) and the
differences in power. For 50 μm multimode glass fibers the mode distribution
noise is typically only a good 20 dB below the overall transmitted level ([Vog02]).
This is insignificant for digital transmission, but makes analog transmission im-
possible.
In order to avoid modal noise, transmission must take place either with single-
mode or with very many modes since this effect is inversely proportional (statisti-
cal effect) to the root of the number of modes. Polymer fibers with several million
modes are therefore of interest for analog data transmission and are much better
suited than GI glass fibers.

1.2.2 Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Modulation

Whenever digital and analog signals are transmitted, there is virtually always an
electrical voltage U(t) present at the beginning and at the end of the transmission
path. To cover the distance, other physical parameters can also be used. The chan-
ging of these parameters is referred to as modulation. As we will see, when we
want to transmit signals with light, there are a number of problems to consider. In
general, the desired parameters can be modulated analog, i.e. with varying
strength, or with only a small number of discrete steps. Below we will show some
examples of binary, digital modulation procedures. We shall start with the electri-
cal transmission procedure depicted in Fig. 1.25:

U(t) U(t)

t t
transmitter receiver

Fig. 1.25: Most simple electrical signal transmission system

On the transmitter end, the signal is the voltage difference between two con-
ductors (for example, the wires of a twisted data cable or the core and shielding of
a coaxial cable). If we neglect such factors as attenuation and band limitation, the
signal is tapped again directly at the output end of the cable. This method is, of
course, the easiest but, experts know, also the one most susceptible to interference.
22 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

1.2.3 Modulating a Carrier Frequency

A simple but reliable transmission method is to use a carrier frequency that is

significantly higher than the cut-off frequency of the signal to be transferred
(Fig. 1.26).

U(t) transmitter Ucarrier(t)

t t receiver
source for
carrier
frequency

Fig. 1.26: Signal transmission with carrier frequency

The carrier wave can be described with three parameters: amplitude, frequency,
and phase. All three parameters can be used for modulation. For binary signals
these are:
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying; Amplitude Modulation
FSK: Frequency Shift Keying; Frequency Modulation
PSK: Phase Shift Keying; Phase Modulation
The principle is shown in Fig. 1.27.

signal

ASK FSK PSK

Fig. 1.27: Signal transmission with ASK, FSK or PSK

In addition, there are a number of other procedures such as DPSK (Differential

Phase Shift Keying), in which only the phase difference between 2 sequential bits
is of significance or multilevel procedures such as QAM (Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation) or combinations of several modulated parameters (PAM, Phase Amp-
litude Modulation). An in-depth description of these procedures can be found in
many standard works on communication technology, for example [Lüke90],
[Kreß89] or [Hulz96] or as a very simple introduction, in [Eng86].
Each individual modulation procedure requires special receivers that can
recover the original signal. A distinction is made between procedures that measure
the power of the carrier and those that operate synchronously to the carrier fre-
quency (for example, PLL tuners for FM radio).
 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 23

1.2.4 Specific Transmission Methods in Optical Communications

The advantages of optical communications are undisputed and have been know for
some time. The reader will undoubtedly be familiar with many of them. With the
low attenuation characteristics of modern singlemode fiber optic cables, many
hundreds of kilometers can be bridged with high data rates. If fiber amplifiers are
used, transcontinental communication is even possible. Particularly systems with
polymer optical fibers are well suited for short distances due to their insensitivity
to interference.
Light is an electromagnetic wave with a particular frequency. At 500 nm, i.e.
green light, this is 6 · 1014 Hz. No electronic component is able to process this
frequency. Photodiodes only measure the optical power of a light signal. Further-
more, optical sources cannot maintain their frequencies nearly as accurately as
electric oscillators. Directly modulating the parameters frequency or phase (and
polarization in particular) of light is only possible with so-called heterodyne
receivers. This involves modulating an extremely frequency-stabilized laser on the
transmitter end and heterodyning it on the receiver end with a second laser that is
just as stabilized. A mixed frequency is produced at the photodiode (the difference
between the both laser frequencies), which can be further processed by the sub-
sequent electronic components. Heterodyne systems offer, at least in theory, the
best frequency economy of all optical systems. Nevertheless they have not gained
acceptance due to the many technical problems involved. For further information,
see [Fra88] and [Ziem95].
Therefore, the only parameter left for modulation is amplitude. A photodiode
measures the optical power that is converted into a proportional photo current.
Since the electrical power, measured at a resistor, is proportional to the square of
the current, the following relationship holds true:
Pelectr ~ Iph² ~ Popt²
Although the electric field of the transmitted light can take on positive and
negative values, the actual measured parameter is always positive. This is a
significant difference compared to electrical communication systems. Let us take a
simple binary signal transmission as an example. In the electrical stage, the bits
are switched between -1 V and +1 V at the transmitter. The decision threshold is
set to 0 V. The levels 2 mW and 0 mW should be selected for an optical signal.
The decision threshold should be at 1 mW (see Fig. 1.28).

