Edição Bilíngue
Dialética Para Principiantes
Dialectics for Beginners
Escritos
Sumário
7 Prefácio
8 Nós e os gregos
8 O Pátio de Heráclito
19 O Jogo dos Opostos
30 O Mito da Caverna
41 A Análise do Mundo
66 A Explicação do Mundo
80 O que é Dialética?
80 O Quadrado Lógico
98 A Síntese dos Opostos
104 Os Três Princípios
113 Ser, Nada, Devir
121 Dialética e Antinomias
Principiante é aquele que não sabe nada, ou quase nada. Principiante é quem
se dá conta de que não sabe nada. E por isso quer aprender, quer entender
as palavras, quer captar o sentido das frases, quer acompanhar a montagem
da argumentação. Para eles escrevi. Escrevi em estilo simples e direto, escrevi
uma Filosofia singela, sem frescura, sem enfeites, sem ranço acadêmico e sem
demonstrações aeróbicas de erudição. As ideias aqui expostas são muito anti-
gas. Há novidades, sim, pois quem faz Filosofia e entra em contenda com as
ideias, com as ideias mesmas, sempre descobre alguma novidade. Quando pe-
gamos e levamos adiante a riqueza que herdamos da tradição, esta se revitaliza
e cresce. Este trabalho nasceu da grande tradição filosófica. Que ele conduza
os leitores de volta aos mestres-pensadores da tradição, são os meus votos.
Essas são as perguntas que, desde a Antiguidade, toda pessoa que fica
adulta sempre se coloca. Essas são as perguntas que, desde os pré-so-
cráticos, ocupam os filósofos. Filosofia é a tentativa, sempre frustrada
e sempre de novo retomada, de dar uma resposta racional a essas
questões. É isso que agora passamos, neste texto, a desenvolver de
forma interativa. Resposta final e definitiva, que responda completa-
mente a todas estas perguntas, não existe. Mais, tal resposta completa
e acabada em Filosofia é, como veremos, impossível. Mas, assim como
muitas perguntas podem ser feitas, muitas respostas podem e devem
ser dadas.
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
ciências particulares monta o seu pedaço particular, ou seja, cada uma de-
las trata de algumas figuras. Nenhuma delas se preocupa e se encarrega da
composição total do grande mosaico, que é a Filosofia, a Razão, o sentido
do Universo. As ciências particulares trabalham, sim, na montagem do
grande jogo de quebra-cabeça, mas cada uma delas se limita a um peque-
no pedaço. Fazer Filosofia significa jogar o jogo até o fim, isto é, montar
todas as peças, de sorte que se possa ver a imagem global.
Não se pode fazer de conta que as ciências particulares não existam. Não
se pode fazer de conta, como alguns filósofos hoje fazem, que Filosofia
seja apenas Filosofia da Linguagem ou Teoria do Conhecimento. Isso
também é importante, isso também é parte da Filosofia. Mas Filosofia é
mais do que apenas uma teoria sobre metalinguagens; Filosofia é a Gran-
de Ciência que contém dentro de si todas, repito, todas as ciências par-
ticulares com suas teorias e suas questões ainda em aberto. Aí surge a
pergunta: isso ainda é possível? Hoje, em nosso século, com o incrível e
inédito desenvolvimento das ciências particulares, ainda é possível fazer
uma Grande Síntese? Claro que é necessário e que é possível. Pois assim
como se desenvolveram as ciências particulares, cresceram também os
recursos à disposição do filósofo para, sempre de novo, tentar construir
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O lado positivo dessa dissolução da Razão que era defendida pelo Ilumi-
nismo é que ficamos em nosso século mais modestos, mais compreensi-
vos, mais abertos para com as outras culturas, mais tolerantes para com
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Ora, quem faz tal afirmação, ao dizer, se desdiz. Tal afirmação é uma
Contradição em si mesma, ela detona uma implosão lógica. – Vejamos
o que ocorre em outro exemplo, mais simples. Tomemos a proposição
Não existe nenhuma proposição verdadeira. Quem afirma tal coisa está impli-
citamente dizendo Não existe nenhuma proposição que seja verdadeira, exceto
esta mesma que agora estou dizendo. Assim, a exceção implicitamente feita
desmente a universalidade daquilo que foi afirmado: não é Verdade que
todas as proposições sejam falsas, eis que pelo menos esta, que está sendo
afirmada, está sendo afirmada como sendo verdadeira. Assim também
ocorre com a proposição pós-moderna Não há nenhuma proposição que per-
passe todos os subsistemas; ao dizer e afirmar isso, estamos dizendo que ao
menos esta proposição é válida para todos os subsistemas. É o mesmo
que ocorre em sala de aula, quando o professor reclama das conversas,
e Joãozinho diz: Professor, não tem ninguém falando. Ao falar e dizer isso,
Joãozinho desmente exatamente o que está dizendo. É por isso que a
Razão pós-moderna é boa, sim, enquanto respeito para com a alteridade e
apreço pela diversidade; é péssima, entretanto, como substituto da Razão
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A esfera de Parmênides
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O pátio de Heráclito
Segundo Heráclito, tudo flui, Panta Rei, tudo está em constante fluir, tudo
é Movimento. A realidade realmente real não é a esfera imóvel e imutável,
sem limites, dos Eleatas, mas sim o Movimento que, sem jamais cessar,
sempre de novo começa. Não há começo e não há fim, nisso Heráclito con-
corda com Parmênides, mas não porque não exista Movimento, e sim por-
que tudo está sempre em constante transformação. O que para os Eleatas
era doxa, mera aparência e ilusão, agora é a própria realidade realmente real.
A realidade não é apenas Ser, ela não é, por igual, apenas Não Ser. A
realidade realmente real é uma tensão que liga e concilia Ser e Não Ser.
Aparece aqui, pela primeira vez na História da Filosofia, a Dialética. Ser e
Não Ser, tese e antítese, são conciliados, num plano mais alto, através de
uma síntese. Ser e Não Ser, que, à primeira vista, se opõem e se excluem,
na realidade realmente real constituem uma unidade sintética, que é o Ser
em Movimento, o Devir. No Devir existe um elemento que é o Ser, mas
existe por igual outro elemento igualmente essencial que é o Não Ser.
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Ser e Não Ser, bem misturados, não mais se repelem e se excluem, mas
entram em amálgama e se fundem para constituir uma nova realidade.
O amor tem começo. Alguém tem que começar. O começo é um ato es-
tritamente unilateral e sempre arriscado. Não se sabe, de antemão, como
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o outro, ou a outra, vai reagir e o que vai responder. Este ato unilateral
e arriscado é chamado em grego de fílesis. Páris1 ama Helena. Páris ama
e sabe que ama; Helena percebe o convite feito, mas ainda não se deci-
de. – O outro, ou a outra, pode responder que sim, como pode também
responder que não. Isso de início está em aberto e é contingente. Se o
outro, a outra, porém, responder que sim, então temos uma antifílesis, que
também é um ato unilateral, mas não é mais um ato arriscado, pois não é
mais só uma pergunta e só um convite, e sim uma resposta e a aceitação
de um convite já feito. Helena decide-se a aceitar o amor de Páris e o
ama de volta. Este amor de volta é a antifílesis. Fílesis e antifílesis são, am-
bos, atos unilaterais; fílesis contém risco, e antifílesis, não. Trata-se de dois
atos independentes, completos e acabados, um diferente do outro, um
em oposição relativa ao outro; um é tese, o outro é antítese. Mas quando
ambos se cruzam e, num plano mais alto, se fundem numa única realidade
mais complexa, mais alta e mais nobre, então temos filía. Na filía, os dois
polos inicialmente diferentes e opostos, um que pergunta e o outro que
responde, se fundem, formando um amálgama, algo de novo. Na filía,
ambos os amores individuais deixam de ser atos unilaterais e transfor-
mam-se num único ato, que é bilateral, no qual não importa mais quem
pergunta e quem responde, pois ambos os amores iniciais perderam seu
caráter individual, o Eu e o Tu, para se unificarem como algo de novo, o
Nós. Páris e Helena, ao se amarem, primeiro se perdem. Pois o sentido de
toda a existência passa a residir no outro. É o outro que realiza o sentido
da vida, é o outro, a pessoa amada, que é o centro do Universo. Páris ama
perdidamente Helena. Páris primeiro se perde: quem ama vive se perden-
do. Mas, como Helena ama Páris de volta, o sentido do Universo perfaz um
círculo completo e retorna a Páris, que, agora profundamente enriquecido,
se sabe novamente cheio de sentido e de vida. Só que esta nova vida e este
novo sentido do Universo não são um ato unilateral só dele, e sim um ato
conjunto, um ato bilateral, um ato em que o Eu foi mediado através do Tu
para constituir um Nós. É por isso que o amor de amizade, filía, é tão forte
e tão precioso. É por isso que gregos e troianos lutaram por tantos anos. É
por isso, somente por amor de amizade, que Aquiles, Ulisses e Agamem-
_ _
1 Nota do Autor: Helena sussurrra-se entre os entendidos namorava Heitor e não Páris, com quem era
casada.
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
non, os pastores de povos, conduzem os gregos com suas naves curvas para
a interminável guerra. É só por isso que os troianos, chefiados por Páris,
lutam até morrer. Tudo só por causa de uma mulher, diz Homero na Ilíada.
Tudo só por causa da filía, que transcende os indivíduos e se constitui em
síntese mais alta e mais forte. Amor aí vira História. A História de gregos e
troianos, a Ilíada e a Odisseia, os começos de nossa civilização.
eráclito, o pai da Dialética, diz que não podemos entrar duas vezes no
mesmo rio. O rio não é o mesmo, nós não somos os mesmos. Tudo está
em Movimento, é o Movimento que é a realidade realmente real. A re-
alidade, ensina, constitui-se dialeticamente através do jogo dos opostos.
No começo tudo é luta e guerra, pois os opostos se opõem e se excluem:
Pólemos patér pánton, A luta é o começo de tudo. Mas depois há, muitas vezes,
uma síntese conciliadora que faz nascer algo de novo, mais complexo,
mais alto, mais nobre.
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
Tanto o Mito dos gregos como o Mito dos judeus e cristãos contam a
História da origem do Universo desde seu começo até a sequência histó-
rica dos tempos. O tempo passado é sintetizado como uma História que
tem começo e que conduz até o tempo presente, dando sentido às coisas
e, assim, às nossas vidas. Esse apanhado histórico do tempo passado, que
sempre contém juízos de valor – o Bem e o Belo –, constitui o pano de
fundo em que se insere o tempo presente. Feito assim o travejamento en-
tre passado e presente, também o cotidiano se entranha de valores éticos
e estéticos, permitindo que se projete o tempo futuro. Heródoto, de um
lado, e o Gênese judaico-cristão, do outro, são uma história do primeiro
começo do mundo e da sequência histórica das gerações. Ambos os mitos
têm grande valor poético e funcionam como arkhétipos estruturadores
de uma determinada visão do mundo. No Mito judaico-cristão há uma
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estrutura que contrapõe, de um lado, uma primeira causa, Deus, que en-
gendra tudo, e, de outro lado, as coisas criadas, as criaturas, que, depois,
entram em sequência genealógica. Deus, causa primeira de tudo, é pensa-
do aí também de forma genealógica como o Criador e o Pai de todas as
coisas. Por isso Ele é, em última instância, responsável por tudo e escreve
direito até por linhas tortas. No Mito grego há um deslocamento. A causa,
no pensamento grego, não é pensada como uma causa eficiente externa
ao processo do Universo, mas como uma causa interna, um Princípio
interno de autodeterminação que molda o Universo de dentro para fora.
O deus inicial é o caos. O deus Caos, como o nome diz, é totalmente in-
determinado; não há nele coisas ou seres com limites e contornos. Mas é
de dentro desse caos, é de dentro desse Deus Caos que o Universo bem
ordenado vai surgindo. O caos se organiza, se amolda e, a partir de si mes-
mo, engendra suas determinações. O caos, ao determinar-se a si mesmo,
se dá forma e figura. Surgem aí os outros deuses e, na sequência destes,
também os homens.
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A esta mística dos números soma-se, então, a lista dos dez pares de con-
trários – as substâncias elementares – que, conforme combinados entre
si, dão forma a todas as coisas:
Limitado Ilimitado
Ímpar Par
Uno Múltiplo
Direita Esquerda
Macho Fêmea
Quieto Móvel
Reto Curvo
Luz Trevas
Bem Mal
Quadrado Retângulo
O jogo dos contrários aqui se apresenta como uma tabela básica dos con-
trários. Segundo os filósofos pitagóricos, quem aprende a jogar com estes
dez pares de contrários, que são como que os elementos constitutivos
dos seres existentes, pode compor a constituição interna de cada coisa.
Eis aqui a primeira forma, ainda muito tosca e primitiva, daquilo que
hoje chamamos na Química de Tabela dos Elementos. Os átomos, na
Química de hoje, são pensados conforme o modelo atômico de Niels e
Rutherford. Um elétron gira em torno de um núcleo atômico, a eletricida-
de positiva e a negativa entram em equilíbrio e assim temos uma molécula
estável, aí temos o hidrogênio. Se, ao invés de um elétron, houver dois a
girar em órbita, então já se trata do segundo elemento da Tabela dos Ele-
mentos, e assim por diante até chegarmos ao elemento 112, que só surge
em laboratório. Os químicos hoje usualmente não se dão conta, mas eles
são descendentes diretos dos filósofos pitagóricos.
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Os sofistas
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por ser oriunda da tradição. A força da inércia, que a tradição possui, não
serve mais como fonte única de legitimação das virtudes. Ao surgirem no-
vos horizontes, surgem novas questões sobre o que é Bem e o que é Mal.
A virtude tem que ser rediscutida e redefinida. Afinal, o que é virtude? O
que é o certo? O que está moralmente errado? Eis as perguntas que os
novos tempos colocavam, eis as questões que se impunham. As primeiras
respostas foram dadas pelos sofistas. Os sofistas foram, em sua época,
importantíssimos pensadores. Protágoras, Górgias e Pródico foram ho-
mens que procuraram pensar criticamente os problemas de seu tempo.
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Fora disso, cometeram alguns erros graves e fizeram bobagens que a His-
tória até hoje não lhes perdoa. Até hoje os sofistas têm má fama e a pala-
vra “sofisma” tem conotação altamente negativa. Isso porque cometeram
um grande erro teórico que hoje podemos tematizar com precisão: ao
invés de dizer que tanto a tese como a antítese são falsas e que a síntese
e só a síntese é a Verdade inteira, os sofistas algumas vezes inverteram os
sinais e disseram que tanto tese como antítese são, por igual, verdadeiras.
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É contra isso que se levanta a voz de Sócrates. O jogo dos opostos tem
que ser realizado corretamente. A parte é somente parte, ela não é o Todo.
Ou seja, é preciso argumentar primeiro mostrando a falsidade, isto é, a
parcialidade da tese, depois mostrando a falsidade da antítese, que tam-
bém é parcial, para que então possa surgir, na conciliação de ambas, a
Verdade do Todo maior e mais alto.
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O Mito da Caverna
Platão e o jogo dos opostos
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pode ser que o primeiro polo seja verdadeiro; aí o segundo polo é falso
e tem que ser abandonado. Segundo, pode ser que o segundo polo seja
o verdadeiro, e aí é o primeiro que tem que ser abandonado. Mas pode
ser, também, que ambos os polos sejam falsos, e aí há que se descobrir,
de parte a parte, as verdades apenas parciais contidas nos polos opostos,
para, unindo-as e conciliando-as, engendrar a unidade verdadeira de uma
síntese mais alta. – Não ocorre nunca, pois é logicamente impossível,
que ambos os polos sejam verdadeiros, que tanto a tese como a antítese
sejam verdadeiras. Este é o erro lógico em que os sofistas incorreram,
este o fundamento lógico-sistemático dos erros morais e políticos que
cometeram.
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É por isso que a doutrina de Platão, para o iniciante, parece ser um Sistema
de Filosofia dualista, um jogo de opostos em que os opostos nunca se uni-
ficam. Quem só ouve e só estuda a Doutrina Exotérica, sem jamais chegar
à síntese final da Doutrina Esotérica, fica pensando que Platão considera o
mundo das ideias e o mundo das coisas como duas esferas de Ser existentes
uma ao lado da outra, uma fora da outra, uma em oposição à outra. O mun-
do das coisas e o mundo das ideias são, aí, dois polos opostos, um contra o
outro, sem que entre ambos haja – à primeira vista – verdadeira conciliação.
Há em Platão perfeita conciliação, só que ela só vai aparecer, com clareza e
plenitude, na Doutrina Esotérica, na assim chamada Doutrina Não Escrita.
A Doutrina Exotérica é, assim, uma Filosofia estritamente dualista, em que
os polos opostos nunca se conciliam plenamente. Mundo material, por um
lado, e mundo espiritual das ideias, pelo outro lado, se opõem como polos
contrários e excludentes. Matéria e espírito, aí, jamais se unificam na devida
harmonia. O espírito se opõe à matéria, as ideias se opõem às coisas. O
dualismo duro, os opostos sem conciliação sintética, a Dialética sem síntese,
eis o eixo intelectual da doutrina exotérica.
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opostos, mas o Platão que geralmente se estuda nos livros e – muito grave
isso – o Platão de parte grande da tradição acadêmica é apenas o Platão da
Doutrina Exotérica, o Platão dos opostos sem síntese, o Platão dualista.
E isso é, então, um desastre intelectual, pois vai gerar dicotomias em que
os polos opostos jamais são reunificados. Polos opostos, numa Dialética
plena e levada à sua devida síntese, são ótimos, pois são momentos que
apontam e conduzem para mais adiante. Numa Dialética negativa, sem
síntese, os polos dicotômicos tornam-se problemas sem solução.
É por isso que devemos estudar com atenção este primeiro binômio da
Filosofia platônica, o mundo das ideias e o mundo das coisas, examinan-
do-o cuidadosamente pelos dois lados. Primeiro como dois polos opos-
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ando-se em Princípios que o homem tem que adotar porque são Princí-
pios de ordem de todo o Universo cósmico. A Ética de Platão se baseia
numa Ontologia, numa doutrina sobre o Ser em geral, numa doutrina
sobre a ordem do Universo.
Como podemos saber que uma determinada regra não é apenas uma in-
venção de algum governante tirânico, ou, não tão mau assim, uma mera
convenção construída pelos homens? Convenções, mesmo quando boas
e úteis, são contingentes, isto é, podem ser assim, mas podem ser di-
ferentemente. Como saber que uma determinada regra ou determinado
Princípio é mais do que uma mera convenção, uma regra inquestionável,
uma regra que não pode ser negada, que não pode ser mudada ou trans-
formada, que é assim e tem que ser assim, agora e para todo o sempre, em
todos os lugares do mundo?
