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1.2 Measurement
Ch2: Mechanics
2.1 Kinematics
Acceleration = ∆velocity/time
SUVATS:
a = (v - u)/t
s = (u + v)t/2
s = ut + 0.5at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
When falling, air resistance will push you up more and more until you cannot go faster.
First law: “A body will remain at rest of moving with constant velocity unless acted upon by
an unbalanced force.”
Examples: mass on a string (T = mg), parachutists (force up = force down), car (force left =
force right).
Momentum, ρ = mv.
Newton’s second law of motion: “the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the unbalanced force acting on that body, and takes place in the same
direction.”
So, F = ma.
Newton’s third law of motion: “if body A exerts a force on body B then body B will exert an
equal and opposite force.”
Example: a box on the floor, water hitting a wall.
Law of conservation of momentum: “in a system of isolated bodies, the total momentum is
always the same.”
Work done by a varying force: use average force, or find the area under a force-distance
graph.
Gravitational potential energy (PE): the energy a body has due to its position above the
Earth. PE = mgh.
Law of conservation of energy: “energy can be neither created or destroyed - only changed
from one form to the other.”
Inelastic collision - momentum/KE not conserved. For example when two bodies stick
together (energy is taken to squash them together so KE is lost).
Sharing of energy: when a body explodes, the smaller part gets the most energy.
Centripetal force, F = mv2/r = mω2r (e.g. ball on a string, car on a bend, wall of
death).
Ch3: Thermal Physics
3.1
Internal energy: the material of the object takes energy, molecules vibrate more. The total
internal energy of a substance is the total PE and random KE of the molecules.
Heat flows from hot to cold between two touching bodies until a thermal equilibrium is
reached.
C to K: add 273.
Thermal capacity (c): the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance by
1C. Unit: JC-1. Given by: C = Q/∆T
Specific heat capacity (C): the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a
substance by 1C. Unit: JC-1.
When matters change state, the energy used enables the molecules to move more freely
(KE is the same), so temperature does not change.
Evaporation takes place at the surface only, at all temperatures. Faster molecules escape,
average KE decreases, temperature decreases.
Specific latent heat (L): the amount of heat needed to change the state of 1kg of the
material without a change in temperature. Unit: JKg-1. L = Q/m.
-There are no forces between the molecules, except when they collide, so they move with
constant velocity
-The molecules are very small; their total value is much smaller than the volume of the gas
The temperature is a measure of the average KE of the molecules of an ideal gas.
3.4 Thermodynamics
Absolute zero: the temperature of the gas when the pressure is zero. The point at which the
molecules stop moving. -273C, 0K.
A fixed point used to define the temperature scale is something observable. The one used to
define the absolute temperature scale is the ‘triple point’ water - the temperature at which
it exists as a solid, liquid and gas at equilibrium (0.01C).
A real gas: forces between molecules as the pressure/volume decreases. This makes them
change to a liquid, unless the temperature is very high.
A thermodynamic system is a collection of bodies that can do work on each other and
transfer heat. In IB we only use the gas piston example.
First law of thermodynamics: “if a gas expands and gets hot, heat must have been added.”
This is a statement of the principle of energy conservation.
Isochoric: volume stays the same, temperature and internal energy increase. Q is positive.
Adiabatic contraction: volume is reduced, work done is negative, temperature/internal
energy increase.
Net work done = difference between work done on gas and work done by gas. Equal to
enclosed area on the diagram.
Second law: “it is not possible to convert heat completely into work”.
This implies that thermal energy cannot spontaneously transfer from a region of low
temperature to a region of high temperature. Heat flows from hot to cold. Particles fly in
random directions. Molecules start ordered, but start to collide and become disordered.
Rewritten: “in any thermodynamic process, the total entropy always increases” (e.g. a
fridge: food gets colder, more ordered. Room is given heat, less ordered).
Entropy of a system = the amount of disorder in the system/the spreading out of energy.
Angular frequency (ω): ω = 2πf. (2πrads s-1 is one revolution per second).
SHM: acceleration is proportional to the distance from a fixed point. Acceleration is always
directed towards a fixed point. a = -ω2x.