U(t) Popt(t)
+1 V 2 mW
t
0V 1 mW
t
-1 V 0 mW

Fig. 1.28: Electrical and optical, digital signal transmission

24 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission

Initially, both systems appear similar. In the Fig. 1.29 below, additional attenu-
ation is inserted, for example by increasing the temperature or aging the trans-
mitter. The level drops to 40 %.

U(t) Popt(t)
+1 V 2 mW
t
0V 1 mW
t
-1 V 0 mW

Fig. 1.29: Electrical and optical, digital signal transmission with attenuation

In the electrical system, both symbol levels are equally decreased. If the noise
is not too large, it will still function flawlessly. In an optical system, the zero level
will, of course, remain unchanged while the “1” level falls below the threshold.
The system then no longer functions. This problem, of cause, can be solved. Ca-
pacitive couplings or decision threshold controls are used, or the decision level is
set initially so low that the threshold is always above the noise level of the “0”
symbol (Fig. 1.30 to 1.32).

optical signal photodiode electrical signal

capacitve coupling
2 mW +1 V
t
1 mW 0V
t
0 mW -1 V

Fig. 1.30: Receiver with capacitive coupling

optical signal photodiode, electrical signal

threshold control
2 mW +2 V
1 mW +1 V
t t
0 mW 0V

Fig. 1.31: Receiver with threshold control

optical signal photodiode, electrical signal

threshold optimized
2 mW for minimal level +2 V
1 mW +1 V
t t
0 mW 0V

Fig. 1.32: Receiver with minimal threshold

 1.2 Digital and Analog Signal Transmission 25

All of the methods discussed have their advantages and disadvantages which,
however, will not be elaborated further here. Various commercial systems for POF
use the third method.

1.2.5 Modulating a Subcarrier

To be able to use the many possibilities of carrier frequency technology in optical

communications, a subcarrier can be used. Hence, light is modulated in its inten-
sity as a sine wave. The signal is then modulated onto this carrier, whereby ASK,
FSK, PSK or other methods can again be used. The receiver only needs to process
the range around the carrier, i.e., it will always be coupled in a capacitive manner.
Figure 1.33 illustrates the method using the subcarrier FSK as an example.

Popt(t)
2 mW
1 mW
t
0 mW
Fig. 1.33: Optical signal transmission with a frequency modulated subcarrier

It should be noted that the optical power curve still represents a much higher
optical frequency. One advantage of the method shown is that the average optical
output power remains unchanged from the succession of the “0” and “1” symbols.
Laser diodes are particularly well-suited for this type of modulation.

5 Popt(I) /mW output signal

4 bias current
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 ILD /mA

modulation current

Fig. 1.34: Subcarrier modulation of a laser diode

26 1.3 Network Architectures

As described above, lasers are best operated with a bias current. In direct power
modulation, this would be slightly below the threshold. In subcarrier modulation,
the bias current is set higher than the laser threshold so that the laser is always
operated above the threshold current as shown in Fig. 1.34.
Thus the tools for transmitting analog and digital signals are now also available
in optical communications. Apart from modulation, coding is of great importance.
We would like to refer the reader to the relevant technical literature, as this would
go beyond the scope of this introduction.