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Os muitos patos que existem têm, todos eles, a mesma forma de ser pato.
As muitas galinhas possuem todas a forma galinácea. Uma única forma,
um único desenho básico que é realizado em diversos indivíduos. A For-
ma é como que o desenho feito pelo projetista; uma coisa é projeto de
um motor, o desenho básico, outra coisa são os milhares de motores in-
dividuais que são feitos de acordo com o projeto. Temos aí, de um lado, a
pluralidade dos indivíduos, que existem no mundo das coisas, e, de outro
lado, a unidade da Forma.
Cada coisa tem sua forma determinada e específica. Pato é pato, galinha
é galinha e homem é homem. Surge então a pergunta: onde estão as For-
mas? Onde existem as Formas? Onde podemos vê-las? Se as Formas são
tão importantes, se elas são as forças formadoras do mundo, onde encon-
trá-las? Como conhecê-las? Como saber que o que estou conhecendo é
uma verdadeira Forma e não uma ilusão? Platão aqui, na doutrina exoté-
rica, para principiantes, responde com um Mito.
O Mito da Estrela
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Mas como é que eu sei, quando esbarro numa coisa, que estou de fato
relembrando a Forma dela? Não existem erros? Ilusões? É claro que exis-
tem. É por isso que o filósofo tem que dialogar, discutir, questionar e
examinar cada questão, para ter certeza de que encontrou exatamente
a Ideia da coisa. Não menos e também não mais. E Platão aí, sempre
no Mito para Principiantes, em sua Doutrina Exotérica, pergunta: Existe
uma Ideia para cada coisa? É certo que exista a Ideia de Homem, diz
ele no Diálogo O Sofista, e também a Ideia do Bem, da Justiça. Mas será
que precisa haver uma Ideia do Lodo? Lodo, uma coisa tão simples e tão
baixa, precisa ter uma ideia que lhe seja própria? Platão deixa a pergunta
no ar. Afinal, tais perguntas não podem ser respondidas no âmbito do
Mito da Estrela, tais questões só podem ser trabalhadas satisfatoriamente
na Doutrina Esotérica com aqueles que já sabem mais do que apenas os
primeiros Princípios.
O Mito da Caverna
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
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Dialética para Principiantes
A análise do mundo
Passagem da Dialética para a Analítica
Lógica e Linguagem
A análise da proposição
O homem fala por frases que, em nossas línguas, se compõem sempre
de sujeito e predicado. Sócrates é justo é uma frase. Esta é uma propo-
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sição completa e bem formada; ela não é nem uma pergunta, nem um
imperativo ou um invitativo, e sim uma frase propositiva. Ela diz que
uma coisa é assim e não de outro jeito. Sócrates é o sujeito lógico desta
proposição, o predicado é justo. Sócrates corre também é uma proposi-
ção bem formada; temos aí, claros e distintos, o sujeito e o predica-
do. Todos os homens são mortais e Alguns brasileiros são gaúchos também
são proposições bem formadas; estas duas últimas já apresentam os
quantificadores aristotélicos Todos e Alguns. As proposições, quando
bem formadas, possuem sempre sujeito e predicado; na Lógica e na
Matemática de hoje falamos em argumento e função. Quando a propo-
sição não está completa, quando ela não é bem formada, nós não a
entendemos, não sabemos o que o falante quer dizer, não é possível
dizer se a proposição é verdadeira ou falsa. Uma proposição truncada,
incompleta, mal formada consta só de sujeito, sem predicado: Sócrates.
Sócrates o quê? Fala mais! Diz o resto! Sem o predicado, esta propo-
sição não está bem formada e não faz sentido. A mesma coisa com o
verbo que é predicado. Se dizemos apenas é justo, isso não faz sentido
e logo se pergunta: De quem estás falando? Quem é que é justo? Qual
é o sujeito da proposição? Esta é a estrutura básica da proposição tal
como é analisada por Aristóteles. É claro que há vocativos como Oi,
Sócrates, bem como proposições em que o sujeito lógico não está ex-
presso e sim subentendido. Trata-se aí do sujeito oculto. Há também
uma que outra proposição estranhíssima, como Chove, Neva, que estão
aparentemente sem sujeito, que até são chamadas de proposições sem
sujeito. Mas deixemos esta exceção de lado, pois em outras línguas
indo-germânicas a mesma expressão contém obrigatoriamente um su-
jeito lógico: it rains, es regnet, il pleut.
A proposição afirmativa
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Dialética para Principiantes
A proposição negativa
O Quadrado Lógico
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Dialética para Principiantes
O Silogismo
S - P
Sobre esse modelo básico, Aristóteles desenvolve sua doutrina sobre o silo-
gismo e calcula exatamente quais as formas silogísticas que são logicamente
válidas e quais não o são. Esse Sistema silogístico foi tão bem construído
por Aristóteles que essa primeira elaboração ficou a definitiva. A doutrina
aristotélica sobre o silogismo continua válida, é claro, e ainda hoje constitui
a espinha dorsal de toda a Lógica. Somente com Frege é que a Lógica vai ter
um novo impulso, uma nova fundamentação e uma ampliação.
1 2 3 4
M - P P - M P - M M - P
S - M M - S S - M M - S
S - P S - P S - P S - P
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Pois quem diz e, ao mesmo tempo, se desdiz não está dizendo nada, está
fazendo bobagem.
E como fica, então, o velho mestre Platão com sua Dialética? Se Dialética
é bobagem, Platão é apenas um bobo? Aristóteles não diz isso, Aristóteles
aí desconversa. É claro que ele não ataca frontalmente seu velho e res-
peitado mestre Platão. Mas a leitura meditada do livro Gama da Metafísica
mostra com clareza como Aristóteles mais e mais se distancia de Platão
e do jogo dos opostos. Nada de jogar com teses e antíteses. Disso não
sai nada. Nada de racional resulta disso. Se uma delas é verdadeira, a ou-
tra sempre é falsa, ou vice-versa. Tentar segurar ao mesmo tempo tese e
antítese, isso é pura bobagem. Essa a principal e mais dura objeção de
Aristóteles contra Platão, essa a objeção dos filósofos analíticos contra
os filósofos dialéticos. Era assim na Antiguidade, continua assim até hoje.
Este é o tema central deste livro. Dialética é bobagem?
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A Metafísica
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Dialética para Principiantes
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Metafísica do Conhecimento
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Dialética para Principiantes
As coisas não podem, por elas mesmas, fazer essa passagem, ensina Aris-
tóteles. Quem engendra os conceitos é o próprio intelecto enquanto fun-
ção ativa, enquanto intelecto agente. Há, no homem, em todos os homens,
um poderoso intelecto agente. Este nous volta-se para a imagem produzi-
da pelos sentidos externos e internos e com sua luz a alumia. Sob a luz do
intelecto agente, diz Aristóteles, aparece então a Forma que estava lá den-
tro da imagem sensível e, é claro, estava também dentro da coisa mesma.
Eis de novo a Teoria das Ideias de Platão agora no núcleo duro da Metafí-
sica do Conhecimento de Aristóteles. Aristóteles em seu âmago continua
sendo discípulo de Platão. O núcleo conceitual do Mito da Caverna volta
aqui mais sóbrio, mais prosaico, com menos imagens. Mas é a ideia platô-
nica que aqui está de volta. A Forma que dá feição e contornos à coisa –
como que um Princípio vital dentro de cada coisa – é a mesma Forma que
está implícita na imagem sensível reproduzida pelos sentidos. Mas só à luz
do intelecto agente é que esta Forma adquire, de novo, visibilidade e fica
transparente a si mesma. Na coisa a Forma é extensa, espacio-temporal e
contingente; esta é sua maneira material de existir. Mas, sob a luz do inte-
lecto agente, a Forma se destaca da matéria, que a individualiza e prende,
e volta a ser Forma pura, Forma sem matéria, forma necessária, inextensa,
fora do espaço e do tempo, forma inteligível. Os triângulos que existem
aí no mundo material das coisas são contingentes, são espacio-temporais,
são de diversos tamanhos, têm cores. Mas o conceito de triângulo, este é
necessário em seus nexos, ele é inextenso e abstrato, não é mais espacio-
temporal, e permite pensar simultaneamente os mais diversos tamanhos.
A Forma, ínsita nas coisas, quando penetra nossos sentidos, sob a luz do
intelecto agente, transforma-se e adquire suas verdadeiras características.
As Formas são ideias, elas são necessárias, são inextensas, estão fora do
espaço e fora do tempo. O triângulo, a Forma do triângulo é eterna e vale
sempre, em todos os tempos e em todos os lugares. É esta Forma eterna
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que vem à luz sob a atuação do intelecto agente. Vemos, sim, mas quem
vê mesmo é o intelecto agente em nós. Aí vemos as formas universais e
eternas das coisas individuais e contingentes.
Ética e Política
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Dialética para Principiantes
funcione bem como mesa é preciso que ela se assente firme, o que pres-
supõe que o pé não pode estar quebrado. Nas coisas de uso, o Dever-ser
é determinado pela funcionalidade.
O que é Ética? Qual é o ato ético? Aquele – ensina Aristóteles – que é feito
de acordo com a virtude. Mas o que é virtude? Já Platão discutia isso longa-
mente. Virtude é um hábito, virtude vem de longe, virtude vem da tradição
local. Ser virtuoso é obedecer às regras da terra em que a gente se encontra.
– Virtude, então, é puro conservadorismo? A tradição é muito importante,
segundo Aristóteles, mas não é o fator decisivo. O fator decisivo da eticida-
de, o último critério, é a Razão reta, o logos reto, o orthos logos. A reta, na Ge-
ometria, é a ligação mais curta entre dois pontos. Na Arquitetura é o canto
que se traça e se obtém espichando um cordão ou uma linha. Seguindo a
linha, na construção, obtém-se o traçado arquitetônico de pisos, paredes e
tetos. Orthos é o logos, reta é a Razão que obedece à Gramática do logos prá-
tico. Aristóteles introduz aqui a noção de Razão prática como algo distinto
e contraposto à Razão teórica. A Razão prática – a Ética e a Política – não
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que o Sol projeta sobre a Lua é sempre redonda, há que se concluir que
a Terra é redonda. Se ela fosse um disco, como a maioria dos pensadores
de seu tempo imaginava, a sombra da Terra projetada sobre a Lua não
poderia ser redonda.
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Dialética para Principiantes
é cão porque possui a Forma de Cão, e assim com gatos, peixes, plantas e
com todas as coisas. Neste nosso mundo sublunar tudo o que fica, tudo
o que permanece, tudo o que é estável é assim porque as Formas eternas
lhes dão estabilidade. O resto tudo é acidental, aparece e desaparece, sur-
ge e depois se esvai. Nesta trama de eventos acidentais, tanto o homem
individual como os homens reunidos em Pólis têm muitas vezes mais de
uma alternativa de agir. É aí, neste espaço aberto pela contingência, que se
processa a decisão livre, a escolha por livre-arbítrio. Se o homem escolhe
a alternativa correta, seu ato é eticamente bom. Se não, é mau. Mas mes-
mo nesse nosso mundo sublunar há nexos necessários, e por isso é que é
possível haver uma Ciência que conheça esses nexos necessários. Tanto
os nexos necessários existentes dentro das coisas como a Ciência teórica
sobre estes nexos necessários se fundamentam na Teoria das Formas e a
partir dela se explicam.
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eterno, como Aristóteles, e sim como criação feita por Deus. No come-
ço está Deus, o Todo-Poderoso, que é o começo e fim de tudo. Deus
cria os seres. Os seres criados são criaturas de Deus. O Universo todo,
Terra, Sol, Lua e estrelas são criaturas de Deus. Deus cria os astros –
e aqui se assume o modelo aristotélico – como algo fixo, como algo
que se movimenta em órbitas perfeitamente regulares. Garantido o lu-
gar do Deus Criador, os pensadores aristotélicos da Idade Média cristã
defendem em quase tudo o modelo aristotélico. Quando Copérnico e
Galileu levantam o modelo heliocêntrico, os pensadores católicos são
fortemente contrários a ele. Galileu é condenado pela Igreja Católica
por subverter a ordem celestial. Mas quase ninguém se dá conta de
que ambos os modelos, no fundo, têm a mesma estrutura aristotélica,
a concepção estática do mundo de Aristóteles e do Método Analítico.
Mesmo Newton e o próprio Einstein ainda são pensadores aristotéli-
cos e usam o método analítico, sem perceber que existe outro mode-
lo, importantíssimo, riquíssimo, que possui enorme força explicativa, o
modelo platônico de Explicação do Mundo. Até hoje grande parte dos
filósofos e dos físicos continua pensando o Universo como um grande
relógio à maneira de Aristóteles e da Analítica. Os que acreditam em
Deus dizem que há, bem no começo, o Grande Arquiteto ou o Grande
Relojoeiro, que planejou e executou tudo em seus mínimos detalhes. Os
outros, os sem Deus, os assim chamados ateus, dizem que não se precisa
de arquiteto nenhum, que tudo é obra de algumas grandes leis – ainda
não totalmente descobertas – que determinam tudo, que regem tudo,
que explicam tudo, até o último pormenor. Einstein, sabe-se, procurou
incansavelmente até sua morte o que ele chamava de fórmula do mun-
do. Uma fórmula simples, como a da energia, na qual e pela qual tudo,
todo o Universo, ficasse explicado.
A explicação do mundo
Explicar é desdobrar
Que no Universo existe coisas que possuem esta estrutura, disso hoje
ninguém mais duvida. A Biologia dos gregos já conhecia o fenômeno
do desenvolvimento a partir de um ovo, a Biologia de hoje só ampliou e
aprofundou este conhecimento. Os biólogos hoje pensam o mundo dos
seres vivos como um grande processo evolutivo em que tudo se desenvol-
ve a partir de um primeiro ser vivo extremamente simples em sua estru-
tura. Há no começo algo assim como um ovo, uma primeira célula viva.
Esta célula possui um centro, um núcleo. Este núcleo, que inicialmente é
único, no processo de evolução se desdobra em dois. Aí a mesma célula
passa a ter dois núcleos. Então surge uma parede divisória, a célula inicial
se desdobra em duas, ficando cada núcleo com sua célula. Da célula ori-
ginal desenvolveram-se assim duas células. Temos, agora, não mais uma,
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Dialética para Principiantes
mas sim duas células. Também estas duas células se desenvolvem ulte-
riormente por duplicação bipolar de seus núcleos e assim já são quatro. E
assim por diante, formando os tecidos celulares. Os biólogos de hoje não
têm a menor dúvida sobre este processo de desenvolvimento a partir de
um primeiro ser vivo.
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Dialética para Principiantes
tino se chama Enéade. O nome Enéade significa nove, nove são as partes
do livro. Um Sistema Neoplatônico se constrói sempre de três partes, que
correspondem à tese, antítese e síntese. Como cada uma dessas partes
se subdivide de novo em três, temos um total de nove partes. Daí vem a
Enéade de Plotino, um livro que consta de nove partes. Essa é a estrutura
do Sistema em Proclo e em Hegel. Já em alguns outros pensadores neo-
platônicos o método dialético com sua tríade como que esvanece, sai do
pensamento conscientemente metódico e deixa no primeiro plano só o
processo de desenvolvimento de tudo a partir de um único começo. Este
é o caso de Espinosa. Olhando bem, analisando os autores com cuidado,
veremos que são, não obstante esta variação, todos eles marcadamente
neoplatônicos. Como são neoplatônicas as raízes filosóficas de Lamarck,
de Erasmus e Charles Darwin, de Herbert Spencer e de praticamente
todos os biólogos contemporâneos. Dentre os biólogos de hoje, desta-
que-se, por exemplo, o belíssimo trabalho de Richard Dawkins, professor
em Oxford. Em Filosofia, Espinosa, Fichte, Schelling e Hegel foram, na
Modernidade, os que melhor representaram a tradição neoplatônica. En-
tre os poetas, seja mencionado Goethe, o qual, em um poema de encan-
tadora simplicidade, sugere que imaginemos deus não como um Ser que
está fora do mundo, manipulando de fora as órbitas das coisas, mas como
algo que está dentro do próprio Universo e de dentro tudo movimenta.
Isso, exatamente isso, é Dialética, essa é a Explicação do Mundo.
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se, se conciliam como Ser num nível mais alto e mais nobre. O mesmo
ocorre com a mesmice e alteridade. Ambas se excluem mutuamente, mas
ambas são Ser. Ser é a síntese dos dois pares de opostos que regem a
construção do Universo. O Ser, sintético, é o Uno que é Tudo e dentro
do qual se desdobram os polos opostos. Dentro do Ser polarizam-se Re-
pouso e Movimento, mesmice e alteridade. O Ser é síntese, é a Grande
Síntese. E este Ser não é apenas o Ser que é Uno e que é o Todo, Hen kai
Pan, ele é o Bem. A Doutrina Não Escrita foi compilada por seus alunos
sob a forma de um Diálogo Sobre o Bem, Peri tou Agathou. Este Diálogo,
nunca escrito por Platão pessoalmente, foi lançado ao pergaminho por
seus alunos. É mérito da Escola de Tübingen, em nosso século, continu-
ada hoje pela Escola de Milão, ter dado ênfase à Doutrina Esotérica e ter
reconstruído em suas linhas gerais o teor dessa obra central de Platão, a
mais central de todas. Pois é por ela que se entende o que os Diálogos
insinuam, mas não dizem com clareza, é dela que deriva toda a tradição
neoplatônica: o processo triádico e a ideia da evolução Universal.
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O Mistério da Trindade
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O Calcanhar de Aquiles
Uma deusa ofereceu ao guerreiro Aquiles um bálsamo que lhe daria pro-
teção e o tornaria invulnerável às armas dos inimigos. A pele, banhada
com o bálsamo milagroso, ficaria impenetrável. Aquiles, entretanto, ao
banhar-se com o bálsamo, tinha uma folha de árvore colada no calcanhar
de seu pé esquerdo. Naquele lugar, onde estava colada a folha, o bálsamo
não pôde atuar. Este é o Calcanhar de Aquiles, no qual ele era vulnerável,
e, ao ser ferido neste exato lugar, foi morto.
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A encruzilhada
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A Grande Questão
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O que é Dialética
O Quadrado Lógico
A Grande Confusão
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Dialética para Principiantes
para que a proposição faça sentido, um sujeito lógico. Pois sem o sujeito
não se sabe de que se está falando. Se alguém diz o predicado lógico é justo,
de imediato perguntamos De quem você está falando? Sujeito e predicado, ar-
gumento e função, dizem hoje os matemáticos, são ambos indispensáveis
para que a proposição faça sentido.