Acceleration = -ω2x
V=ω
KE is max when displacement is zero (it is stationary at x0). KEmax = 0.5mω2x02 or 0.5mω2(x02 -
x). PE = 0.
In oscillating systems there is always friction and sometimes air resistance. The system has
to do work against these, resulting in a loss of energy. This is called ‘damping’ (for example,
dampers in a car’s suspension to absorb the shock of a bump).
Light damping: small opposing forces, gradual energy loss, amplitude decreases over time.
Resonance: an increase in amplitude that causes the system to oscillate at its natural
frequency.
Phase difference: the amount they are out of phase by. If completely, it is π.
Wave pulse: when a disturbance can be seen travelling from one end to the other.
Continuous progressive waves move with SHM in the shape of a sine curve.
All electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed in free space.
Rays: shows the direction of the waves. Always at a right angle to waves.
Refraction: there is a change in velocity when there is a change in medium. Wave hits
boundary at an angle and there is a direction change.
Diffraction: takes place when a wave passes through a small opening/aperture. If the path
difference = d, then the phase angle, = πd/λ
Peaks move up and down but do not progress = a standing wave. Occurs when identical
waves travelling in opposite directions superpose.
<---- IN AIR
Second, f2 = v/L, λ = L
Third, f3 = 2/3L
F1, λ = 4L.
F2, λ = 4/3L
F3, λ = 4/5L
F1, λ = 2L
F 2, λ = L
F3, λ = 2/3L
Approaching f1 = (c + v)f0 /c
Receding f2 = (c - v)f0 /c
Doppler effect applies to electromagnetic radiation too. If relative velocities are smaller
than the speed of light then ∆f = v/c x f0 (v = relative speed of source and observer, f0 =
original frequency).
Red shift: light moving away has a longer wavelength, which is red.
Doppler effect is used in speed cameras. It reflects electromagnetic radiation off the car,
and the frequency of the reflected beam is used to calculate the car’s speed.
Huygen’s Construction:
4.9 Resolution
The Rayleigh Criterion: 2 points will be resolved if the central maximum of the diffraction
pattern formed of one point, coincides with the first maximum of the other (when they
overlap they look like one).
If the distance between the central maxima is less than half the width of the maxima, the
points will not be resolved. The width is defined by the position of the first minimum,
Θ= , or for an aperture: .
CDs: pits are 5x107m wide. 780nm laser. Any smaller and the difference between pits and
gaps aren’t recognised. To solve, use laser of 640nm.
Electron microscope: closest points that can be resolved are 200nm apart. Decreasing
wavelengths doesn’t work, not visible enough. Use electrons (0.02nm) instead - can see up
to 0.1nm.
4.10 Polarization
When a transverse wave is polarized, the disturbance is in only one plane (i.e. through a
slit), is polarized. Through a slit is vertical, so they cannot pass through horizontal slits.
Brewster’s Law: when the angle between the reflected ray and refracted ray is 90 degrees,
polarization is 100%.
When light passes through a polarizer, intensity decreases by 50%. If it then passes through
a second polarizer (an analyser), the intensity reduction depends on the angle between the
polarization planes of the two polarizers. If parallel, all is transmitted. Perpendicular, none is
transmitted. Between 0 and 90 degrees, some is transmitted.
Passing through an analyser, only the component of amplitude in the direction of the
polarization plane passes through: A0 cos Θ.
Intensity (I) is proportional to A2, so if original intensity is (I0) then: I = I0 cos2 Θ (Malus’s
Law).
‘Optically active substances’ can rotate the plane of polarization (e.g. if put between 2
planes, it will allow light to pass through).
LCDs: each pixel is made of liquid crystal. They rotate the plane of polarization through 90
degrees when a battery is not connected to them. If the liquid crystal is placed between two
crossed polarizers then it goes dark when a battery is connected.
The flow = the current. The ‘charge’ flows. Unit of charge is coulomb (C). Charge flows from
+ (higher PE) to - because electrons are negative.
Potential difference: the amount of work done per unit charge (V) in taking a small +ve
charge from A to B. V = W/q.
Emf (electromotive force) is the amount of chemical energy converted to electrical energy
per unit charge (V).