1.3 Network Architectures

The next section of the introduction deals with various network architectures. Here
too, attention will be drawn to the unique features of optical communications. The
first topic is that of Point-to-Point transmission and distributed systems. The
Point-To-Point system (P-P) is the simplest form of data communication, in-
volving only one transmitter and one receiver. The second case deals with connec-
ting several devices to each other. In this case, there can be one transmitter and
several receivers (Point-to-Multipoint, P-MP), several transmitters and one recei-
ver (MP-P) or also several transmitters and several receivers (MP-MP, see
Fig. 1.35).

P-P P - MP MP - P MP - MP

Fig. 1.35: Possible network topologies

It should be noted that it is often necessary to send data in both directions (up-
stream and downstream). For example, a network can be P-MP in one direction
and MP-P in the other. When more than two stations are to be connected to each
other, several solutions are conceivable. These are discussed in the sections below.
First we will briefly discuss active and passive networks. Then a network structure
or topology must be selected, for example, a tree-shaped network or bus structure.
Finally, a multi-access method must be selected.

1.3.1 Active and Passive Networks

A P-MP case will serve as an example of the difference between an active and
passive network. Figure 1.36 illustrates both possible solutions for this connection.
 1.3 Network Architectures 27

P - MP P - MP
passive active

Fig. 1.36: Active and passive P-MP connections

Passive means in this case that the receivers are physically connected to the
same medium. As a result, every receiver receives the complete signal, even if it is
intended for other receivers. This is an ideal situation for distribution services such
as broadcast radio. With active networks, there is an interfacing device between
transmitter and receivers that has the function of distributing the signal to the
proper receivers. In principle, this interface functions as a switch, which is the
reason why they are called exactly that: switches. If you take a closer look at this
architecture, you can see that it actually consists of several P-P connections.
Since the aim of this book is only to describe transmission technology, all other
active networks can be regarded as some form of a Point-to-Point solution. You
can say that every architecture can be made active by inserting the right number of
switches at the branch points.
The functionality of the active points can be formed in many different ways.
The active points, for instance, could be used solely as an amplifier. This means
that the signals are forwarded without regard to their destinations. Address and
access control must be performed by other elements. A multiplex function means
that the signals are routed according to their destinations and, in a MP-P structure,
are combined. Some form of access control must be available also in this case to
prevent collisions. A complete switch also takes on the access control functions.
This can be made by rejecting non-processable data or by serving as a data buffer.

1.3.2 Network Structures

The network structure describes the topology of the data connections. It can refer
to the physical structure i.e. the way the cables are arranged as well as to the
logical structure, i.e. the flow of the data streams. Figure 1.37 illustrates the most
widely known structures.
All modern data networks are designed as active star-type structures. The best-
known examples are Switched Ethernet and the ATM network (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode). Tree networks play an important role for television distributing
networks. Here it is crucial that each receiver receives the complete transmission
signals. Data networks for residential areas, such as USB or IEEE 1394 function
28 1.3 Network Architectures

logically as tree-shaped networks; however, they are physically set up as P-P con-
nections. This means that several other devices can be connected to one device.
Each device then forwards the complete data.

star tree ring bus

Fig. 1.37: Typical network structures

In all passive networks, one problem becomes apparent, in particular when you
examine the direction to the central element. Several transmitters can access the
same medium. To prevent mutual blocking, this form of access must be con-
trolled. This will be the subject of the next section.

1.3.3 Multiple Access Methods

The goal of all multiple access methods is the administration of a shared channel
(shared medium). The various parameters of the channel which can be used are
time, frequency or amplitude.