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Dialética para Principiantes
Hegel, na Lógica da Enciclopédia, nos dá uma pista. Ser, Nada, Devir, etc.,
ou seja, as categorias da Lógica são sempre predicados. Mas predicados
de quem? De quem se está falando? Hegel responde: Se alguém tiver
dificuldade em pensar sem que o sujeito e o predicado da predicação
estejam expressos, pense como sujeito das predicações O Absoluto. É isso,
é exatamente isso que Hegel nos recomenda. Ele se deu conta de que,
para a maioria de nós, ficou difícil pensar sem um sujeito lógico expresso
e por isso nos dá uma receita prática de como proceder para entender a
Linguagem da Dialética. Ele nos manda pensar o Absoluto como sujeito
lógico de tudo que está sendo dito. Ser, Nada, Devir, Estar-Aí, o Mesmo,
o Outro, etc. são determinações categoriais que estão sendo predicadas
do Absoluto. Para completar as proposições, que na Dialética de Hegel
estão sem sujeito lógico, é preciso pensar, dizer e escrever:
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
de imediato demais? Que nem um tiro de uma pistola, essas palavras são
de Hegel. Ele sabe muito bem que não se pode pôr Deus no começo
do Sistema, assim sem mais, sem cuidados críticos, sem preparação, sem
demonstração. Mas por que o faz? Porque aqui, bem no começo, não se
trata de Deus mesmo; este só aparecerá no fim da Lógica, como a última
categoria, a Ideia Absoluta, e, no fim do Sistema, como o Saber Absoluto.
Mas que Deus é este que, já no começo, aparece como sujeito lógico de
todas as predicações? Este Absoluto inicial é explicado cuidadosamente,
passo por passo, no capítulo sem número que abre a Ciência da Lógica e
que tem o sugestivo título Como fazer o começo?
O começo de uma Filosofia que se quer crítica não pode conter pressupo-
sições indevidas. Pensamento crítico tem que exibir e justificar todos os
seus pressupostos. É por isso que Descartes começa duvidando de tudo,
colocando em dúvida toda e qualquer proposição ou Princípio. Mas o ato
de pôr tudo em dúvida, o ato de duvidar, bem, este é indubitável. Quanto
mais a gente duvida, mais forte e consciente fica o ato de duvidar. Este é
o começo crítico que não pode ser negado por ninguém, este, diz Descar-
tes, é o Primeiro Princípio a partir do qual toda a Filosofia receberá sua
justificação metódica. Descartes começa sua Filosofia a partir da dúvida
Universal, dúvida esta que não consegue duvidar de si mesma e que nos
obriga a dizer: estamos duvidando, estamos pensando, logo existimos.
Esse é o Cogito, ergo sum de Descartes. Kant, que também é um filósofo
crítico, parte de alguns poucos juízos sintéticos a priori que são verdadei-
ros. Este é o começo de que ninguém pode duvidar. A partir daí Kant
pergunta pelas condições necessárias de tal pressuposto. O mapeamento
destas condições necessárias a priori é o que Kant chama de transcenden-
tal; aí se funda a certeza. Esta é a estrutura das três Críticas de Kant.
luto, podemos dizer Tudo é Ser, Tudo é Nada, Tudo é Devir. Ou então: Todas
as coisas são Ser, Todas as coisas são Nada, Todas as coisas são Devir. O Absoluto,
Deus, Tudo, Todas as Coisas são os termos que usamos para significar aquele
Grande Indeterminado, aquele balaio no qual colocamos todas as coisas,
todas as palavras, todas as proposições, tudo que é determinado.
Essa confusão fica bem específica e engrossa mais ainda quando se trata de
contrários e de contraditórios. Contrários e contraditórios são coisas bem
diferentes e obedecem a regras diferentes. Aristóteles e os analíticos sabem
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bem disso. Mas os dialéticos, que não têm sujeito expresso na predicação,
fazem uma grande confusão. Falam de Contradição, mas estão querendo
dizer contrariedade. Falam de contraditórios, mas querem dizer contrários.
Os dialéticos estão dizendo bobagem? Sim e não. Os antigos, como Platão,
não estavam fazendo bobagem, pois foi só com Aristóteles que se começou
a distinguir entre contraditórios e contrários. Mas os dialéticos posteriores
deviam ter percebido que estavam usando os termos em sentido diverso
daquele que foi definido por Aristóteles. Os dialéticos deviam ter percebido
que estavam – e continuam – usando os mesmos termos que os analíticos,
mas com sentido diferente. Daí a confusão. É por isso que temos que nos
debruçar agora sobre o Quadrado Lógico, explicando com exatidão o que é
o jogo dialético de opostos e indicar, com o dedo, o exato lugar em que ele
se faz. Quem não fizer isso está condenado a dizer bobagem.
Os Quatro Cantos
O Quadrado Lógico tem quatro cantos, cada um designado por uma letra,
A, E, I e O. A e E estão em cima e representam proposições universais.
A é uma proposição Universal afirmativa, E é uma proposição Universal
negativa. I e O estão embaixo e representam proposições particulares,
sendo I particular afirmativa e O particular negativa.
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Dialética para Principiantes
Todos os gaúchos são brasileiros. A regra é clara e funciona nos quatro sentidos
possíveis: da Verdade de um contraditório infere-se a falsidade do outro,
e vice-versa.
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Então pode ocorrer que tanto A como E sejam proposições falsas. Per-
feitamente. A falsidade de ambos os opostos, em se tratando de con-
trários, é perfeitamente possível. Mas, em se tratando de contraditórios,
isso é impossível. Eis aqui o exato lugar em que dialéticos e analíticos se
perdem na confusão. Como os dialéticos não usam o sujeito expresso,
e assim também não usam o quantificador expresso, eles nunca sabem
direito se estão falando de contrários ou de contraditórios. A tese é
falsa, a antítese também é falsa, passemos à síntese, dizem eles. Tese e
antítese são contrárias ou contraditórias? Os dialéticos, com o sujeito
e com o quantificador ocultos, não sabem dizer e se confundem. Eles
falam muitas vezes de contraditórios e da Contradição existente entre
tese e antítese, mas o que realmente querem dizer são os contrários.
Pois, se tese e antítese fossem contraditórios, sendo uma verdadeira,
a outra seria falsa. E, assim sendo, nunca poderia ocorrer que ambas,
tese e antítese, fossem falsas, como se afirma na Dialética do jogo dos
opostos. Mas se tese e antítese são contrários, no sentido técnico do
termo, então tudo bem, é perfeitamente possível que ambas sejam fal-
sas. É aqui, é exatamente aqui, e é somente aqui que se faz Dialética. O
lugar exato e único, apontado com o dedo, como prometido, é este: o
jogo dos opostos se faz sempre entre contrários que são ambos falsos,
entre proposições A e E. É aqui, exatamente aqui, que se dá o pulo do
gato. Se a gente não entende que se trata sempre de contrários, jamais
de contraditórios, a Dialética vira bobagem.
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
A rigor foi dito tudo o que é realmente importante para desfazer a confusão
existente entre dialéticos e analíticos. Mas, já que estamos no Quadrado Lógi-
co, que sejam mencionadas, sem aprofundamento, as duas restantes Formas
de oposição, a oposição entre subcontrários e a oposição de subalternação.
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Dialética para Principiantes
É claro que os dialéticos não querem dizer Contradição, mas sim con-
trariedade. É claro que o jogo dos opostos é o jogo dos contrários, não
dos contraditórios. Os dialéticos não são idiotas. Platão, Cusanus e Hegel
não são bobos para dizer e, ao mesmo tempo e sob o mesmo aspecto,
desdizer-se. Eles não negam o Princípio de Não Contradição; ninguém
pode negá-lo sem abandonar a racionalidade da argumentação. Quando
os dialéticos falam do jogo dos opostos e dizem que tanto tese como
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também antítese são falsas e que, por isso, somos levados à síntese, trata-
se sempre de polos contrários, não de contraditórios. Se se tratasse de
polos contraditórios, sendo a tese falsa, então a antítese seria verdadeira.
Ou vice-versa. Sendo um dos opostos falso, o outro é sempre verdadei-
ro. E não é isso que a Dialética diz. Ela diz que ambos os opostos são
falsos, tanto a tese como a antítese. Basta observar o Quadrado Lógico e
verifica-se que o único espaço em que pode ocorrer este tipo de oposição
negativa, ou seja, a oposição entre tese falsa e antítese também falsa, é na
oposição entre contrários. Este e somente este é o espaço em que se faz
Dialética. Quem não percebe isso está perdido e vai cair em buracos. E a
Escrava Trácia vai cair na risada.
Tomemos como exemplo, para analisar esta questão delicada e muito im-
portante, a oposição de contrários, que é o tema central do primeiro ca-
pítulo da Fenomenologia do Espírito, a oposição entre objeto e sujeito, entre
objetividade e subjetividade. A tese inicial diz que A Verdade da certeza
sensível está no objeto. Esta tese inicial, como sempre na Dialética dos opos-
tos, é demonstrada como falsa. Hegel faz esta demonstração mostrando
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A Dialética do Concreto
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Dialética para Principiantes
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Dialética para Principiantes
Oposição e conciliação
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A unificação dos polos opostos em nível mais alto e mais nobre era
chamada pelos gregos de Unidade dos Opostos. Nicolaus Cusanus, uti-
lizando um termo oriundo da Bíblia e da Teologia Cristã, chama isso
de Conciliação dos Opostos. Assim como o povo judeu, depois de ar-
repender-se de seus pecados, volta a Javé, ao Deus verdadeiro, e se re-
concilia com ele, assim também na Dialética ocorre uma reconciliação
entre os polos que primeiro estão em oposição, um contra o outro.
Hegel utiliza aqui a palavra auf-heben. Aufheben possui um sentido triplo.
Aufheben significa primeiro dissolver, desfazer, anular. Por exemplo, A
sessão é dissolvida, Die Sitzung wird aufgehoben. Aufheben significa, segundo,
guardar. Por exemplo, Guardei tua comida no refrigerador, Ich habe Dir Dein
Essen im Kühlschrank aufgehoben. Aufheben significa, terceiro, pegar e pôr
em lugar mais alto, colocar em cima. Por exemplo, Ele pega o lenço do chão
e põe em cima da mesa, Er hebt das Taschentuch vom Boden auf und legt es auf den
Tisch. Os três sentidos de aufheben – superar, guardar e pôr em nível mais
alto – ocorrem na formação da síntese. O primeiro sentido: a oposição
dos polos é superada e anulada. Na síntese, os polos não mais se ex-
cluem; o caráter excludente que existia entre tese e antítese é dissolvido
e desaparece. O segundo sentido: apesar da dissolução havida, os polos
foram conservados e guardados em tudo aquilo que tinham de positivo.
O terceiro sentido: na unidade da síntese se chega a um plano mais alto,
houve aí uma ascensão a um nível superior.
Mestre e discípulo
Após esse encontro inicial entre dois polos opostos, num segundo momen-
to, começa o aprendizado. O mestre explica, o discípulo capta o explicado,
repete a explicação e, depois, a qualquer tempo, sabe repetir e refazer so-
zinho o que aprendeu. No aprendizado, o mestre expõe uma ideia que no
início existe só nele. No discípulo não existe esta ideia, ele ainda não a ouviu
e aprendeu. Mas, depois de o mestre dizer e explicar a ideia, o discípulo a
capta e a possui. A ideia que bem no começo era uma ideia só agora é uma e
a mesma ideia que existe e está em dois, no mestre e no discípulo. A mesma
ideia, sem deixar de ser uma única ideia, está tanto no mestre como no dis-
cípulo. Com relação a esta ideia, mestre e discípulo se unificaram. Embora
sejam duas pessoas diversas, ambos têm e partilham a mesma ideia. E esta,
partilhada pelos dois, continua sendo uma única ideia. Neste ponto, sob
este aspecto, mestre e discípulo ficaram exatamente iguais. Um sabe o que
o outro sabe. Eles sabem a mesma coisa. Participam da mesma ideia, que é
uma única, mas que existe em dois polos diversos. Mestre e discípulo, aqui,
se igualaram e se fundiram numa unidade mais alta e mais nobre.
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nifica, por um lado, ter discípulos, mas, pelo outro lado, significa também
querer que o discípulo deixe de ser discípulo e fique ele também mestre.
Ser-mestre é uma realidade, por um lado, positiva, pois o mestre possui o
saber. Pelo outro lado, Ser-mestre é uma realidade negativa e autodestru-
tiva, pois o mestre quer que o discípulo aprenda e fique, ele também, um
mestre. Com isso, no fim do processo, o mestre deixa de ser mestre de
discípulos para ficar um mestre entre outros mestres. A negatividade ini-
cial dos polos opostos foi superada, mas toda a positividade neles contida
foi guardada em nível mais alto e mais nobre. Aufheben, superar e guardar.
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Dialética para Principiantes
Em outros escritos, Platão diz que este Gênero Supremo, que é o Ser,
também se chama de Uno e de O Bem. Aí temos o Ser-Uno dos filósofos
neoplatônicos e o Bem Supremo da Doutrina Não Escrita. Daí deriva e
emana tudo o resto. A questão única foi exposta antes, em outro lugar:
este processo é totalmente necessitário ou contém alguma contingência
e algum Acaso? Os Neoplatônicos necessitaristas ficam com a primeira
alternativa, eu fico com a segunda, que é a que está sendo exposta e de-
fendida neste trabalho.
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Os Três Princípios
A necessária tradução
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Dialética para Principiantes
O Princípio de Identidade
Identidade Simples
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Identidade Iterativa
A Identidade Reflexa
Princípio da Diferença
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Dialética para Principiantes
Oposição contraditória
Oposição contrária
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Princípio da Coerência
Sentido geral
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Dialética para Principiantes
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Dialética para Principiantes
Em vez de dizer Tudo é Ser, poderíamos dizer também Todas as coisas são
Ser, ou então O Absoluto é Ser. Esta última fórmula é a que Hegel indica
e aconselha num adendo ao começo da Lógica da Enciclopédia. Mas é o
próprio Hegel que, na polêmica contra seu amigo Schelling, no Prefácio
da Fenomenologia, recomenda não pôr o Absoluto no começo do Sistema
sem que isso seja devidamente mediado, isto é, sem explanações e funda-
mentações convincentes. O Absoluto não pode aparecer no Sistema de
repente, sem mediação, como um tiro saído de uma pistola. Afinal, qual
Hegel tem Razão, o da Fenomenologia ou o da Enciclopédia?
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Dialética para Principiantes
Evidência vem de ver. E ver pode ser algo muito subjetivo, pois, como
sabemos, há ilusões. Aristóteles, muito antes de Descartes, já sabia disso.
E muito bem. É por isso que, no livro Gama da Metafísica, ele faz sete
tentativas de justificar o Princípio de Não Contradição, o Primeiro Prin-
cípio que não precisaria de justificação. O argumento central, no fundo,
é um só. O cético radical que nega o Princípio de Não Contradição, mas,
depois de negá-lo, continua falando, argumentando e dizendo coisas, este
cético está pressupondo, ao continuar falando e argumentando, exata-
mente aquilo que negou antes. O que foi negado ressurge na fala que vem
depois, como Fênix das cinzas. A única coisa que o cético radical pode
fazer de maneira consequente é ficar completamente calado. O silêncio
total é a única alternativa para quem nega o Princípio básico de toda fala.
Quem nega o Princípio de Não Contradição fica mudo, fica reduzido ao
estado de planta. O próprio ato de fala pelo qual se nega o Princípio de
Não Contradição, ao negá-lo, o pressupõe de novo.
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E o que tem isso tudo a ver com a primeira tese do Sistema dialético Todas
as coisas são Ser? É que esta proposição, para poder funcionar como tese de
um jogo de opostos, tem que ser demonstrada como sendo falsa. Como
fazer isso? Como mostrar a falsidade desta tese? A falsidade de uma tese
não é simplesmente dada, ela não pode ser admitida sem justificação crí-
tica. E aí se põe a pergunta: como, bem no começo, justificar a falsidade
da tese? E, retomando a questão anterior, que ainda não foi respondida:
como justificar o uso deste sujeito lógico Todas as coisas? Aí entram formas
mais sutis de argumentação. Os mecanismos usuais de argumentação, que
são sintáticos, aqui ainda não estão disponíveis para montar o argumento.
Também não temos premissas que possamos pressupor como verdadei-
ras. Como, então, argumentar? Temos que operar num plano mais pro-
fundo, no plano da Semântica e da Pragmática. A Semântica nos justifica
o uso de Todas as coisas como sujeito lógico da predicação, a Pragmática
nos mostra a Contradição existente na tese e, assim, sua falsidade.
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Dialética para Principiantes
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
Tudo é Ser; Todas as coisas são Ser. O Ser que aparece aí como predicado
lógico é a mais simples determinação. Quando se diz de algo apenas que
este algo é Ser, então estamos determinando este algo como um inde-
terminado amplo e vazio. Pois Ser é um conceito bem amplo e quase
vazio. A Contradição pragmática consiste exatamente nisso: a gente quer
determinar algo e, para determinar, diz que este algo é Ser, ou seja, é um
indeterminado vazio. Determina-se algo dizendo que este algo é indeter-
minado. Eis a Contradição performativa. O ato de dizer e a intenção do
falante estão em Contradição com aquilo que realmente é dito. Como o
Joãozinho quando fala: Não estou falando.
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Dialética para Principiantes
É falsa a tese de que Tudo é Ser. A explosão nos expele para fora da posi-
ção tética, e precisamos, então, formular uma alternativa. Surge assim a
proposição antitética Tudo é Nada, Todas as coisas são Nada.
Todas as coisas, quando vem a ser, são Ser. Todas as coisas, quando
deixam de ser, ficam Nada. Ser é o Vir-a-Ser, Nada é o Deixar-de-Ser.
Ser é o positivo, Nada é o negativo. O Ser é o aparecer, o Nada é o
desaparecer. – Como e em que sentido Todas as coisas são Nada? Todas as
coisas são Nada, pois todas as coisas por enquanto, nesta determinação
inicial, em que nos situamos, da reconstrução do mosaico, foram deter-
minadas apenas como Ser. Este Ser é vazio e indeterminado, ele é algo
indeterminado, é um Não Determinado, é um Nada da determinação.
– Quando o garçom, no fim de uma refeição, pergunta e nós responde-
mos que não, que não queremos mais nada, não estamos ficando niilis-
tas nem pensamos em acabar com a vida e com o Universo. Muito pelo
contrário, ao dizer Nada estamos querendo dizer o contrário daquilo
que o garçom oferecia. Querem mais? Não, não queremos mais nada. O
Nada não é um contraditório, e sim um contrário. É neste sentido que
dizemos Todas as coisas são Nada. É falsa a tese de que todas as coisas
sejam Ser, puro Ser. É igualmente falsa a antítese de que todas as coisas
sejam apenas Nada, puro Nada.