P.d. across a resistance is the amount of electrical energy converted to heat per unit charge
(V).
Resistance of the cell = internal resistance. Converts the electric energy to heat, less to be
converted in the resistor, so p.d. of resistor is greater than the emf of the cell.
In a perfect battery, power = chemical energy converted to electrical energy per unit time =
εI.
Power dissipated is the amount of electrical energy converted to heat per unit time. P = VI.
Power can also be: P = I2R and P = V2/R.
Electrical sensors: a device whose electrical properties change with changing physical
conditions.
Strain gauge: thin metal wire. If stretched the cross-section is smaller, giving a higher
resistance.
Vout = Vin x
For example, an automatic light switch: no light on the LDR = more resistance = more V out =
activates electronic switch to turn lights on (needs min. P.d.).
Strain gauges can be used to measure how much a building is stretched by using V out. For
example, underneath a bridge.
Gravitational field strength, g, is the measure of how much force a body will experience in a
field (force per unit mass experienced by a small test mass). g = F/m. For Earth it is 9.81.
Gravitational potential: the work done per unit mass taking a small test mass from a
position of zero potential to point P.
Gravitational potential energy is the PE gained by an object as its height above the ground
increases (position in gravitational field). gh = PE/m.
Equipotential: travelling along a field perpendicular to the field (no work done, no change in
PE). ΔV/Δh = g. Or potential gradient = field strength.
Positive gradient and negative field strength gives: g = -Δv/Δx. Wells prove this.
Escape speed: “the speed needed for an object to reach a distance at which it is no longer
attracted back to the earth”.
PE = -GMm/r
Loss of KE = gain in PE
mω2r = GMm/r2
Substituting in ω = 2π/RT:
2
r = GMm/r
So for planets orbiting the sun, T2/r3 is a constant, or T2 r3 (Kepler’s third law). Closer
planets to the sun have a shorter time period.
Earth satellites:
closer ones have
a shorter time
period. Lower
orbits have lower
energy (lower
PE), but greater
KE because of
this. So:
Weightlessness: in deep space, gravitational fields cancel out due to distance. In free-fall
with a room, the only force on you is weight. In orbital motion around earth, the pulling
force on you and satellite towards Earth is equal.
Coulomb’s Law states that “the force experienced by two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of their charge, and inversely proportional to the square of their
separation”.
F = KQ1Q2/r2 (k = 9x109).
Electric field: a region of space where a charged object experiences a force due to its charge.
Electric field strength is a measure of the force that a positive charge would experience per
unit charge per mass if placed in a field. Field strength: E = F/q.
Electric potential at a point is the amount of work per unit charge needed to take a small
positive test charge from a plane of zero potential to a pont.
Electric potential energy: “moving a positive electron in a field increases KE and therefore
PE, giving it energy”.
A magnetic field is a region of space where a small test magnet experiences a turning force.
Magnetic field lines show the direction a north pole would face.
Magnetic flux density (B): “how strong a field is. Measured in Tesla (T).
Fields caused by currents: use grip rule. Fingers curl in direction of field (ring hand), thumb
shows current direction. Works only for coils/solenoids.
Force on a current-carrying conductor: force depends on field strength (flux density), uwire
length, current.
F = BIL.
Left hand rule: FFC. Right hand rule: MFC.
Charges in magnetic fields: the sum of all forces on electrons = the total force on a wire.
Direction on a force charge is perpendicular to the direction of motion, creates circular
paths.
The force on charge q moving with velocity v perpendicular to field B is given by: F = Bqv.
A conductor in a magnetic field will have different charges at the end due to the electrons
moving in the direction of the force, and causing the lattice atoms to become positive.
Creates a p.d. between two ends; B pushes electrons left, E pushes them right.
Induced emf: “ the amount of mechanical energy converted to electrical energy per unit
charge”.
Max p.d. is when the magnetic force pushing electrons left equals the electric force pushing
them right.
FB = F E
Electric force is due to E, and E = -dV/dx. The field is uniform so potential gradient = V/L, so:
FE = EE = Ve/L
Ve/L = Bev
Faraday’s Law: “the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux. E = dφ/dt.
Magnetic flux: “a measure of the strength of a magnetic field over a given density”.