1.3.3.1 Time Division Multiplex

With Time Division Multiplex (TDM), each user is assigned a particular time. In
the P-MP direction this is known as multiplexing since the transmitter simply has
to split its capacity. The opposite MP-P direction is known as multiple access
(TDMA) since each transmitter is only allowed to send data at the proper time.
Figure 1.38 illustrates the principle.
It is easy to see that the division of time does not have to be steady or con-
tinuous. The critical aspect of allotting time slots in TDMA is that data packets
sent from two transmitters do not arrive at the receiver simultaneously.
In principal, there are two methods for the TDMA. First the central node can be
assigned with the task of permitting the transmitters to use the time slots. Obvi-
ously, all elements must be synchronized in the network. In addition, each trans-
mitter must at least be given a temporary connection in order to inform the center
that further time slots are needed.
 1.3 Network Architectures 29

P - MP MP - P
TDM TDMA
„1“ „1“
„2“ „2“
„3“ „3“

t
t
t

Fig. 1.38: TDM and TDMA

Another possibility is to initially permit every transmitter to randomly access

the connection. If a collision takes place, the transmitters must be able to detect it,
discontinue the transmission and retry it after a set time. As long as the required
transmission capacity is small in relationship to the available capacity, this method
works quite well since the probability of collision is relatively low. This is all the
more true if delays occurring occasionally due to the wait for free time slots can
be accepted. This is the method used for Ethernet. The advantage is that no
centralized capacity administration is required. The disadvantage is that trans-
missions requiring continuous data rates and constant delay times (for example,
video) are quite unreliable.
This is a good time to address a widely-spread misconception concerning
access control and the question of using an active or passive network. Both net-
work types require the same overhead for access control. The only advantage of an
active network is that the physical access can be separated from management of
the data streams. In the figure above, this means that the identical TDMA method
can be selected or that a buffer in the active node can prevent collisions (see
Fig. 1.39).
In passive networks, the malfunctioning of a single component can lead to a
complete failure of the network. If a station sends signals uninterruptedly, all other
stations will be affected. In an active network, the incorrect working station can
simply be ignored. On the other hand, there are additional components in the
active network, i.e., the transmitter and receiver in the distribution point and the
central switch. All of these elements can fail and result in a total loss of the net-
work. The question as to what type offers the better reliability cannot be answered
conclusively. The particular requirements must always be taken into account.
30 1.3 Network Architectures

t t

„1“ „1“
„2“ „2“
„3“ „3“
buffer memory

t t

t t

t t

Fig. 1.39: TDMA in active networks

1.3.3.2 Frequency Division Multiplex

In frequency multiplex or multiple access (FDM/FDMA), the signals of each
station are modulated on a separate carrier. All stations are allowed to transmit
simultaneously. The signals are divided using band pass filters, as shown in
Fig. 1.40 (Fig. 1.41 illustrates multiple access).

f1 P - MP, FDM
band pass 1
f2 band pass 2
f3 band pass 3

Fig. 1.40: FDM in star networks

f1 MP - P, FDMA
band pass 1
f2 band pass 2

f3 band pass 3

Fig. 1.41: FDMA in star networks

The advantage over TDM is that selection of the band pass filters determines
the synchronization. If these are permanently built in, there is practically no inter-
ference from other stations. But unfortunately it is then no longer possible to
dynamically allocate the capacity. This is why the frequency channels are often
assigned by the central node temporally on demand.
 1.3 Network Architectures 31

1.3.3.3 Code Division Multiplex

For code division multiplex/multi-access (CDM/CDMA), all stations transmit
simultaneously in the same frequency range. Instead of individual bits, special
sequences (codes) are sent. These must be known to the receiver. Using special
receivers that are often very costly, the signals of the various transmitters can be
divided. The immense costs for CDMA systems is often worth it for poor quality
channels such as in mobile telephone communications since CDMA is highly
immune to many sources of interference. In optical communications this method is
rather insignificant.

1.3.3.4 Wavelength Division Multiplex

A special feature in optical communications is the possibility of using various
optical frequencies in a single network. Generally speaking, we are talking about
different carrier frequencies. However, they are so great, just like the distances
between them, that they cannot be processed by electrical components. For
example, processing, combining, separating or filtering the various wavelengths is
done exclusively by optical components. In singlemode glass fiber technology, a
number of components have been developed over the last few years such as
arrayed wave guides (AWG), Fiber-Bragg gratings and wide band tunable lasers.
They have made WDM the key technology for optical communications (see, for
example, [Hulz96]). Soon many hundred optical channels will be transferred over
glass fibers that will be forwarded transparently over hundreds of kilometers in
optical nodes.
Wavelength division multiplexing also plays an increasing role for polymer
optical fibers, as we shall see later. In principle, the access methods introduced
here can be combined in any way. A complete time division multiplex channel
can, for example, be inserted into a wavelength channel.