Observe-se bem uma coisa: não foi mudado o sujeito lógico da predica-
ção. Nem o quantificador. Tanto na tese como na antítese o sujeito lógico
e o quantificador ficam os mesmos. Ou seja, trata-se de contrários, não
de contraditórios. E é por isso que os analíticos nada podem opor a esta
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
Tanto para o analítico como para o dialético vale a regra de que uma
Contradição, se de fato existente, tem que ser trabalhada e superada. Os
analíticos fazem a superação distinguindo dois aspectos no sujeito lógico,
isto é, formando duas proposições reduplicativas. Os dialéticos, que não
dispõem de um sujeito lógico – este não está expresso –, buscam um
novo conceito que seja sintético.
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Dialética para Principiantes
Dialética e Antinomias
A Lógica da estrutura antinômica
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Carlos Roberto Velho Cirne Lima
da classe que contém todas as outras classes. Até aqui, tudo bem. Esta es-
trutura piramidal em que os conceitos se ordenam e hierarquizam é algo
bem conhecido dos Lógicos desde Platão e dos filósofos neoplatônicos,
especialmente desde Porfírio. A novidade, a grande novidade e o grande
problema consistem no seguinte: existem classes que se contêm a si mes-
mas e existem também classes que não se contêm a si mesmas. Por exem-
plo, substantivo é uma classe e é, ao mesmo tempo, algo que está contido
nessa classe; pois o termo substantivo é, ele próprio, um substantivo. Isso
existe e nisso não surge nenhum problema; trata-se de uma classe que se
contém a si mesma. A questão surge quando se constrói – e Frege pre-
cisava disso para fazer a fundamentação da Matemática – o conceito da
classe das classes que não se contêm a si mesmas. Tal classe pertence à
classe das que se contêm a si mesmas ou à classe das que não se contêm
a si mesmas? Se ela pertence à primeira, então pertence à segunda; se ela
pertence à segunda, então pertence à primeira. E assim ao infinito. Afinal,
ela pertence a qual classe? Não há resposta; a oscilação entre sim e não
leva ao infinito e paralisa o pensamento. Bertrand Russell localizou o pro-
blema e chamou a atenção de Frege para ele: a classe das classes que não
se contêm a si mesmas é um conceito antinômico. Esta classe se contém e
não se contém a si mesma. Sim e não oscilando, um remetendo ao outro,
um se baseando no outro, um pressupondo o outro, sem jamais parar. Eis
a primeira grande antinomia elaborada e estudada com rigor na Filosofia
contemporânea.
As antinomias têm que ser resolvidas. Não se pode dizer sim e não ao
mesmo tempo. Não se pode dizer e, ao mesmo tempo e sob o mesmo
aspecto, desdizer-se. O Princípio de Não Contradição não pode ser ne-
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Dialética para Principiantes
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Dialética para Principiantes
Robert Heiss não é Lógico, e sim filósofo, um filósofo que passou toda a
sua vida perguntando o que é Dialética. O grande fruto de seu trabalho,
Heiss o publica em 1931, num livro extremamente estimulante com o
título Logik des Widerspruchs. Neste texto pouco conhecido, a estrutura da
Dialética é descrita e analisada sob perspectivas novas, por novos vieses,
com uma agudez e uma sensibilidade que só iremos reencontrar, entre os
contemporâneos, nos trabalhos de Dieter Henrich. Robert Heiss descre-
ve e analisa diversas estruturas autoflexivas negativas, desde aquilo que
hoje chamamos de Contradição performativa, passando por uma belís-
sima releitura da dúvida cartesiana que se autodissolve, até a Antinomia
dos Lógicos modernos em seu sentido estrito. Mas é Arend Kulenkampff,
que eu saiba, o primeiro que levanta a tese – aliás, sua Tese de Doutora-
mento em Frankfurt, orientada por Theodor Adorno, mas inspirada por
Robert Heiss – de que a estrutura antinômica constitui o núcleo duro de
toda a Dialética. Dialética, diz Kulenkampff, ou é isso, ou não é nada.
Este é o tema de Antinomie und Dialektik, de 1970.
Alguns anos depois, em 1984, Thomas Kesselring publica o livro Die Pro-
duktivität der Antinomien, em que retoma, com fôlego e em pormenores, a
ideia de que a estrutura antinômica é o motor que faz a Dialética andar.
Kesselring descreve e mapeia as antinomias, analisa sua estrutura, põe em
destaque sua estrutura lógica de negação autoflexiva e tenta fazer, a partir
daí, a reconstrução de alguns trechos do Sistema de Hegel.
de opostos. Por que, perguntava ele? Por que para aqui? Por que não dá
para ir adiante? Perguntas intelectualmente honestas formuladas por um
intelectual honesto.
A Dialética consiste no jogo dos opostos. Todos nós sabemos disso. Mas
em que consiste o jogo dos opostos? Quais opostos? Contraditórios ou
contrários? A Dialética desobedece ao Princípio de Não Contradição?
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Um projeto de Sistema
Dialética e Natureza
A Filosofia como Projeto de Sistema
A Dialética, por trabalhar com opostos que são apenas contrários, está
sempre inserida na historicidade contingente da Linguagem e do mun-
do em que vivemos e pensamos. A antítese, no jogo dos opostos, não é
construída a priori, mas é assumida da Linguagem e da História. Às vezes
a antítese é construída, mas não se trata aí de uma construção apriorística
de conceitos, e sim do engendramento linguístico e social – a posteriori – de
algo novo que é sempre um fato intersubjetivo. Cornelius Castoriadis, em
nosso século, mostrou muito bem como se processa tal engendramento
de realidades intersubjetivas. Não se trata aí de uma operação conceitual a
priori no sentido técnico dos racionalistas e dos kantianos.
O importante para nós aqui é ter presente que a Dialética, por trabalhar
com opostos não construídos a priori, contém sempre um momento que
é a posteriori e contingente. A Dialética é um conhecimento que vai buscar
na História seus conteúdos e é, exatamente por isso, um conhecimento
que está sempre inserido na História, remetendo as verdades atemporais
sempre de volta à História onde elas se encarnam. A Dialética é um co-
nhecimento que capta, sim, e representa os nexos necessários e atempo-
rais que, às vezes, – nem sempre – existem entre as coisas, mas mesmo
estes são pensados sempre como a eternidade que se realiza no curso
do tempo, como o necessário que se efetiva no processo contingente de
evolução. A Dialética conhece, sim, verdades eternas – como dois mais
dois são quatro –, mas isso não a faz esquecer e descurar das verdades
contingentes que se passam no horizonte do tempo. É por isso que, como
já vimos e demonstramos antes, a Dialética nunca leva a um Sistema com-
pleto e acabado que abarque todas as coisas, inclusive o futuro contingen-
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te. Hegel erra quando afirma que, com a Dialética, a Filosofia abandona
seu velho nome de amor à sabedoria para elevar-se ao estatuto de Ciência
que sabe tudo. Não, nunca. A Filosofia continua sendo amor à sabedoria,
o Sistema de Filosofia é apenas um Projeto de Sistema. Ele levanta pre-
tensões de Verdade e de universalidade, sim, mas não pretensão de pleni-
tude e de acabamento. Existem nexos necessários e atemporais, sim, mas
existem também coisas e nexos contingentes. O tempo passado, que não
é mais, guardamo-lo na memória. O futuro está aberto. Não podemos de-
duzir, enquanto contingentes, nem um nem outro. O que podemos, o que
devemos fazer é pensar o passado contingente atribuindo-lhe os valores
devidos, e projetar o futuro que está aberto, decidindo sobre o presente.
O presente que nos escorre por entre os dedos é o mesmo presente que
permanece e que fica: o eterno momento presente. Filosofia, sim, é pos-
sível, mas só como projeto de Sistema aberto.
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Dialética para Principiantes
Tudo o que foi feito neste trabalho até agora é parte integrante da
Lógica. Trata-se aí de elaborar a estrutura e o Movimento triádico do
discurso lógico. A Lógica, assim concebida, é várias coisas. Ela é, pri-
meiro, uma Filosofia da Linguagem, que analisa e disseca as regras e
Princípios de todo falar e pensar, que examina e levanta as condições
de possibilidade de nosso falar e de nosso pensar factuais. Os temas
centrais são, aí, a estrutura triádica de Tese, Antítese e Síntese, os três
Primeiros Princípios tanto da Dialética como da Analítica (Identidade,
Diferença e Coerência) e o imbricamento existente entre Dialética,
Analítica e Hermenêutica. A Lógica é, segundo, uma Ontologia, pois
ela formula Princípios válidos também para o Ser de todos os seres.
A Lógica é, terceiro, uma Teologia, pois, ao dizer o que o Ser é, ela
está sempre falando do Absoluto. A Lógica é, quarto, uma História
das Ideias, pois é da Linguagem e da História que ela tira seus conte-
údos. – A Lógica Formal, em seu sentido contemporâneo, está inclusa
no primeiro sentido acima mencionado, na Lógica enquanto Filosofia
da Linguagem; esta trata tanto da Lógica Dialética como também da
Lógica Analítica.
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Dialética e Evolução
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Dialética para Principiantes
Identidade
Identidade simples A Indivíduo
Identidade iterativa A A A Iteração, replicação, reprodução
Identidade reflexa A = A Espécie
Diferença
Diferença de contraditórios
A e Não A (não existente)
Diferença de contrários
A e B Emergência do novo, mutação por Acaso
Coerência
Anulação de um dos pólos Morte, seleção natural
Elaboração das devidas distinções Adaptação
História da Dialética História da Evolução
A Identidade simples, na Lógica, e o indivíduo, na Natureza
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Está gravado nos genes aquilo que lá está gravado (proposição tautológi-
ca e, como tal, verdadeira). Esta gravação determina aquilo que é comum
aos diversos indivíduos; a isso chamamos, então, de características típicas
da espécie. As variações individuais que sempre de novo aparecem no
curso da ontogênese se originam do fato de que as instruções gravadas
nos genes não são leis duras, não são regras que determinam tudo até o
último pormenor. Essas leis não impedem que surjam pequenas variações
e, em certos casos, até contrafatos. Essas leis, assim como o operador mo-
dal do Princípio de Não Contradição, são apenas um Dever-ser. É claro
que o Dever-ser aqui não pode ser tomado no sentido estritamente hu-
mano de Ética e de lei moral, mas apenas como uma lei da Natureza que
determina, sim, mas não determina tão fortemente como as leis da Lógica
Formal e da Matemática, a saber, até o último pormenor. O Princípio
de Identidade diz, pois, igualdade, mas apenas uma igualdade tal e tanta
que permita que também a Diferença entre indivíduos exista. No caso de
igualdade de cem por cento – nem mesmo gêmeos são assim – ainda há
uma Diferença no espaço temporal entre os indivíduos. Na maioria dos
casos, os indivíduos são determinados de modo que possuam relativa-
mente muitas qualidades individuais. Se tal qualidade primeiramente indi-
vidual (isto é, uma propriedade adquirida pelo indivíduo) entra no plano
genético de construção, ou seja, no mecanismo de replicação genética,
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Isso não é uma Filosofia da mera sobrevivência, uma Filosofia aética, sem
piedade e sem amor? Não. Se este raciocínio é levado consequentemente
até o fim, chega-se, como se verá mais adiante, a uma visão humanista
do mundo, na qual aparecerão com clareza não apenas a dignidade do
homem, mas também o enraizamento deste na ordem cósmica.
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Ética
A família antiga
torno do fogo sagrado do lar, que então era chamado de hestia. O pater,
todo vestido de branco, com uma coroa de flores na cabeça, à frente da
mater e dos demais membros da família, postados em fila indiana, puxava
a dança sagrada em homenagem aos deuses domésticos. Os deuses do-
mésticos, representados por pequenas estatuetas colocadas à beira do lar,
onde crepitava o fogo sagrado que Prometeu havia roubado dos céus,
eram o pai, o avô, o bisavô, o tetravô, etc., todos eles heróis de muitas
virtudes e muitos feitos. O hino cantado pelo pater em todas as cerimônias
importantes da família era em honra dos antepassados, isto é, dos deuses
domésticos. É por isso que todos os grandes cânticos, na Antiguidade, co-
meçam cantando os heróis que são antepassados, ou melhor, os antepas-
sados que são todos heróis. Na Ilíada se canta o herói da guerra de Troia,
Aquiles. Na Eneida, os pais fundadores da cidade de Roma. Nos Lusíadas,
“as armas e os barões assinalados” que fundaram Portugal. O canto em
honra dos antepassados, entoado pelo pater, iniciava, sim, homenageando
os antepassados, mas logo depois ficava bem mais prático. Tudo que o
pater cantava no hino da família era uma norma que ou obrigava a algo
ou proibia algum tipo de ação. Nomos em grego significa tanto cântico
como também lei. Ambas as significações estavam, no começo de nossa
civilização, intimamente ligadas. Era lei tudo aquilo que constava no canto
entoado pelo pater. O bem e o mal, a virtude e o vício, a boa e a má ação,
para distingui-los bastava ouvir e atentar para o canto sagrado que, além
de homenagear os deuses domésticos, estabelecia o estatuto normativo
da família.
branco e com uma coroa de flores à cabeça, como o próprio pater, era
então conduzida à casa de seu futuro esposo. Um carro puxado por um
boi branco e um boi preto, todo enfeitado de flores, conduzia a noiva
enquanto os circunstantes cantavam um hino chamado de Himeneu. Ao
chegar à casa de sua futura família, a noiva descia do carro, mas não podia
entrar no aposento central da casa. Isso era proibido sob pena de morte.
Um estranho jamais pode entrar na sala onde queima o fogo sagrado do
lar. Excetuam-se dessa regra apenas os hóspedes que são permitidos, se
e enquanto forem trazidos e conduzidos à mão pelo dono da casa e anfi-
trião. Como a noiva ainda não é membro da família, mas também não é
apenas um hóspede que depois parte e vai embora, ela não pode entrar. Se
entrar e pisar o chão sagrado sob o qual jazem as cinzas dos antepassados,
ela é um invasor estranho que quebra a paz do domicílio. E então sacra
esto: seja morta em sacrifício. É por isso que a noiva, não podendo entrar
por seus próprios pés, tem que ser carregada nos braços pelo noivo, que a
conduz, sem que ela pise o chão, até o fogo sagrado da hestia. Ali, face ao
pater e à família reunida em festa, o noivo deposita sua futura mulher no
chão. O pater então pergunta se ela quer casar com o noivo e, assim, passar
a pertencer à nova família. Ao responder que sim, a noiva é conduzida
pelo pater na dança ritual em torno do fogo sagrado, cantando o hino de
seus novos deuses domésticos: a saber, o avô, o bisavô, o tetravô de seu
marido. Nessa cerimônia, a noiva, já desligada de sua família de origem, é
ligada a sua nova família. Ela é, assim, re-ligada, ela passa a ter religião. Na-
queles tempos, a religião, centrada na família e no canto sagrado do lar, é
a fonte e o critério de toda a Ética. Assim se faz, assim deve ser feito, pois
quem está ligado ou religado à família tem que obedecer ao que é cantado
no nomos, que é cântico e que é também lei.
Em uma cultura patriarcal, como foi a nossa, bom é ser homem; melhor
ainda é ser um homem forte. Vir significa homem. Virtus significa a força
do homem. Eis o primeiro significado da palavra virtude. Mas o homem
só é forte quando vive e atua em sociedade. Sociedade é a família, socie-
dade é, também, a fratria, um agrupamento de famílias e, principalmente,
a cidade, que os gregos chamavam de pólis. Vive bem quem vive na cidade.
A cidade sucede no tempo à família como centro gerador de eticidade.
Agora, não é mais o canto do pater da família, e sim a cidade que diz o
que é bom e o que é mau. A lei da cidade é a norma de valor de todas as
ações. E quem faz as leis da cidade? Quem faz a política, a lei da pólis? Os
cidadãos reunidos em assembleia discutem e fazem as leis. As leis assim
feitas são legítimas e, geralmente, justas. Mas sabemos que na realidade de
fato há leis que não são justas. Por que uma lei é justa, outra lei não o é?
Por quê? Qual o critério?
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nossos pais, avós e bisavós faziam. Bom é aquilo que se costuma fazer
habitualmente. Mas Aristóteles é um filósofo crítico, e as muitas discus-
sões sobre o assunto, feitas em seu tempo, não lhe permitem ficar só com
isso. A tradição, sim, e os costumes locais, os mores, são certamente um
Princípio e um critério da eticidade. Mas, às vezes, até a tradição tropeça:
alguns costumes não são bons. Por quê? Qual critério aplicar a tais casos?
Aristóteles responde: a mesotes. Mesotes é o meio-termo, é aquela posição
que não está num extremo do espectro nem no outro, e sim no meio.
No meio está a virtude. In medio stat virtus. A virtude consiste em estar no
meio. Ético é aquele que não é nem covarde nem temerário, e sim, situa-
do no meio-termo, corajoso. Mas Aristóteles percebe que o meio-termo
nem sempre está exatamente no meio. A coragem está mais próxima da
temeridade do que da covardia. Se a mesotes não está bem no meio, se não
é a mesotes o critério decisivo para decidir entre o bem e o mal, qual então o
critério último de eticidade? Aristóteles responde: a reta Razão. Reto vem
da linha reta dos geômetras, vem da regra dos arquitetos de puxar um fio
e construir tetos e paredes seguindo exatamente a linha reta traçada pelo
cordão esticado: a distância mais curta entre dois pontos, elemento básico
da Geometria e da Arquitetura. Retidão, sim, retidão como nas figuras
geométricas, como na Arquitetura. E o que é Razão? Até hoje estamos
perguntando o que é Razão, até hoje não sabemos direito o que é Razão.
A Ética de Aristóteles funcionou tão bem e por tanto tempo – Tomás
de Aquino a adota, os tomistas até hoje a defendem – por quê? O que é
Razão? O que é Razão reta? Kant, na Modernidade, explica mais e dá um
vigoroso passo adiante.
O Imperativo Categórico
Kant utiliza em suas críticas sempre o mesmo esquema básico. Ele par-
te de um pressuposto fático que não é questionado por ninguém. Este
pressuposto, tranquilamente aceito por todos, é tomado por Kant como
sendo verdadeiro. Em cima deste pressuposto, ele aplica a assim chamada
pergunta transcendental: quais as condições necessárias de possibilidade
deste pressuposto feito? Condições necessárias de possibilidade são o que
as palavras dizem: se existe um p qualquer, quais as condições necessárias
para que p possa existir? Mapeadas as condições necessárias de possibili-
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A Ética do Discurso
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Todo projeto de construir uma Ética, hoje, tem que responder a três per-
guntas básicas que foram se cristalizando no decorrer dos últimos séculos.