Magnetic flux linkage: the total flux passing through a circuit formed by a closed conductive
loop.
Lenz’s Law: the direction of the induced current is such that it will oppose the charge
producing it. E = -dNφ/dt.
A coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field: emf is reduced when the coil cuts the field, and
the current in the coil stays the same but changes in the resistor circuit after each half
revolution (due to slip ring moving).
Substitute: N = BANcosωt
Increasing angular speed: shorter between peaks, higher peaks. (Faster = faster change of
flux = greater emf).
Emf from AC varies sinusoidally (sine curve), so the rms emf and current will be the same as
the root of the mean of the squares in a sine function.
NP/NS = VP/Vs
Power in = power out (for an ideal transformer as they have 100% efficiency), so:
Electricity is transferred via electrical cable. Some is lost due to resistance: R = ρL/A.
To reduce power loss, we reduce the current by stepping up the voltage before
transmission, or we add more cables in parallel to decrease resistance.
Power lines carry large AC currents which radiate magnetic fields. These can induce small
currents in human bodies, however it is less harmful than the Earth’s magnetic field (unless
sat on the power lines).
Thomson model: the plum pudding model. Positive pudding with negative plums
(electrons).
Rutherford model: like a mini solar system. The flaw was that the electrons would radiate
electromagnetic waves, lose energy and spiral into the nucleus.
Atomic spectra: give atoms energy and they produce light as the electrons travel up the
shells. Split up the light to find the different wavelengths.
Electrons only have certain amounts of energy in the first place (quantized). This is shown by
the atomic spectrum as it only releases certain amounts of energy (the thin lines). This
means that only certain energies are possible for different elements (proves energy levels) –
discrete.
Photoelectric effect: electrons are only emitted if the light source is very bright. If it is dim,
we expect no electrons to be emitted. If some are, there is a time delay as they collect
energy. Lower frequency light will work if still bright enough.
Zinc plate experiment: a zinc plate on an electroscope with UV light shining on it. Lost
electrons means less charge, so electroscope leaf should fall during the photoelectric effect.
But: when dim, there was no time delay, but fell slower. Lower frequency (despite intensity)
did not emit any electrons.
Quantum light model: made up of packets of energy called photons. E = hf for photon.
UV has a high frequency, so it gives enough energy to the zinc plate to emit electrons. Lower
intensity means less photons, means less rapid electron loss (but no delay). Low frequency
means low energy photons, means it cannot free electrons.
Millikan created an experiment to find the KE of electrons. He created and electric field and
increases the energy until no electrons could pass through. He used this stopping potential
to find the fastest KE:
KE loss = PE gain
1/2mv2 = VSe
KEMAX = VSe
Higher intensity = higher current, same potential. (More plates but the same energy amount
VS).
OR KEMAX = hf – hf0
Absorption spectrum: has white lines in the rainbow where electron has absorbed the
frequency needed for them to escape. Proves electron energy levels.
Electron gun: filament is made hot by AC current. Electrons are liberated. They accelerate
towards anode by accelerating p.d. Pass through with constant velocity:
V=
For example, electrons passed through a thin film of graphite create a diffraction pattern
(wave-like property).
Electron in a box: an electron isn’t free to move outside the atom. To model this, think of a
string clamped at both ends. It can only have certain frequencies (the harmonics), like an
electron can only have certain energies. To create a quantum model, think of it as a
probability wave trapped in a box.
Schrodinger’s Model: he realised the electrons position probability was not as simple as the
sine wave used previously. The wave function is called Schrödinger’s equation (ϕ) and the
probability of finding the electron is ϕ2. His model predicted the most likely electron
position. It showed that some energy transitions are more likely, and why some spectral
lines are brighter.
For Hydrogen:
The ion experiences two forces (magnetic force and electric force) so v = E/B.
Counting the number of dots on the photographic plate is the number of ions.
Nuclear force: very short, short range force holding nucleus together (same for all
nucleons).
Binding energy: the amount of work required to pull apart a nucleus. E = mc 2. The energy is
converted to mass (not KE, as the nucleus is not moving).
The binding energy curve of a nucleus is found by the difference between the mass of the
nucleus and mass of the parts (the mass defect).