1.3.3.5 The Special Features of Optical Multiplexing

The special features of optical signal transmission have already been mentioned
earlier. Another difference to electrical systems requires some explanation. The
level of an electrical signal is defined by the voltage at a resistor. This makes it
possible to split a signal into several points, as is done, for example, in bus
systems by selecting suitable resistors shown in Fig. 1.42.

U(t)
50 :
15 k: 15 k: 15 k: 15 k: 15 k: 15 k:

Fig. 1.42: Distribution of an electrical signal

32 1.3 Network Architectures

The low-ohmic-transmitter supplies a data line with 50 :of characteristic im-

pedance. The line is also terminated with 50 :. The various stations access the
line with high-value resistor connections (these lines should be short). Thus, the
signal is only loaded to a small degree. The same level is detected at practically all
stations (disregarding the attenuation of the data line).
For very broadband signals, for example, for broadcast television, the receivers
must all have the same impedance, i.e. 75 :. Splitters are available that can divide
up the output with nearly no loss. With two receivers, each receiver detects a level
that is 3 dB lower, that is to say, approximately 70% of the transmitting voltage.
Unfortunately in optics, a “high-ohmic resistance” access is not possible.
Ideally, the optical transmitting power can be distributed to all connected stations.
With 2 receivers, the received power is one half of the transmitting power. This
results in one half of the photo current at the receiver and consequently 6 dB less
electrical power. We encounter the same problem when trying to join optical
signals. If you assume uniform mode distribution in optical fibers, then couplers
will have losses during distribution as well as when joining that correspond to the
number of optical branches. Figure 1.43 shows typical components.

X-splitter Y-splitter Y-coupler 1 : 4-splitter

3 dB loss 3 dB loss 3 dB loss 6 dB loss

Fig. 1.43: Losses at different optical couplers

The minimum loss of 3 dB (half of the optical power) is easy to see for the
X-coupler as for the Y-divider. Because of the reversibility of the light path, this
also applies to the Y-coupler. If the divider at the far right is used as a coupler, its
attenuation will also be at least 6 dB. With polymer fibers, additionally the losses
that are unavoidable for multimode fibers must be taken into account.
There is a „trick”, however, for coupling and splitting light waves without
losses for singlemode fibers. If the light segments to be separated or combined
differ in wavelength or polarization, the proper WDM couplers (or polarization
couplers) can be used. Otherwise WDM systems would not be feasible with over
100 channels. For polymer optical fibers, the appropriate WDM components are
relative complex, as indicated below.
The special features of optical communications are adverse for particular
multiplex methods. If, for example, you want to use time division multiplexing
with two transmitters and two receivers that are located at two different sites, they
must be arranged as shown in Fig. 1.44.
 1.3 Network Architectures 33

transmitter 1 receiver 1

transmitter 2 coupler splitter

receiver 2
Fig. 1.44: Example for an optical network

The TDMA method ensures collision-free use of the shared transmission link.
The optical components yield a minimal loss of 3 dB + 3 dB = 6 dB. If the signals
could be combined before the optical transmitter and split behind the receiver, this
loss could be prevented. This would, for example, also increase the range. When
designing an optical transmission system, careful consideration should always be
given to the question as to which functions can be implemented better optically
and which ones better electrically.