A primeira: como se faz a passagem de proposições meramente descriti-
vas para proposições normativas? A segunda: qual o primeiro Princípio,
ou quais os primeiros grandes Princípios que regem o Dever-ser? A ter-
ceira: como se faz a passagem do particular para o Universal e vice-versa?
A primeira pergunta não é respondida nem por Aristóteles, nem por To-
más de Aquino, nem por Kant. De saída, todos eles partem de uma Razão
Prática, ou seja, de proposições normativas. Isso é ruim, muito ruim. Pois
a Razão Teórica e a Razão Prática são, desde o começo, dissociadas, sem
que o nexo entre elas possa ser restabelecido. Há duas razões, distintas
e separadas. Essa Razão, que não é mais una, que está cindida em duas
razões, ainda é a Razão? Como pensar essa dualidade sem unidade? Pode?
Não pode.
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quando ainda não sabem com que substâncias estão lidando, fazem ex-
perimentos empíricos, Apel e Habermas mandam que façamos um expe-
rimento moral. Eles nunca disseram isso como eu acabo de dizer, com
estas palavras. Provavelmente ficariam furiosos comigo. Mas é assim e só
assim que funciona. A gente sabe o que deve ser somente quando se faz
o experimento de universalização. Ética é experimentação.
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Recompensa e castigo
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O Estado e a Política
comum de todos eles, estabeleçam a Lei, e com ela o castigo para os que
a desrespeitarem.
Justiça e Estado
O Que é Justiça?
O bem existe sob muitas formas, ou, como os gregos diziam, sob a forma
de muitas virtudes. Virtudes são para os gregos, por exemplo, a sabedo-
ria, a coragem, a temperança, a justiça, etc. O elenco de virtudes varia de
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autor para autor, mas uma virtude assume sempre uma posição ímpar: a
justiça. Em Platão, quatro são as virtudes cardeais. Três delas correspon-
dem às três partes da alma e aos três estamentos do Estado. A temperança
corresponde à alma concupiscente e ao estamento dos camponeses, dos
artesãos e dos mercadores, que tratam das necessidades materiais de to-
dos os cidadãos, como habitação e comida; a temperança ordena e disci-
plina os desejos e prazeres, dizendo quais são eticamente bons e quais são
maus. A coragem, a segunda das virtudes cardeais, corresponde à alma
irascível e ao estamento dos guerreiros, aos quais cabe a defesa do Esta-
do; o guerreiro, que tem que ser ao mesmo tempo manso e forte, cuida
do Estado e o defende de seus inimigos externos. A sabedoria, a terceira
das virtudes cardeais, corresponde à alma intelectual e ao estamento dos
governantes, que, por conhecer e contemplar o bem supremo, têm a ca-
pacidade de ordenar o Estado e de dizer, em última instância, o que deve
ser feito e o que não deve ser feito, o que é o bem e o que é o mal. Até
aqui, tudo em estreita correlação. Três são as virtudes, três são as partes da
alma, três são os estamentos no Estado. Só que Platão acrescenta a estas
três mais uma, a justiça, a quarta e mais ampla das virtudes cardeais. A
justiça não corresponde, de maneira específica, a nenhuma parte da alma
e a nenhuma das classes que constituem a Politeia. A justiça é mais ampla
que as outras três virtudes cardeais, ela as perpassa, lhes é comum e lhes
serve de base e fundamento. A justiça é a primeira e a mais importante das
virtudes? Pelo menos à primeira vista, pode parecer que sim. É no Estado,
no Estado Ideal, que a justiça se realiza plenamente. Mas o que é justiça?
Ela por acaso é o bem supremo?
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Justiça é dar a cada um o que a ele compete, Suum cuique, dizem os Roma-
nos, que assim resumem as dúvidas e as perplexidades da tradição anterior
a eles. Justiça é fazer aquilo que é justo. A tautologia aqui, à primeira vista,
não é esclarecedora. Afinal, o que é justo? Justa, desde os primórdios de
nossa civilização, é a ação e a atitude do homem que considera o outro
homem como sendo igual. Justa é a divisão dos frutos coletados ou do
animal abatido na caça, se e enquanto a divisão for feita em partes iguais.
Justo é o prêmio se para candidatos de mérito igual forem dados prêmios
iguais. Justo é o castigo que é igual para delitos iguais. Justiça é equidade.
Equidade, no fundo, é a contrapartida ética do Princípio de Identidade
que na Lógica tem a forma A = A. Justiça é a situação de igualdade entre
homens que corresponde à Identidade Reflexa da Lógica. A Lei é justa
se vale, igualmente, para todos. O homem e sua ação são justos, se e en-
quanto o outro homem é considerado como igual, e não como diferente.
Justiça é isso. Tudo isso, e apenas isso. Muito rica, e muito pobre. A justiça
é assim, tem duas faces.
A justiça é muito rica e muito ampla, pois todos os homens são iguais
perante a Lei. A Lei é a mesma para todos. A justiça é muito pobre e
muito restrita, pois alguns homens são de nascença, pelas contingências
da Natureza, bem dotados; estes são ricos de nascença. Muitos outros
são, pelas contingências da Natureza, pouco dotados; estes são pobres de
nascença. Muitas vezes não é a Natureza, e sim os próprios homens que
engendram, em seu relacionamento interpessoal, a diferença entre ricos e
pobres. Basta abrir os olhos para ver isso. Surge aqui, exatamente aqui e
sempre de novo aqui, uma grande tentação. É a tentação de dizer que as
leis que estão em vigência no Estado concreto e histórico, no qual vive-
mos e no qual existem tais desigualdades, estão completamente erradas.
É a tentação de dizer que estas leis são injustas, que foram estas leis que
provocaram a pobreza, que as leis devem ser mudadas para que se implan-
te a justiça, de sorte que todos os homens fiquem exatamente iguais. Está
certo? Sim e não.
A confusão provoca aqui uma grande tentação, a qual vem desde as co-
munidades dos primeiros cristãos, passando pelos monges que habitavam
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homens são iguais. Mas, embora ampla, a justiça não perpassa tudo, não
abrange todos os aspectos da vida humana, não afeta, em tudo, todas as
relações entre as pessoas. A justiça, embora rica e ampla, é pobre porque
não determina todas as relações sociais em todos os seus pormenores. A
virtude da justiça, a equidade, a absoluta simetria de relações do igual para
com seu igual, embora importantíssima, nem sempre é o critério a ser
aplicado para aferir o Dever-ser de uma ação determinada. A fortiori não
é o critério mais alto.
Que a relação de mestre e discípulo sirva aqui, mais uma vez, de fio con-
dutor. O professor justo é aquele que, no exame, aplica os mesmos crité-
rios de avaliação para todos os alunos, independentemente de simpatias
e de relações de amizade. No exame, o professor deve ser rigorosamente
justo. Por conseguinte, em situação de exame, todos os alunos são rigo-
rosamente iguais e devem ser medidos exatamente pelos mesmos parâ-
metros. Em exame não deve haver, pois, incentivo didático, e sim justiça.
No decorrer do aprendizado, entretanto, o incentivo é indispensável. O
professor, fora da situação de exame, pode e deve tratar alunos diferentes
de maneira diferente. Aqui há incentivos. Nisso consiste o Eros pedagógi-
co: tratar de maneira desigual aqueles que são desiguais, para que venham
a se igualar em excelência. – Mas, um momento, há justiça nisso? A justiça
nem sempre se aplica, ela nem sempre é o critério do Dever-ser. Entre
marido e mulher, entre pais e filhos, entre amigos, a justiça não é o critério
maior para distinguir o bem do mal. Pelo contrário, o Dever-ser em tais
situações é ditado por outras virtudes que não a justiça. O marido que
queira transar – para ser justo – com todas as mulheres, e a mulher que
queira fazer sexo com todos os homens não são o paradigma das virtudes
matrimoniais. Não são? Por que não? A justiça não exige que tratemos to-
dos como sendo iguais? É aqui, neste equívoco, que entram construções
curiosas como a sociedade igualitária e comunista dos cristãos primitivos,
os votos de pobreza e de vida celibatária dos monges, o amor geral que,
sendo igual para com todos, impede e exclui o amor particular para com
uma pessoa determinada, o libertinismo existente entre alguns quiliastas,
o amor livre entre os anarquistas, comunistas e hippies, o casamento aberto
defendido por alguns intelectuais no começo de nosso século, e outras
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Como sabemos isso ainda não ocorre. Mais: a consciência de quais sejam
os direitos mínimos do homem vai evoluindo, na História de nossa civi-
lização, de maneira a incluir mais e mais elementos. Estamos, felizmente,
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ficando mais e mais cidadãos, isto é, mais civilizados. Mas ser cidadão
significa apenas ser igual diante da lei, diante daquilo que é posto no es-
tatuto de lei; isso não significa que os homens devam ser iguais em tudo.
Privar o homem de sua liberdade individual é um crime tão grave contra
os direitos humanos quanto o crime de esvaziar a cidadania, isto é, o
âmbito daquilo em que todos os homens no Estado são iguais. Podem-se
traçar limites ainda mais exatos entre a cidadania dos iguais e a liberdade
individual? Sim, são os cidadãos através de seus representantes, os par-
lamentares, que devem na vida real definir os contornos do Estado, ou
seja, da cidadania que deve ser. Neste nível de pormenor, o filósofo cala e
passa a palavra ao político, ou, para quem quiser, o filósofo vira político.
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Platão passou a vida inteira preocupado com isso. Qual a melhor forma
de governo? Qual a forma de governo que leva à justiça? Tanto A Repúbli-
ca como As Leis têm como tema central exatamente esta questão. Platão
hesita e se inclina, primeiramente, para o governo dos melhores, para a
Aristocracia. O Estado, diz ele, deve ser dirigido por quem entende do
assunto, ou seja, por quem sabe governar. Quem sabe governar? Aquele
que sabe a Diferença entre o que é justo e o que é injusto, o que sabe a
Diferença entre o bem e o mal. Quem é este homem que sabe melhor do
que os outros o que é o bem supremo? O filósofo, responde Platão. É por
isso que o Estado deve ser governado pelos filósofos. Surge, assim, em
Platão, a concepção aristocrática do rei filósofo.
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A representação parlamentar
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O Orçamento Participativo
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O sentido da história
A força do destino
diz que ele havia assassinado o pai e casado com a mãe, Édipo, que queria
ser um homem justo, procura inteirar-se de toda a Verdade e verifica que
tudo que o vidente havia dito estava certo. Ele, então, arranca ambos os
olhos. Ele não tinha estado todo o tempo cego? Não havia se levantado
contra o destino? Com o destino não se brinca. Assassino do pai, marido
de sua mãe, cego dos dois olhos, Édipo, que só queria o bem, se enreda
na teia que o destino lhe traçou. Existe destino? Existe um sentido oculto
nos eventos da História?
O Necessitarismo Lógico
Aristóteles faz voltas e rodeios, no Peri Hermeneias, para escapar dessa ar-
madilha. Afinal, não é válida a lei lógica que diz que uma proposição bem
formada é sempre ou verdadeira ou falsa? Aristóteles titubeia. Tomás de
Aquino, comentando o texto de Aristóteles, responde firme: A Lei da Bi-
polaridade do Valor de Verdade das proposições bem formadas vale sem-
pre, exceto quanto aos futuros contingentes. As proposições são sempre
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O Necessitarismo Filosófico
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Postular dois mundos? Dizer que minha ação, por um lado, está absolu-
tamente predeterminada através dos nexos causais vigentes, e afirmar,
por outro lado, que eu estou decidindo livremente sem que a série causal
predetermine minha decisão? Isso não é um absurdo? Isso não é uma
Contradição? É, é uma Contradição. Raras vezes na História da Filosofia
um mestre-pensador entrou num atoleiro tão feio como este. Postular
dois mundos é um absurdo. Por outro lado, vê-se aqui a importância que
Kant atribuía à liberdade. Para salvá-la, o grande Kant entrou num ato-
leiro. Preferiu admitir uma tolice a sacrificar a liberdade. Tão grande era
o respeito que ele tinha pela liberdade e pela responsabilidade do homem
que, antes de dizer que a liberdade era algo impossível, postulou a absurda
teoria dos dois mundos. Precisamos nós, hoje, admitir tal teoria? Como
resolvemos a questão? Pela Teoria dos Interstícios, como propõe Charles
Taylor, ou pela Teoria dos Graus, como se propõe neste trabalho. A Teo-
ria dos Interstícios supõe que existam, no Universo, leis que o perpassam
e travejam como uma estrutura de cimento armado perpassa e sustenta
um edifício. Entre as vigas de concreto há interstícios em que se podem
pôr paredes como se quiser. Estes interstícios, que não são regulados por
leis determinísticas, formam o espaço em que existe contingência e em
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eventos, fica claro, pensa Hegel, que tudo era movido e determinado pela
Razão, pela tremenda força da negação. A História transforma-se, assim,
num palco em que o grande drama escrito pela Razão Absoluta é encena-
do por nós, que, sem o sabermos, somos apenas marionetes guiadas pelo
Grande Ardil. O roteiro da História do Mundo, segundo Hegel, é a Razão
que o escreve. Nós somos apenas conduzidos pelo ardil da Razão.
O Materialismo Histórico
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a História estava em marcha e que esta marcha era inexorável. Até que
caiu o Muro de Berlim. Quem parou para pensar percebeu, muito antes
da queda do Muro, que a contingência existe, que o homem é livre, que
muitas vezes há alternativas de opção, que o Estado não deve ser total,
que a História não é um processo inexorável.
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E não existe ninguém acima de nós cuidando para que não se perca o
roteiro da História? Não existe, além de nós, um roteirista-mor, um Ser
pensante que coordene nossas contribuições individuais para o sentido
da História? Nossos antepassados diziam que Deus escreve direito por linhas
tortas. Escreve mesmo? Não é Deus o grande coordenador do sentido da
História? Para poder pensar Deus como a Razão na História, é preciso
perguntar antes se Deus existe. Deus existe?
O Absoluto
Deus existe?
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a resposta que diz que o eu é o Absoluto não está correta, porém não é
uma afirmação completamente boba. Mas perguntar a sério se o Absoluto
existe, a meu ver, é uma tolice. Pois existem seres, como o eu que está
falando, por conseguinte existe um Absoluto.
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Minha tese central é, de acordo com as premissas que foram sendo expos-
tas e demonstradas no decorrer deste trabalho, que o conceito Neoplatô-
nico de Deus está correto, e que o conceito Neoaristotélico está errado.
O Deus designado e pensado pelo conceito Neoaristotélico não existe; se
Deus é isto, então Deus não existe. Se Deus se entende assim, à manei-
ra Neoaristotélica, então Deus não existe. Em face desta concepção de
Deus, é preciso ficar ateu, ou no mínimo – por boas maneiras – agnóstico.
Se, entretanto, entendemos Deus como este é concebido pelos pensado-
res neoplatônicos, então Deus existe, sim, sem dúvida nenhuma. Só que
este não é o Deus que aprendemos na escola de nossos bondosos e bem
intencionados catequistas; este não é o Deus de nossos professores no
ginásio católico ou protestante. Que Deus é este? Veremos. Mas antes há
que se falar do Deus que não existe, do Deus da tradição Neoaristotélica.
Já Aristóteles ensinava: Tudo que é movido é movido por outro. Tomás de Aqui-
no põe este Princípio no centro de seu Sistema filosófico: Quidquid movetur
ab alio movetur. Em cima deste Princípio se monta, então, o argumento
para demonstrar a existência de Deus como primeiro motor imóvel. Se
algo é movido, é movido por algo outro que lhe é externo. Cada Ser
movido pressupõe, assim, um Ser movente. Se este, por sua vez, também
é movido, é movido por algo anterior a ele. E assim por diante, até che-
garmos ao primeiro movente de todas as coisas movidas. Este primeiro e
último movente, embora mova tudo o mais, é, em si, imóvel. Se existe no
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Qual o erro? Onde a falha? Nem tudo que se move é movido por algo
outro, por algo que lhe seja externo. O próprio Aristóteles considera os
seres vivos como autokíneton, como um ser-que-se-movimenta-a-si-mes-
mo. Nem todos os Movimentos são provocados por algo que é externo
e anterior à coisa movida. Aí está o erro. O Princípio invocado, Quidquid
movetur ab alio movetur, embora importante e válido para muitas coisas, não
é válido sempre e em todas as coisas. É por isso que o argumento não
conclui. Tomás de Aquino e os tomistas não se dão conta de que existem
seres que se automovimentam e que, apesar disso, não são Deus. O pró-
prio conceito de automovimento lhes é estranho. Hoje, com a Biologia
contemporânea falando de Sistemas Autopoiéticos, isso nos parece fácil
e óbvio. Mas para os medievais não era. O Movimento, para eles, era
sempre fruto de um movente externo à coisa movida. Esta concepção de
Movimento – errada – é o cerne deste tipo de argumento da existência
de Deus.
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a ele. Ele gostaria de ter uma solução, mas não tem. Daí a doutrina – estra-
nhíssima em si, mas compreensível se colocada no contexto correto – da
Harmonia Preestabelecida.
Qual o erro de Leibniz? O que está certo? O que está errado? Está certo
dizer que todas as coisas contingentes têm que ter uma Razão Suficiente.
Isto é Analítico. Errado é o adendo feito em silêncio: esta Razão Suficien-
te é sempre externa à coisa contingente, está fora dela. Por quê? Por que
não pode haver algo contingente que seja Razão Suficiente de si mesmo?
A vida não é Razão Suficiente, em si mesma, de seus Movimentos vitais?
Não é esta a própria definição de vida? Nossa decisão livre não é uma
autodeterminação? O homem, ao decidir livremente, não é uma causa sui
de sua decisão? – Os pensadores analíticos, tanto entre os gregos como
entre os medievais, não conseguem pensar as boas circularidades. Para
eles, todo Movimento circular é sempre um círculo vicioso. Na Lógica
– afirmam – o Movimento circular não prova nada, na Ontologia é um
absurdo. É por isso que o Primeiro Movente é pensado como sendo Imó-
vel, e não como um movente-que-se-move-a-si-mesmo, como uma auto-
movimentação. A Primeira Causa é pensada como sendo incausada, e não
como causa-de-si-mesma, como Causa Sui. Os pensadores analíticos, ao
recusar as estruturas de boa circularidade, entram em Contradição. Onde?