Large nuclei are less stable as they have more protons pushing the nucleus apart. All
systems will try to reach the lowest possible energy. BE is released when a nucleus is
formed, so changing to higher BE means energy is released (so higher BE = good/more
stable).
BE = mass defect.
Alpha particles (42H): very ionizing, short (5cm) range, ~5MeV energies. Alpha decay emits 2
protons and 2 neutrons. DISCRETE.
Beta Minus Decay: not very ionizing, about 30cm range. Emits 1 neutron and gains a
protons. Emits a beta-minus particle (e’) and antineutrino (v). CONTINUOUS.
Beta Plus Decay: a beta plus is a positive electron (positron). A proton changes to a neutron,
a neutrino is produced. Loses a proton, gains a neutron, emits a beta plus particle and a
neutrino. CONTINUOUS.
Decay chain: when something decays into another radioactive nucleus, and then decays
again.
The neutrino was made to explain beta decay, as beta cannot have a range of energies.
Health: radiation sickness can affect the nervous system and can cause hair loss, sickness,
bleeding, diarrhoea and death. Long term exposure can cause cancer and genetic mutation.
Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and the rate of decay decreases
exponentially with time.
The radioactive decay law is an exponential function. The decay constant tells us how
quickly a material will decay. A large decay constant = a shorter half-life.
Cancel: ½ =
Measuring half-life: measure activity over a period of time, or change the number of nuclei.
Potassium-Argon dating: rock is heated and releases Argon. The half-life is 1.26x109 years.
Nuclear fusion: nuclear fusion is the main source of the sun’s energy. It is the joining of two
small nuclei to form one big one. Greater mass = greater BE (shown by graph).
Nuclear fission: nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei. The total BE increases again.
DEFINITIONS
Newton’s first law: “A body will remain at rest of moving with constant velocity unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force.”
Newton’s second law of motion: “the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the unbalanced force acting on that body, and takes place in the same
direction.” F = ma.
Newton’s third law of motion: “if body A exerts a force on body B then body B will exert an
equal and opposite force.”
Gravitational potential energy (PE): the energy a body has due to its position above the
Earth. PE = mgh.
Law of conservation of energy: “energy can be neither created or destroyed - only changed
from one form to the other.”
Thermal capacity (c): the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance by
1C. Unit: JC-1. Given by: C = Q/∆T
Specific heat capacity (C): the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a
substance by 1C. Unit: JC-1.
Specific latent heat (L): the amount of heat needed to change the state of 1kg of the
material without a change in temperature. Unit: JKg-1. L = Q/m.
Absolute zero: the temperature of the gas when the pressure is zero. The point at which the
molecules stop moving. -273C, 0K.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: work cannot be completely transferred into heat/in any
thermodynamic process, the total entropy always increases” (e.g. a fridge: food gets colder,
more ordered. Room is given heat, less ordered).
Entropy of a system = the amount of disorder in the system/the spreading out of energy.
Potential difference: the amount of work done per unit charge (V) in taking a small +ve
charge from A to B. V = W/q.
Emf (electromotive force) is the amount of chemical energy converted to electrical energy
per unit charge (V).
P.d. across a resistance is the amount of electrical energy converted to heat per unit charge
(V).
Power dissipated is the amount of electrical energy converted to heat per unit time. P = VI.
Gravitational potential: the work done per unit mass taking a small test mass from a
position of zero potential to point P.
Gravitational potential energy is the PE gained by an object as its height above the ground
increases (position in gravitational field). gh = PE/m.
Escape speed: “the speed needed for an object to reach a distance at which it is no longer
attracted back to the earth”.
Electric field: a region of space where a charged object experiences a force due to its charge.
Electric field strength is a measure of the force that a positive charge would experience per
unit charge per mass if placed in a field. Field strength: E = F/q.
A magnetic field is a region of space where a small test magnet experiences a turning force.
Induced emf: “ the amount of mechanical energy converted to electrical energy per unit
charge”.
Nuclear force: very short, short range force holding nucleus together (same for all
nucleons).
Binding energy: the amount of work required to pull apart a nucleus. E = mc 2. The energy is
converted to mass (not KE, as the nucleus is not moving).