1.3.3.6 Bi-directional Transmission

Bi-directional transmission on one channel plays a special role in multiplex
methods. Only two directions have to access the channel. Classic multiplex
methods are applicable particularly in optical signal transmissions. While we have
only been discussing ideal systems, at least one interference factor will be
explained here that poses restrictions on bi-directional systems. This is near end
crosstalk (NEXT). Figure 1.45 illustrates how a receiver can interfere with its own
transmitter if there are reflections on the line.

disturbance,
transmitter 1 transmitter 2
depressed
x dBm y dBm
by v dB

channel
attenuation z dB
receiver 1 receiver 2

Fig. 1.45: Near end cross-talk in optical systems

Transmitters 1 and 2 operate simultaneously on both sides of the channel. Since

it cannot be assumed that we always have the same power, let us just assume
levels x and y. The signal of the remote transmitter 2 therefore arrives attenuated
with (y-z) dBm at receiver 1. At points of interference in the channel, for example
a plug-in connection, a part of the light emitted from transmitter 1 may directly
fall onto its own receiver. We will call the attenuation of transmitter 1 to recei-
34 1.3 Network Architectures

ver 1 as v. The value of v should be as large as possible. Thus, the interference

level through NEXT is x - y. If you assume that a particular SNR is required for
error free operation, the following inequality holds true:
v > (x-y) + SNR + z
Let us look at a practical example: The difference between the transmitting
powers is max. 6 dB, i.e. at worst (x - y) = 6 dB. The SNR should be at least
16 dB and the path attenuation is z = 18 dB. The following then applies:
v > 6 dB + 16 dB + 18 dB = 40 dB.
This value is very difficult to maintain with POF components. Additional
measures for NEXT suppression are required. They will be introduced below.
First, a system with time division multiplex will be shown (Fig. 1.46). On the
fiber medium, the required data transfer rate is more than twice as fast as the indi-
vidual data streams on both sides since less than half the time is available due to
the run times that occur for each direction. It is common to divide up data streams
into larger packets that are then transmitted alternately. The larger the blocks are,
the less influence the run time has on the line. However, an increasing delay is
generated through the required buffering of a complete packet.

buffer memory buffer memory

with bit rate adaption with bit rate adaption
transmitter 1 transmitter 2

in in
fiber line
out out
receiver 1 receiver 2

transceiver 1

transceiver 2 time

transport: 1Ÿ2 2Ÿ1 1Ÿ2 2Ÿ1

Fig. 1.46: Bi-directional transmission with time multiplex

These types of solutions are very good, particularly for systems with low and
medium data rates and short distances, for which the POF is also used, and can be
implemented at low cost since the entire data processing is performed in integrated
circuits.
A second possibility is frequency division multiplex, by which the data of both
directions are modulated upon different carrier frequencies (Fig. 1.47).
 1.3 Network Architectures 35

mixer source 1 source 2 mixer

in
in
transmission
out link out
filter receiver 1 receiver 2 filter

isolation filter
transport transport
from 1 from 2
to 2 to 1 frequency

Fig. 1.47: Bi-directional transmission with frequency multiplex

The bandwidth requirements of this system are relatively high, because a

carrier frequency modulation needs typically twice the bandwidth as a direct NRZ
modulation (Non Return to Zero, switching between one and zero at the end of
each bit). Furthermore, a certain „guard band” is also required between the bands.
On the other hand, subcarrier methods are very immune to interference and allow
continuous simultaneous operation in both directions. The NEXT suppression is
very good since filtering in the electrical domain of the receiver can function very
efficiently. Especially for low data rates, this method is very well suited. Signals
can be easily processed with a small number of analog components or else
completely with a signal processor.
For wavelength division multiplexing, every transmission direction is assigned
to a separate wavelength, as can be seen in Fig. 1.48.

source O1 source O2
Y-splitter Y-splitter
in in

out transmission link out

receiver WDM-filter WDM-filter receiver

Fig. 1.48: Bi-directional transmission with wavelength multiplex

This procedure has the big advantage that the full capacity of the fiber medium
is available for each direction. Continuous operation without additional delays is
possible. The NEXT suppression is performed by optical filters placed before the
receivers. Signal processing is not necessary. A disadvantage is that two different
transceivers are always required on one link. However, this is a question concer-
ning the system concept. WDM is particularly interesting for fast data transmis-
sion, such as IEEE 1394. WDM also provides efficient solutions for systems with
asymmetric data rates.