Qual Contradição?
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seja só ativo, e não passivo; que ele seja só necessário, e não contingente;
que ele seja apenas causa, e nunca efeito; que ele seja apenas movente, e
nunca movido. Por quê?
Onde o erro? Qual a grave falha? O erro dos analíticos consiste em pen-
sar que polos opostos sempre se excluem mutuamente. A falha deles é
que jamais aprenderam a fazer o jogo dos opostos. Eles não percebem
que polos opostos se constituem mutuamente; não se dão conta de que
um polo só pode ser pensado através de sua relação para com o outro. –
O segundo erro cometido pelos analíticos, decorrente do primeiro, é que
pensam que os opostos sempre se excluem, um anulando o outro. E por
isso eles jamais pensam que uma síntese seja possível, que a síntese seja
algo devido.
O Deus dos analíticos é uma consequência lógica desses dois erros. Ele
é um Deus que é imóvel como uma pedra, necessário como operações
lógico-formais. Os analíticos pensam Deus como o Ser que é totalmente
Outro, como a Pura Negação. Ora, tal Deus se desfaz e deixa de ser Deus,
pois negação só existe como negação de algo. Este Deus perde a divin-
dade e apresenta-se como fruto da negação que o próprio homem está a
fazer. Este Deus é um Deus construído, e assim um Deus falso e perver-
so. Se isso fosse Deus, então seria melhor ser ateu. Conclusões deste tipo
foram feitas por muitos filósofos que só conseguem pensar o Absoluto
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Exigem, sim. O grande arquiteto, porém, não é um Deus que fica fora
do mundo, girando as esferas dos astros e dos átomos, e sim um Deus
que está no âmago das coisas e do Universo. Deus não está fora, ele está
dentro. Ele não empurra de fora os planetas e os átomos em suas órbitas.
Deus não brinca com planetas, astros e homens como uma criança brinca
com seus brinquedos, que lhe ficam sempre externos. Deus, o Absolu-
to, está dentro, no âmago. Deus é um Princípio que é interno, que de
dentro para fora constitui o Universo. Só que este é outro Deus, este é o
Deus dos neoplatônicos, o Deus de Plotino e Proclo, o Deus de Agosti-
nho, de Eriúgena e de Nicolau Cusanus, o Deus de Goethe, de Fichte, de
Schelling e de Hegel, o Deus de Teilhard de Chardin.
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Mas uma boa Teoria Geral da Evolução – teoria que é Lógica e também
Ontológica – baseia-se em três Primeiros Princípios: da Identidade, da
Diferença e da Coerência. Como vimos na primeira e na segunda parte
deste trabalho, esses Princípios são Princípios do pensar e do falar. Eles
são Princípios da Lógica. Eis aqui o Logos que está no começo e que tudo
perpassa. Há uma Lógica, existe um Logos, desde o primeiro começo. A
teoria que estou defendendo é uma forma de idealismo. Um idealismo
que contém contingência, sim, mas um idealismo. É por isso que julgo
que o conceito de Absoluto em Hegel, com as leves correções aqui feitas,
está perfeitamente adequado. Para pensar o Absoluto, há que se desmas-
carar a má infinitude e entender o Absoluto como boa infinitude, como
ideia absoluta e como saber Absoluto.
Mas, fora Hegel, nada mais? Sim. Seja-me permitido citar ainda dois au-
tores, Meister Eckhard e Goethe. Um é um grande místico; o outro é
chamado de grande pagão. O grande místico e o grande pagão têm um
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Dialectics for Beginners
To Maria
And to my students
Summary
205 Preface
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We and the Greeks
Heraclitus’ Garden
Initial questions
Where did we come from? Where are we going? What is the reason for
the world and our life? Did the universe have a beginning? Will it have
an end? Are there laws ruling the course of the universe? Are these laws
for us, too? May we disobey these laws? What happens when we disobey
them? Is there reward and punishment? Is there really? Or should there
be? Does this happen now during this life or in some existence after
death? Can we think about an eternal life, an existence after death, with-
out contradiction? Can there be a time after all time is finished? Can there
be an after after the last and final after? After all, what are we?
These are the questions which from the beginning of time, everyone
when reaching adulthood has asked. These are the questions that engaged
all philosophers since the Pre-Socratics. Philosophy is an attempt, always
frustrated and constantly taken up again, at giving a rational answer to
these questions. This is what we will elaborate on in this essay. A final and
definite answer which completely answers these questions does not exist.
Even more, such a complete and finished answer is, as we will see, impos-
sible in Philosophy. But, as many questions can be asked, many answers
can and should be given.
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In a puzzle we must fit each piece with the neighboring pieces so that
the edges of each one coincide with the edges of the neighboring pieces,
making up a coherent image which appears in the end without holes or
ruptures. A puzzle consists in inserting piece by piece one into the other,
with perfect fitting of the edges, until all the pieces are correctly placed
and the final, coherent, meaningful image becomes visible. If there are
pieces left, the puzzle was not finished. If there are pieces missing, the
puzzle was lacking something and the image will be incomplete. In large
puzzles it is perfectly possible for us to assemble pieces of the large final
image, each piece with its own figures, but without the final composition.
If we continue until the end, and the puzzle is not lacking pieces, all the
pieces will then fit together. There will not be any pieces missing nor any
left over, and the total image will be clear and visible.
This is where the first difference between the puzzle and Philosophy ap-
pears. In Philosophy we don’t have all the pieces. The universe is still
in the making. History is not yet finished. Many things we have no clue
of are still to come. The Philosopher does not have all the pieces - the
future has not yet arrived - and therefore, the final mosaic will always be
incomplete. Nevertheless, it is necessary to assemble the puzzle with the
existing pieces, including the player himself. Each one of us who is a con-
crete player must jump into the ultimate mosaic of Philosophy, which is
the universal meaning of the universe in which we live, that is the ultimate
meaning of our lives; in this way Philosophy becomes existential. But, as
History and Evolution have not yet finished, the image that appears on
the mosaic, although global, will always have large empty spaces. This
means that, while History is still happening, Philosophy as a global system
of knowledge is and will always be an inconclusive project. The Great
Science will never be complete and finished. Philosophy always is and will
continue to be only Love of Knowledge.
No one can pretend that the particular sciences do not exist. No one
should pretend, as some present-day Philosophers do, that Philosophy is
only Philosophy of Language or Theory of Knowledge. This is also im-
portant; this is also part of Philosophy. But Philosophy is more than just
a Metalanguage Theory; Philosophy is a Great Science, which contains in
itself all, I repeat, all the particular sciences with their theories and un-
answered questions. Then the question arises: Is this still possible? Now-
adays, in our century, with the incredible development of the particular
sciences, is it still possible to make a Great Synthesis? Of course it is nec-
essary and it is possible. Moreover, as the particular sciences developed,
so did the resources available to the Philosopher trying to build the basic
framework of the Great Unified Theory again. It’s a little embarrassing,
but we must admit that many philosophers today have abandoned the idea
of the Great Synthesis and are happy with partial subsystems; that means
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After the intellectual collapse of Hegel’s system during the second half
of the last century, after the political collapse of Marxism - which is a type
of leftist Hegelianism - in 1989, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and soon
after with the breaking up of the Soviet Union, Philosophy seems to have
become a dead end street. Instead of the Great Synthesis we have only
a great impasse. Reason, which was ambitious and went looking for the
Great Synthesis; reason, the one reason, the unique and most universal
reason, is destroyed by Nietzsche’s sledge hammer. Reason, the one Rea-
son, unique and with a capital letter, was declared dead. Reason died, the
multiple small reasons live, the reasons of many different perspectives as
Nietzsche said; the reasons of multiple horizons, as Heidegger wanted;
the reasons of multiple language games, as Wittgenstein affirmed. The
one and unique Reason died the multiple reasons with their relativisms
live. This is the post-modern thesis of thought.
The positive side of this dissolution of the reason's unity, which was de-
fined by Illuminism, is that in our century we became more modest, more
understanding, more open to other cultures, more tolerant with the for-
eigner, more attentive to alterity. The particular, including the particular
sciences, progressed immensely. Even Logic, which before was the one
Logic, unique, in the singular and with a capital letter, as the Logic of Ar-
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istotle and the master thinkers of the Middle Ages has been transformed.
Today we have, next to Aristotelian logic, written in small letters, many
other logics. Today we speak about logics, in the plural and with small
letters. What happened to Logic, happened also to Reason as a whole.
Instead of Reason, today we have many reasons, in the plural and with
small letters.
Post-modern reason puts one subsystem next to another and another and
still another, always one next to the other without a higher and more am-
ple unity which encloses them; the cracks between the various subsystems
remain empty. Post-modern reason denies the existence of principles or
laws that are really universal, which connect the various subsystems; that
is, principles that are always valid, in all spheres, in all the cracks and
for everything. Furthermore, extreme Post-Modernism says that, strictly
speaking, there is no universally valid proposition.
Now, whoever makes such a statement, by saying this, says just the op-
posite. Such an affirmation is a contradiction in itself, it causes a logi-
cal implosion. Let’s see what happens in another, simpler example. We
will take the proposition that There is no true proposition. Anyone who
affirms such a thing is implicitly saying There is no proposition which
is true, except this one that I am now stating. Therefore the implicitly
made exception denies the universality of that which was affirmed: there
is no truth that all propositions are false, since at least this one, which is
being affirmed, is being affirmed as being true. This also happens with
the post-modern proposition there is no proposition which is universally
valid for all subsystems; in saying and affirming this, we are saying that at
least this proposition is valid in all subsystems. The same thing happens
in class when the teacher complains about the talking and little Johnny
says But teacher, no one is talking. In saying this he contradicts exactly
what he is saying. It is for this reason that post-modern reason is good,
yes, as respect for alterity and regard for diversity, but is very bad as a
substitute for universally valid reason. It cannot be universalized; if we do
it, it explodes. This is why post-modern philosophy in this sense does not
and will not ever exist. Whoever wishes to do Philosophy in the way of
post-modern reason, overlapping subsystems, without ever making an en-
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The more negative side of post-modern reason is the trash that accumu-
lates in the crevices between the various subsystems. And it is there, into
these empty crevices, that we sweep the contradictions and badly solved
problems. Between one subsystem and another is where the trash of rea-
son lies. Particular theories, articulated just as subsystems, permit that
between one and another subsystem the biggest absurdities sprout up
and bloom. The contradictions were not resolved, they were just swept
away. This is not enough. One must think about the multiplicity as well
as the unity. Without unity, multiplicity enters into contradiction, as we
have already seen. Multiplicity in the Unity, Unity in the Multiplicity; it is
necessary to reconcile both equally legitimate and necessary poles. And it
is time to rethink Parmenides as well as Heraclitus.
Parmenides’ Sphere
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Parmenides, the great thinker of the one, only, unique and immutable
being, is, despite this great mistake, the intellectual father of all real Phi-
losophy, because he was the first who took the unity of reason and of
being so seriously. Everything that exists is a part of the Whole and the
One. The One and the Whole, Hen kai pan, are the beginning and the end
of all true Philosophy, of the science that wants to understand all things
in the framework of the Great Synthesis. The mistake Parmenides com-
mitted, which is visible to everyone, is not taking the moment of diversity
and movement equally seriously. He could not think of the Non-Being
as something that in some ways is. Parmenides has the conception of the
universe as the Whole and the One, but he misses the movement in which
everything flows. Heraclitus is missing.
Reality is not just Being, it is not, for the same reason, just Non-Being.
Real reality is a tension that connects and unites Being and Non-Being.
Dialectics appears here for the first time in the History of Philosophy.
Being and Non-Being, thesis and antithesis, are united on a higher plane
through a synthesis. Being and Non-Being, which at first seem to oppose
and exclude each other, constitute in real reality a synthetic unity which
is Being in Motion, Becoming. In Becoming there is an element which is
Being, but there is also another element which is equally essential which is
Non-Being. Being and Non-Being, well mixed, do not repel and exclude
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each other, but enter into an amalgam and blend together to make up a
new reality.
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unending war. It was for this reason only, that the Trojans, led by Hector,
fought till death. All of this only because of one woman, Homer says in
the Iliad. All of this only because of the philia, which transcends the in-
dividuals and reaches a higher and stronger synthesis. Love then becomes
History, the History of the Greeks and Trojans, the Iliad and the Odyssey,
the beginning of our civilization.
Thesis and antithesis are, in the first stage, opposite poles which repel and
exclude each other. In a second stage, both unify in a synthesis which is
something higher and nobler. In this synthesis, Hegel would say much later,
the initial poles are overcome and conserved (Aufheben). On one hand
they are overcome, because they have lost some of their characteristics. In
the example of the love of friendship, the character of unilaterality and risk
is surpassed and in this way disappears. But, on the other hand, the poles
are conserved in synthesis, because the positive nucleus already existing
in them continues and is preserved. Love, when it stops being a unilateral
act, becomes even more love; it becomes a higher and nobler love. Thesis,
antithesis and synthesis constitute that which Greek philosophers called a
game of opposites. This is the beginning, the root of Dialectics.
Heraclitus, the father of Dialectics, said that we cannot step into the same
river twice. The river is not the same, we are not the same. Everything is
in flowing motion; it is the motion that is real reality. Reality, he teaches,
is dialectically woven through a game of opposites. In the beginning all is
fighting and war, because the opposites oppose and exclude each other.
Pólemos patér pánton, the war is the beginning of all things. But, after-
wards there is often a unifying synthesis that bears something else more
complex, higher, nobler.
In the game of opposites there is not always a positive result. Many times
what happens is only death and destruction. The opposite poles in this
case act only as destructive agents. The first annuls the second or vice ver-
sa, or both mutually annul each other. In such cases there is no synthesis,
there is no Dialectics.
It's also evident that, in order to understand the universe in its unity, we
have to grasp it as a synthesis. When and why is there synthesis? That
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syntheses exist in the universe is quite clear. One can see it, just look at
the cosmos. But the question is: why is it that sometimes there is synthesis
and sometimes not? Whoever has an answer to this has found the answer
to the question about the harmony in the universe, about the organiza-
tion of the cosmos. The main question of all Philosophy, Science of the
Great Synthesis, is: why do opposites sometimes exclude each other and
sometimes unite each other?
The Pre-Socratic Philosophers were the first, in our culture, to sketch out
a rational view of the world, saying how Nature began, how and what it
is made of, and what man’s place is in it. Before these first thinkers con-
structed rationality, there was only Myth. Myth is the first, not yet critical
form, of philosophizing, that is, of thinking about the world as one, of
thinking about the universe in its totality. Myth, among the Greeks, as-
sumes the figure of genealogy. In the beginning, in the very beginning,
according to the old Greeks, there is just chaos. Chaos is the beginning of
all and is, therefore, the first of the gods, father and origin of all things.
From the god Chaos then appear other gods in a genealogical sequence
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in which one god succeeds the other as descendant, until we reach the
present gods, the present inhabitants of Olympus, a group of gods led
by Zeus.
Also in the Jewish-Christian tradition Myth takes the basic form of gene-
alogy. In the beginning, the Jewish and Christian Bible say there was only
God. God, before creating everything, was just himself, he was alone.
Then on the first day, God, the Father of everything, created light, calling
the light Day and the darkness Night. On the second day, God made the
firmament and separated the waters. Then there were waters below the
firmament, the seas and river, and waters above the firmament, which
later fell as rain. On the third day, God separated the earth and the seas,
making the land, the rich earth, the plants and the fruit-bearing trees.
On the fourth day, God, the Father, created the lights in the firmament
of the heavens, one greater, the sun, and one smaller, the moon, in this
way dividing the day from the night. He also created the small lights in
the firmament which are the stars. On the fifth day, God, the Creator,
created the animals that live in the waters, the fish, as well as those that
live on land, the beasts, and those that fly, the birds, each one according
to its species. God then blessed them and ordered them to multiply. On
the sixth day, God made man in his image and likeness, to dominate over
the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, all the reptiles and over all the
earth. God then looked at the things that he had created and saw that all
of them were good. And on the seventh day, says the biblical myth, God
rested. Starting from this beginning, the entire Bible is a genealogical his-
tory; it is a history of patriarchs and their peoples, with a special emphasis
on the Jewish people.
The Greek myths as well as the myths of the Jews and the Christians tell
the history of the origin of the universe from its beginning until the his-
torical sequence of the times. The past time is synthetized as one History
that has a beginning and brings us to the present time, giving meaning
to things and therefore to our lives. This historical summary of the past,
which always contains judgments of value - the Good and the Beautiful
- constitutes the background in which present time is inserted. Through
the insertion in this framework which links the past to the present, dai-
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The Pre-Socratic Philosophers know the myth and appreciate its savage
beauty and pedagogical relevance. But we must think and argue rationally.
This is Philosophy, and this is why there are philosophers. This means
that the process of Genesis of the universe should be analyzed and de-
scribed with the exactness and cold objectivity that characterize science.
It is in Geometry that the first thinkers got inspiration for their spirit of
scientific objectivity. The Philosophy of Nature should be as exact, as
objective, and as convincing as Geometry. The Pre-Socratics tried hard,
but they didn’t get there.
Thales of Miletus thought that the origin and the beginning - the arkhé
- of everything is water. The things are made up and differ one from
one another by the level of humidity. The god Ocean is therefore the
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Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans took one step further and discovered
the number as the beginning of all things. The mathematization of the
world started there and nevermore ended. The relations established be-
tween the numbers forge the rules that determine the process of the
explanation of the world. The universe is derived from a first principle
according to numeric rules and proportions, which determine the whole
process and give form to things. Each number, therefore, has its own
meaning and gives things a determinate form. The number ten is consid-
ered a perfect number and is visualized as an equilateral triangle in which
each side is formed from four numbers; in the center of the triangle
there is only one point, the central point, totalizing the number ten. The
so-called numbers mystic of the Pythagoreans, which will later influence
Plato and all the neoplatonic school, is the cradle from which the modern
Physics equations are born.
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position among themselves. The number One opposes the Other which is
then called Two. From this first opposition come the numbers 1 and 2. But
there must be synthesis, it is necessary to think not only of the 1 and 2, but
also of a new conjunction, and from that comes 3. Thesis is 1, antithesis is
2, and the synthesis is 3. That’s why, according to the Pythagoreans, the odd
numbers are more perfect: in them we perceive, beyond the opposition of
two contrary poles, a synthesis. The triangle formed of ten points, or 10 in
the form of a triangle is perfection itself. After we reach 10, everything else
is just a repetition. That is how the decimal system of counting and calcu-
lating appeared in our civilization to never again leave it.
This mysticism of the numbers then adds up to a list of ten pairs of op-
posites - the elementary substances - which, according to combinations
among themselves give form to all things:
Limited Unlimited
Odd Even
One Multiple
Right Wrong
Male Female
Motionless Motion
Straight Curved
Light Dark
Good Evil
Square Rectangular
Along the same line as his predecessors, always playing the game of the
opposites, Empedocles is the first who expressly tries to solve the problem
exposed by Parmenides and Zeno of Elea. He realizes that the Non-Be-
ing does not exist and cannot even be properly thought of. He accepts the
initial premise of the Eleatics’ argument, but does not accept the conclu-
sion. One cannot conclude, he affirms, that movement be unthinkable, be
contradictory, and for that reason be impossible, and therefore non-ex-
istent. On the contrary, movement exists, only it is not the passage from
Being to Non-Being or vice versa, but mixtures and dissolution of the
four fundamental substances which are eternal and indestructible: water,
earth, air and fire. The basic elements are not ten, but two pairs of oppo-
sites. The determinations of things vary according to the composition of
these four elements in them. The dose of liquid and solid, of fire and air,
the proportion in which these elements mix with each other is what gives
shape and form to the things. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae also accepted
the premise that the Non-Being could not exist and continued thinking
the world as a process of composition and dissolution of basic elements.
Contrary to Empedocles, Anaxagoras judged that it was not possible to
construct the real diversity of things from just the four elements. He
assumed for this the existence of spermata, of sperms. The word itself,
which in Greek means the male spermatozoid, shows the biological ten-
dency of this Philosophy. The sperms would be numerically infinite, of
infinite variety, each one divisible within itself without losing its germi-
nating and determining power. This initial mass of sperm is the raw ma-
terial of the world. The determinations of the things are then produced
by an Intelligent Orderer, the nous, which mixes the sperm in an ordered
way. The figure of God, the creator, appears here, not as an external
cause but as an internal cause which, starting from within the chaos, gets
it to organize itself. After the sperm of Anaxagoras, we then have the at-
oms of Leucippus and Democritus, the first atomists. According to them,
who also accepted the principle that the Non-Being could not exist, these
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first principles of all things, all of which are qualitatively equal, they are
a-toms, that is, they are indivisible. Tomein means cut, atom is what is no
longer cuttable, which cannot be cut because it is a primary element. The
atoms, indiscernible one from the other, initially constitute a shapeless
mass. These uncountable atoms are first encountered in free fall. Chance
- here again is the god Chaos - allows for small detours to one side and
the other on these vertical free fall lines. These small detours make the
concentration of atoms more or less dense. These variations of density
make up the nucleus of the explanation of the world. Each thing is what
it is due to a change in the atom concentration. The atoms and Chance
form the two elements which explain the nature of things. The atoms
will come up again in modern Physics. Only they are not in free fall, but
moving in circles. The electrons orbit around a nucleus. By increasing the
number of electrons in orbit, the specific weight of the elements gradu-
ally changes from hydrogen, element number 1, to the element number
107. Chance we will meet again in Heisenberg’s relation of uncertainty, in
Physics, and especially as the chance mutation in modern Biology.
The Sophists
Sophist is a term which initially meant "the wise", sophia means "wis-
dom"; therefore Philosophy etymologically means "love of wisdom".
The term Sophist as well as the word Sophism only later, after Aristot-
le’s debate with Plato, acquires a pejorative meaning. It is Sophists who
first transplant the game of opposites of Heraclitus from the plane of
Philosophy of Nature to the plane of social relations. The Sophists are
occupied not so much with nature as with the lives of the people in the
cities; they are interested in the demos, the people, and in the polis. This
is the time when, in Greece, the old aristocracy goes into a slow but inex-
orable decadence and when the power of the people becomes stronger
and stronger. The people are the ones who do business, who go from one
city to another, who break from the narrow limits of the old world and
through trips and travelers open new horizons and inaugurate new values
and virtues. The polis is no longer an isolated city with its own constitu-
tion and traditional virtues; it is a city among many others. In this context
a novelty emerges: the intellectual and political necessity of discussing
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The greatest positive characteristic of the Sophists was the ulterior elab-
oration of the game of opposites as a methodical way to think and act;
Dialectics emerges more and more clearly. The game of opposites, trans-
ported to the scheme of social relations, means that each man is just a
pole of an opposition. In order to understand a pole, to know what a
pole in reality is and what it means, it is necessary to think of this first
pole in relation to its opposite pole. Each man, in his social relationships,
is just one pole, a part. To understand this first man it is necessary to see
him in his relationship of opposition with the other man which is his
opposite. Philesis is only well understood if we think of it in relation to
the antiphilesis; and still more, both contrary poles can only be correctly
and completely understood when we put them together in a greater and
higher unit, in philia, in which both are superseded and maintained. This
is the reason why human relations should be analyzed in the light of the
game of opposites.
This is especially valid in two fields of human relations, in Law and Pol-
itics. In Law the game of opposites arises as one of the oldest and more
important rules of any and all justice: May the other side also be heard,
Audiatur et altera pars. The man that looks for justice in a court is always
one part. He is just one part of the greater whole. For justice to be done,
it is always necessary to hear the other side. This other side, the other pole
in the game of opposites, does not always need to be right. It is possible
that only the first part is right or that only the other part is right, it can be
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that both parts are right, that both parts are partiality right and partially
wrong. In any case, always, if there is to be justice, it is necessary to also
hear the other part. The first part, the first pole of opposition, is always
only part in the literal sense, a piece of a greater whole. Justice requires
that the reason of each part be measured and evaluated in the larger
context of the synthetic position, that is, that greater and nobler whole,
in which each part is just a piece, a constitutive element of a greater unit.
Justice is exactly this and only this. Justice, therefore, what we call Law, is a
constant and systematic form of the game of opposites. Penal Law is also
such but in this case one of the parts is always the people. To this day, the
penal processes in the countries of Anglo-Saxon tradition have titles like
"The People versus A. Smith". For this reason until now jurists of Latin
languages speak of the necessity of the contradictorium. The term con-
tradictorium means here the dialectic context which comes to us from the
ancient times, the principle of hearing the other side, because justice is
always the formation of a synthesis, never thesis or antithesis alone, one
without the other. The part in the system of Laws is always only a part, a
piece which needs its other part, its opposite, in order to establish justice
even today. The jurists today do not always realize this: they are dialectical,
we are all dialectical.
only in which the parties, which are just parts, acquire sense and justifica-
tion. On the other hand we can immediately see that Politics only exists
when there are two parties. In Politics, a single party is a monster, not
only in the despotic regimes of the ancient Greeks, but also in the 20th
century totalitarianisms. Here again we find the old game of opposites.
For sure, the Sophists were not the inventors of Law and Politics, but
they were the first philosophers in our culture who theoretically thought
of the game of opposites as a constitutive and essential element of social
relations. This honor must be granted to them. In this they were right.
Aside from this they made some grave mistakes and committed some
stupidities for which History does not forgive them. To this day Sophists
are infamous and the word sophism has a highly negative connotation.
This is because they committed a great theoretical error which today we
can address precisely. Instead of saying that the thesis and the antithesis
are false, and that the synthesis and only the synthesis is the complete
truth, the Sophists inverted the signs and said that the thesis as well and
the antithesis were equally true.
Let us schematisize. True and correct Dialectics affirms that each part is
only part, or that thesis as well as antithesis are false because they are par-
tial. Sophists say: thesis and antithesis are equally true. The consequenc-
es of this logical error are incredible and extremely heavy in Politics. If
thesis and antithesis are true, one can defend one as well as the other.
The Sophists, now in the derogatory sense of the word, began to defend
one side as well as the other, as if both sides were equally right. Justice
then does not exist. The sense of right and correctness flies away and the
sophist mentality that any position is good as long as one has the verbal
skill to debate installs itself. The Sophists, in the bad sense of the word,
defend anyone, any part, any party, as if it were, itself, the total truth. And
still worse, the Sophists do so because that is what they are paid for, be-
cause they request and receive payment. The payment in money, request-
ed and accepted so that one part be represented as if it were the whole,
such is the great mistake and the great guilt of the Sophists. Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, no one ever forgave them. With reason. After recovering
and reinventing Dialectics, they went away from it. They forgot that a part
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is always and only a part; a part which only with its corresponding coun-
terpart forms a greater whole. The game of opposites when perverted
and inverted turns from best to worst.
Socrates is many times called the last of the Sophists. This is correct if we
understand the term Sophist in its positive connotation. Socrates was the
great Dialectic thinker, the great defender of moral and political subjects,
of the game of opposites which complete and unite to form a greater
whole. Socrates is the great voice which rose in Athens to criticize the
perversion the Sophists caused to Dialectics. It is not possible to defend
the thesis as well as the antithesis as if both were equally true. It is not
correct, it is exactly the opposite. Both positions are false. Truth is just the
synthesis from which both are created. Virtue, therefore, does not consist
of defending a thesis - or antithesis -, as if this were a total and complete
truth; on the contrary, in uncovering thesis as well as antithesis as being
wrong, that is - which is the same -, as being only partial elements in a
greater whole. Only the greater whole, only the synthesis is what is true.
The Sophists argued at times in favor of the thesis; at times in favor of
the antithesis. In many concrete cases in political life, the same sophist,
paid by one group, argued first in favor of the truth of the thesis and
then, paid by another group, in favor of the truth of the antithesis. Then,
right away, with the money in his pocket, he left the citizens behind per-
plexed with the contradiction.
This is what Socrates raised his voice against. The game of opposites has
to be done correctly. A part is just a part, it is not the whole. Or, it is first
necessary to argue showing the falseness, that is, the partiality of the thesis,
then showing the falseness of the antithesis, which is also partial, in order
to then suggest the conciliation of the two, the greater, nobler truth.
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always listen to the other side as well. Only in this way can we discover
and create the truth. To know how to listen to the other part means, in
practical life, to establish a dialogue, to converse with each other. This,
Socrates said, is doing Politics in a city of free and rational citizens. Better
still, it is only in this way that one acquires true knowledge and discovers
which of the ancient virtues is not merely foolish tradition but a morally
correct attitude, a moral virtue. According to Socrates, to philosophize is
knowing how to engage in conversation.
According to Socrates, virtue, always the fruit of the game between thesis
and antithesis, is found only through real dialogue done on street corners
and in public squares. Socrates listens, Socrates asks, Socrates answers.
Socrates probes the inner voice of the conscience which he, personifying
it, calls daimon, the good demon, the good spirit. Socrates does not write.
We have nothing of his written down. Why write if the important thing is
to converse concretely, person to person? When Plato, Socrates’ disciple
and follower, teaches and writes in the Academy, the rule continues to be
valid that the literary form of treating philosophic subjects, even if writ-
ten, is always the dialogue. From this come Plato’s Dialogues.
Socrates, the man of ethical and political dialogue, was, as we know, con-
demned to death by his fellow citizens. With his dialogues he has com-
mitted a great crime against the gods of the city of Athens and attempted
against the good customs, perverting the youth. The great thinker of I
know that I don’t know anything, the great master of dialogue in Ethics
and Politics, died conversing. The dialogue Apology of Socrates in which
Plato relates the happenings and ideas that surrounded the condemnation
and death of Socrates is one of the great masterpieces of our civilization.
In the game of opposites, even when the logic plan is transposed to the
level of social relationships, three things can happen. First, it can be that
the first pole is true; then the second pole is false and has to be aban-
doned. Second, it can be that the second pole is the true one and then the
first must be abandoned. But third, it can also be that both poles are false
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and the partial truths held in the opposite poles must be discovered piece
by piece, uniting them, conciliating them, in order to create a real unity of
a higher synthesis. This never happens because it is logically impossible
for both poles, thesis and antithesis, to be true. This is the logic mistake
in which the Sophists incurred; this is the logical-systematic fundament
of the moral and political errors they committed.
There are two doctrines in Plato which complement and complete each
other, the exoteric doctrine and the esoteric doctrine. The exoteric doc-
trine - the prefix ex indicates this - is destined for the use of people out-
side, it is done and explained for the beginners and those from outside
without the necessary prerequisites, not yet in condition to understand
the hard nucleus of the doctrine. The exoteric doctrine is easier; it is
more didactic, more introductory. In it the game of opposites really stays
almost always open, with no final synthesis. Plato brings up a thesis; he
discusses, debates, examines it from all angles and then finally refutes it.
The thesis is always demonstrated as false. Then the antithesis is raised
and is also examined and debated, being in the end invariably refuted. We
have then a false thesis and an equally false antithesis, both useless, in our
hands. This is aporia, this is the dead end.
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Plato’s dialogues, almost all of them - except for a few from his old age
- are aporetic, that is, they end in a dead end. Dialectics, the game of
opposites, is not fully carried out. Synthesis is always missing, as it is
among the contemporaries of the School of Frankfurt. There Dialectics
is a negative Dialectics, a Dialectics without synthesis. But this, we shall
see, is not good Dialectics. And Plato, disciple of the Heraclitean philos-
opher Cratylus as well as of Socrates, knew this very well. He also knew
that Dialectics is not done by magic in one instant, with the blink of an
eye, but in a long, serious, difficult, many times painful process of over-
coming existent contradictions between thesis and antithesis. Dialectics is
education and as such, is done in a slow learning and maturing process.
A child does not become a man in one day, a tree does not grow in one
week, Dialectics as well needs time and hard work. The opposites have
to be worked upon seriously; if they are not, the synthesis will be hollow
and empty. That is why for the beginners and those outside Dialectics is
not immediately exposed and explained completely, it appears under the
shape of an exoteric doctrine. In an exoteric doctrine contraries are raised
in all their seriousness, one refuting its opposite, but in the end Plato
leaves his listeners and readers in suspense. Really there is no expressly
formulated, spoken or written synthesis. It is necessary for the reader to
try to fit the pieces in the puzzle by himself. It is necessary for him to try
and experiment gathering pieces taking the intellectual risk of the task. It
is necessary that this somewhat shapeless mass of contrary oppositions
without synthesis, of opposites without conciliation, spends some time
simmering so that great synthetic ideas can emerge. These great synthe-
ses, when they sprout and emerge, form the esoteric doctrine, the doc-
trine which the initiated argue among each other, the doctrine which the
beginners cannot even begin to understand. Because the final syntheses
are so simple and so bright that those who seek them directly without
running the long course of maturing the opposite poles become blinded
and cannot see anything correctly. It is the same as looking directly at the
sun. The beginner, if he looks directly at the great syntheses of esoteric
doctrine, becomes so blinded that he thinks he is seeing absolutely noth-
ing. That is why the hard work of playing with the opposites must be
done previously.
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Unfortunately many authors, when they speak of Plato, only study and
mention this exoteric doctrine. This is just a first approximation on the
climb that takes one to the philosophic doctrine which is frequently mis-
taken as Plato’s Philosophy. Plato is so violently disparaged. Instead of
being understood as the thinker of the Great Synthesis, he is thought of
as a new sophist who grabs the two opposite poles without unifying or
conciliating them, leaving them as two opposite, conflicting, irreducible
principles. This has been called working by dichotomies since the ancient
times. Cut in two, construct the opposite poles, incite one against the
other, let one destroy the other, or better, let both poles turn around
each other like two warriors in mortal combat, this is Dialectics without
synthesis. The true Plato is a thinker of the Great Synthesis, of Dialec-
tics in its full sense of unification and conciliation of opposites, but the
Plato that is studied in most of our books - and this is very serious - the
Plato of a large part of academic tradition is just the Plato of the exoteric
doctrine, the Plato of opposites without synthesis, the dualistic Plato.
And this is an intellectual disaster because it will generate dichotomies in
which the opposite poles will nevermore be reunited. Opposite poles in a
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full Dialectics and taken to its appropriate synthesis are excellent, they are
movements that point and conduct us further on. In a negative Dialectics
with no synthesis, the dichotomic poles become unsolvable problems.
This is why we must study this first binomial of Platonic philosophy, the
world of ideas and the world of things, with attention, examining it care-
fully on both sides. First as two opposite poles which apparently exclude
each other, then as two elements which unify, come together and then
become one nobler, higher unit. We men are not angels mounted on pigs,
nor centaurians, but men, a synthetic unit in which the originally oppos-
ing poles, body and soul, disappear while they are opposites and become
a new perfect and finished reality.
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The Sophists argued in favor of the two poles indistinctively defending one
or the other equally, many times arguing in favor of both: argumentari in
utramque partem. Socrates, the last of the Sophists, teaches us that this is
not possible: two contrary poles cannot be true simultaneously. Socrates
teaches us to ask and to find the answers, to discover the synthesis between
thesis and antithesis. This synthesis is not made up of the strength of the
stronger, as the Sophist Gorgias would say, but of the virtue. What is vir-
tue? Socrates said that he did not know and told us to converse.
This is still the main theme and Plato’s big problem. After all, what is
virtue? If it is not the brutal force of the stronger pole that decides ev-
erything, then what does virtue consist of ? The answer to this question
is the beginning of all Plato’s philosophy: virtue is that which should be.
The world that does in fact exist, as it is in front of our eyes, does not al-
ways coincide with that which should be. The Should-Be is an ideal to be
reached, the Should-Be is the Idea. In that way the Platonic idea is born.
The condemnation - unjust - of Socrates showed Plato clearly that the
World-Which-Really-Is does not always coincide with the Ideal-World-
Which-Should-Be.
The Sophists thought that virtue, the Should-Be, was something floating,
something relative, something that varied from situation to situation and
which did not have principles valid for all cases. Plato does not accept this
relativity. There are ethical principles which always have the same value for
everyone, and these principles are universally valid, even before being ad-
opted by political communities; they are general principles of the order of
the world. Plato elaborates a practical philosophy, Ethics and Politics, based
on the principles which man must adopt because they are principles of
order of the entire cosmic universe. Plato’s Ethics is based on Ontology, a
doctrine about Being in general, a doctrine about the order of the universe.
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How shall we know that a determined rule or principle is, more than a
mere convention, an unquestionable rule, a rule that cannot be denied,
that cannot be changed or transformed, that it is like that and must be like
that, now and forever, all over the world.
Is it possible to find and bring such fundamental principles about the order
of the Universe to light? Plato smiles and shows us that it is. In the Menon
Dialogue an illiterate slave is brought to the presence of Socrates who was
debating with friends about the existence or non-existence of general prin-
ciples of the being of the Universe and all knowledge. Some doubted that it
was possible to discover and elaborate such principles. After all, where were
such principles written? Where, in what book, in what monument would
they be written? Socrates, always the central figure for Plato, answers: The
first principles are written on the pith of the being and therefore on the pith
of our soul. Do you want to see? This slave never studied anything, he does
not know how to read or write, and he never studied Geometry. If he never
studied Geometry, he does not know the Pythagoras theorem. Well, I am
going to talk to him; I am going to ask him questions - just questions - and
let him answer. And Socrates began to gently ask, drawing lines in the sand
on the ground and making the figures. And if I draw this line here, what
happens? And what if I add this one? And in that way, step by step, while
Socrates kept asking, the slave advanced, discovering the links and being
able to formulate the great theorem of Geometry. How is it that the slave
was able to do this? How did he know? Plato answers: He already knew, he
had always known, he only needed to remember what he already knew and
had just forgotten. This knowledge was inborn; it was in the slave’s soul.
And it was there because it is a principle that is in each being, each thing,
because it is a principle of the order of the Universe itself. These principles
of the order of the Universe, inborn in each thing, are universally valid and
always present. They organize the Universe from inside out, they are what
makes the things of the world be not an unordered mass and chaos of
events, but a well-ordered cosmic Universe.
The Idea, says Plato, for whom ontology of participation exists in the
core of each thing, is the principle of order that determines and com-
mands its development. In a duck’s egg it is this principle of order which
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makes that egg develop into ducklings. From a hen’s egg, chicks are al-
ways born. And that’s the way with all things. This founding principle of
all things Plato calls form. Form determines what the thing is and how it
is going to develop.
All the ducks that exist have, all of them, the same form of the being
duck. The many chicks have the same chick-like form. Only one form,
only one basic design is made in various individuals. The Form is like that
of a drawing made by the designer; one thing is the project of the motor,
the basic design, another thing is the thousands of individual motors that
are made according to the project. We then have on one side the plurality
of individuals that exist in the world of things, and on the other side the
unity of Form.
The Forms have always existed, they are the ruling forces which deter-
mine the order of the cosmos. Before the cosmos existed, however, they
already existed and had value. It is also because of this that they have
universal validity. The ordered things of the cosmic universe came after.
First, before the things existed, before the things of our world had started
to exist, the Forms already existed. Is our cosmos not ruled and deter-
mined by them? Thus, they already existed before. They create a whole
world that consists only of forms. This world Plato calls the World of
Ideas and he locates it on a fictitious star. In this World of Ideas, which
has always existed on the star, separated from the World of Things, there
are also the individual souls of each man who will be born. The souls see
the Ideas face to face and therefore know the specific determinations of
each thing; they know everything of everything. When here on the World
of Things a man is born, his soul, which has always existed on the star in
the World of Ideas, is thrown into the prison of the body. This violent
dislocation makes the soul forget everything or almost everything that it
had seen on the Star. But, when man develops and grows up, upon meet-
ing with the things of the world, on stumbling upon them, he remembers
the Idea that he saw on the Star during the preexistence of his soul and,
remembering, he knows. Knowledge is always a memory, an anámnesis,
knowledge consists in remembering the Universal Idea of one thing, and
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then, facing that individual thing, in saying: Ah-ha, this is a man, this is
made in the form of a man; that is a duck, in that the form of a duck is
being made real. This explains why the ideas are always universal, even
though the things are always individual. Ideas are from another world.
And our language - strangest thing - says the individual things always
in a universal manner. Because the names, in language, represent forms
and the forms are always universal. Even though we are living in this
world of individual things, our language, the logos, has the character of
a universal idea.
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We find in the sixth Book of the Republic the more important and well-
known Myth of Plato: the Myth of the Cave. In no other image is Plato’s
Doctrine so well represented.
We imagine men who live in a cave. Since their birth they are prisoners
in there, chained by the feet and by the neck in such a way that their eyes
are always looking to the back of the cave. They can only see this wall in
the back. Behind the prisoners, at their back in the entrance to the cave,
there is a wall approximately the height of a man. Behind this wall walk
men, this way and that, carrying on their shoulders figures which they
raise over the wall. Farther back, right at the entrance to the cave, there
is a bonfire. The bonfire gives light; the light illuminates the scene and
projects the shadow of the figures over the wall to the back of the cave.
The prisoners only see the shadow projected by the figures. They also
hear the echoes of voices - the men who are carrying the figures behind
the wall - and think that this echo is the voice of the figures themselves.
What the prisoners sense is just this game of shadows and echoes. They
have been chained there since birth and think that the world is this and
only this. The world is this, they say, just this.
Imagine now that one of the prisoners manages to free himself from his
chains. Going to the entrance he immediately sees the wall and realizes that
the shadows projected on the back of the cave are just this, shadows. He
also realizes that the figures are just figures. He jumps over the wall and
goes out; then he sees the men carrying the figures, hears the voices, sees
the bonfire, the entrance to the cave and outside the light. When he leaves
the cave and tries to look at the sun, he is blinded. He lowers his eyes, lowers
his head and puts himself together again. When this man now returns to
the cave to free his companions, he knows. He knows that the shadows are
just a sham. The real reality is the reality of the light and the sun, the reality
of things themselves in the sunlight. All the rest are shadows, illusions. The
man, when freed from the chains that hold him prisoner, discovers himself
free and clear, he sees the reality that is really real, he sees the lightened
reality of the Ideas. He will never again confuse reality with the shadow of
the sham of reality. He who has seen the light knows.
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All Philosophy worked with the game of opposites until Aristotle. The
various pairs of opposites were the elements from which things were con-
structed. Plato, in the dialogue The Sophist, says that Dialectics is the Phil-
osophic method itself. According to Plato, Whoever learns Dialectics and
knows how to play the game of opposites, knows how to compose the
great mosaic of the meaning of life, knows how to make the explanation of
the world, and has the Great Synthesis. Aristotle, on outlining a panoramic
synopsis of the History of Philosophy from the Pre-Socratic philosophers
up to his time for his students and readers, always mentioned the game
of opposites as a methodical nucleus around which various opinions were
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All that we think and are in the western world comes from two sources,
Dialectics and Analytics. From Heraclitus and Plato we have the Dialectics
branch. From Parmenides and Aristotle we have the Analytic branch. Both
lines of thinking run through all History of Philosophy and through our
culture, accompanying us until today. The platonic project goes from one
hand to another through Plotinus, Proclus, and in part, Saint Augustine in
the classic times; through Johannes Scotus Eriugena, through the Chartres
School and many other neoplatonic thinkers of the Middle Ages; through
Nicolaus Cusanus, Ficino, Giordano Bruno during the Renascence; through
Spinoza, Schelling, Hegel and Karl Marx in Modern times.
Lamarck, Charles Darwin and almost all the great contemporaneous biol-
ogists, like Richard Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould; the physicists of to-
day with their theory of the Big Bang and black holes like Stephen Hawk-
ing, all of them are neoplatonic thinkers. They generally do not realize
this, they don’t know it but they are clearly platonic thinkers. The project
that they raise and upon which they develop their theories is the platonic
project of the Great Synthesis through Dialectics. The Aristotelian proj-
ect of Analytics in the Middle Ages passes through Albertus Magnus,
Thomas Aquinas, Dun Scotus and William of Ockham; in the Modern
Times it passes through Descartes, Leibnitz, Kant, Frege, Wittgenstein
and through the Analytic Philosophy of our times. In the continuation
and later elaboration of the Aristotelian project, under the guidance of
the analytic method, Logics, Mathematics and Physics prospered. In this
analytic tradition of Aristotle there are all the logicians and a large part
of the physicists of today. Galilei, Copernicus, Newton and Einstein are
thinkers of the analytic tradition. But, after all, what does Analytics have
that is so powerful and interesting that it produces so much fruit for such
a long time? What is Analytics?
ing. A large part of our culture and our technology is based on this. On
his foundation of analytic logic Aristotle developed, as we will later see,
an Ontology, an Ethics and a Politics, a complete philosophic conception
of the world that is characterized by his extremely static character. He is
much closer to Parmenides than to Heraclitus.
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The logical individual subject, Socrates, here in the example, is put into a
bigger whole that is the predicate is fair. The smaller set, which represents
the logical subject, is contained within a larger set which is the predicate.
The logical subject All Brazilians is a smaller set that is contained in the
larger set which represents all that is mortal. All Brazilians are mortal, but
not all mortals are Brazilian. There are people of other nationalities, as
well as plants and animals that are also in this set of mortal things. That is
why the logical subject All Brazilians is completely within the larger set of
those that are mortals. - In the proposition Some Brazilians are gauchos
things get a little more complicated: Not all Brazilians are gauchos, and
not all gauchos are Brazilian, there are also Uruguayan and Argentinean
gauchos. Therefore the drawing is a little different:
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This is not the same as before, in which one set is completely contained
within another larger set. Here, the set expressed by some Brazilians is
partially contained by the set are gauchos, but at the same time it is not
completely in it. This is easy to see in the diagram. The two sets enter into
a partial overlapping.
In the negative proposition the predicate does not have its own subject,
but opposes it. The subject is not within the predicate, the predicate is not
in the subject. One is outside the other.
The set of the subject is on one side, the set of the predicate is on the
other, like in the game of opposites of the Dialectics. But here, in Ana-
lytic Logic, one does not look for synthesis; here there is no conciliation,
here there is no movement. One pole excludes the other. That’s it. The
only ulterior differentiation that Aristotle does in his Analysis is, as we see
in the Logical Square, the distinction between opposites that are contrary
and opposites that are contradictory. This very important distinction is
going to be the battlefield on which analytic and dialectic philosophers
are going to fight for more than two thousand three hundred years.
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For each type of opposition there are different rules of inference. Aris-
totle discovered and described all of them. Is it possible to conclude the
falseness of proposition O from the truth of proposition A, that is its
contradictory opposite? Yes, always - answers Aristotle - the truth of A
logically follows the falseness of O. And the passage of A to E? And A
to I? For each type of opposition there are specific rules. Aristotle elabo-
rated the rules of the Logical Square by consequently applying the same
method that he used to analyze the internal structure of the proposition,
that is, asking if a proposition included or excluded the other. For any
example we can use the four propositions of the Logical Square and draw
Euler’s corresponding diagrams. The passage of A to I is easy. If it is true
that All men are mortal, then it is also true that Some men are mortal.
The larger set obviously includes the smaller set. The truth of A always
implies the truth of I. The passage of E to O is equally obvious. The
whole always contains its parts. The truth of E always implies the truth
of O. The reverse is not viable, because the truth of proposition I or O
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does not say anything about the falseness of the corresponding A and E
propositions. It is true that Some men are bad, but this does not mean
that All men are bad. This also as well as other logical paths that follow
the other sides of the Logical Square or cross through it, we shall see later
in more detail when we return to discussing what Dialectics is, since it is
right here that Analyticians and Dialecticians diverge.
Syllogism
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ject of the second premise with the predicate of the first and therefore
serves as a mediator so that the proposition which will be the conclusion
can appear. This is called Middle Term. The traditional diagram illustrates
well what we mean. M is the middle term:
M - P
S - M
S - P
In the first premise, the Middle Term is the subject of the proposition; in
the second it is the predicate. In the conclusion, that which was the sub-
ject of the second premise appears as the subject of the predication, and
as the predicate of the predication is what was the predicate of the first
proposition. Euler’s diagram intuitively shows this logical link of inclu-
sion better than words. One can see there that syllogism is just an ulterior
elaboration of the inclusion/exclusion method that we have already seen
in the structure of the proposition.
We can clearly see what the Middle Term is and how it works. Between
the subject and the predicate of the conclusion mediation is made so
that the larger set includes a smaller set, which in turn includes an even
smaller set.
It is on this basic model that Aristotle develops his doctrine about syllo-
gism and calculates exactly which syllogistic forms are logically valid and
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which are not. This syllogistic system was so well constructed by Aristotle
that this first elaboration became the final one. The Aristotelian doctrine
about syllogism is still valid of course, and even today it constitutes the
backbone of all Logic. Only with Frege is Logic going to have a new im-
pulse, a new reasoning and expansion.
According to the Middle Term position, there are four basic forms of
syllogism:
1 2 3 4
M - P P - M P - M M - P
S - M M - S S - M M - S
S - P S - P S - P S - P
The syllogisms in the ancient times and in the Middle Ages, received
names; it is clear that the names meant something important. The first
syllogism of the first figure is called Barbara. The three A’s of this name
- Barbara has the letter A repeated three times - indicates that both
the premises and also the conclusion are A propositions in the Logical
Square, that is universal affirmative propositions. The second syllogism is
called Darii. The first premise then is A, a universal affirmative proposi-
tion; the second premise and the conclusion are I, particular affirmative
propositions. The third syllogism is Ferio. The larger premise then is an
E proposition, universally negative; a smaller proposition is I, a particular
affirmative proposition, and the conclusion is O, a particular negative
proposition. The names of the syllogisms are the following. First Figure:
Barbara, Darii, Ferio. Second Figure: Cesare, Camestres, Festino, Baro-
co. Third Figure: Derapti, Felapton, Disamis, Datisi, Bocardo, Ferison.
Fourth Figure: Bamalip, Calemes, Dimatis, Fesapo, Fresison.
For the mere combination of letters there would be a much larger number
of syllogisms. But only the above mentioned syllogisms are logically valid,
that is, only these always work in such a way that from the truth of the
premises comes the truth of the conclusion. All the other combinations
are invalid. For example, a syllogism with the A - I - A sequence in the
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The larger premise is true, the smaller one is also true. But the conclusion
is false because some Gauchos, the Uruguayan and Argentinean Gau-
chos, do not speak Portuguese. Where is the mistake? In the incorrect
logic Form, as we see in the corresponding Euler diagram:
The set of all Gauchos is only partially inside the set of all Brazilians.
The correct conclusion would be an I proposition (Some Gauchos speak
Portuguese) and not a universal proposition A (All the Gauchos speak
Portuguese). Classic thinkers for this reason created various rules for con-
struction of syllogisms. The most important of them says: the conclusion
always follows the worst part. That is, if there is a negative or particular
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Aristotle’s central ideas, which are the doctrine about predication and the
system of syllogisms, take us to a position radically contrary to the Di-
alectics of Plato and the game of opposites of the Pre-Socratic Philos-
ophers. According to him, the game of thesis, antithesis and synthesis
simply does not work. For Aristotle, to affirm the truth of the thesis and
at the same time the truth of the synthesis is pure foolishness. Everyone
who affirms one thing and, at the same time and under the same aspect
affirms the contrary, is saying foolishness. Dialectics in Aristotle changes
its meaning; it is no longer a correct and very important procedure, like
in Plato, but that foolishness which the Sophists did. This is the highly
pejorative sense of the word Sophist. Because everyone who says some-
thing and at the same time says the opposite is not saying anything, he is
being foolish.
And what happens to the old master Plato and his Dialectics? If Dialec-
tics is foolishness, is Plato just a fool? Aristotle does not say this, Aristotle
changes the subject. It is obvious that he does not frontally attack his old
and respected master, Plato. But a meditated reading of the book Gamma
of Metaphysics shows us how Aristotle distances more and more from
Plato and the game of opposites. He is not about playing around with
thesis and antithesis; nothing comes from this; nothing rational results
from this. If one of them is true, the other simply is false, or vice-versa.
To try and follow the thesis and antithesis at the same time is pure fool-
ishness. This is Aristotle’s main and toughest objection to Plato; this is the
Analytic Philosophers’ objection to the Dialectic Philosophers. It was so
in the classic times and it is still so today. This is the main theme of this
book. Is Dialectics a foolish thing?
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Against Plato and against Dialects Aristotle raises and formulates the Prin-
ciple of Non-Contradiction. The Principle says the following: It is impos-
sible to predicate and not predicate the same predicate of the same subject
under the same aspect at the same time. One, who states and at the same
time and with the same aspect refutes what he said, is not saying anything.
He is talking foolishness. The rose cannot be at the same time and under
the same aspect red as well as green, that is, not red. It can happen that the
rose is green and then becomes red; this can be, because it happens at dif-
ferent times. It can also be that the rose is red and green at the same time.
But then there are different aspects: the rose petals are red and the stem
is green. These are two different aspects. But they cannot exist under the
same aspect, that is impossible. We have here, again, old Parmenides’ main
thesis: The Being is, the Non-Being is not. Aristotle deals with this subject
in a more subtle way through the introduction of the aspects of being. But
once again, the rule is valid: that what is cannot under the same aspect not
be. And that is why one cannot, under the same aspect, affirm and negate
a predicate of the same subject. Parmenides’ main idea, farther differenti-
ated in Aristotle, dominates the philosophic thinking again, excluding Her-
aclitus’s All Flows. The static character of Aristotle’s Philosophy begins to
appear. Parmenides' sphere shines again.
Aristotle and, even more clearly, the Aristotelian philosophers of the Mid-
dle Ages, added to the Principle of Non-Contradiction a practical rule of
the art of thinking and debating correctly. The Principle of Non-Contra-
diction is always valid. But if, in practice, we have two propositions with
the same subject but opposite predicates, and both appear right, what do
we do? In these cases there is a rule of procedure: make the necessary
distinctions. Let Socrates is less than 1.50 meters tall be one proposition,
and Socrates is more than 1.50 meters tall, the other. Here we have two
propositions with the same subject, Socrates, whose predicates say oppo-
site and excluding things. But we have good reasons for defending either
one or the other. What do we do? Should we here defend the Dialectics?
No way. In such cases Analytics tells us to make the necessary distinctions
in the logical subject of the predicate.
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Metaphysics
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The word metà tà physicà, which meant nothing important, took the
meaning of the nucleus of a whole philosophic vision of the universe.
It is in these books, which come after Physics, that Aristotle sketches
the rough draft of his explanation of the world. In the same way that
language obeys the laws of grammar, which is Logic, the cosmic uni-
verse, the world of things, does the same, also obeying a grammar, and
that is why it is perfectly ordered. On one hand we have language with
its clear and exact laws - see the rules about the proposition and system
of syllogisms -, on the other hand we have the cosmos also ordered by
laws. Aristotle’s great thesis is that the same grammar that is the grammar
of language is also the grammar of the world. The same laws that rule
the articulation of logical speech also rule the course and relationship
of things. The great laws of Logic are also the great laws of Ontology.
The things have the same structure that a well formed proposition has,
says Aristotle. In the proposition we have the subject and the predicate.
The logical subject, sub-jectum, hypokeimenon, that which is subjacent
to the predicated proposition, is indispensable to the proposition; with-
out it one does not know what one is talking about. In the same way
there must be a hard subjacent nucleus in the things. The logical subject
of language, support of the predicative articulation, corresponds to the
substance, that which is under the things themselves, supporting them,
the sub-stance. The logical substrate, the sub-jectum, corresponds to the
sub-stance. Things, in their fundament, in their hard core, are first of all
substances, ousia in Greek. On top of this hard nucleus, which is the
subjacent substance, there can be other determinations. These are called
accidents. They happen to things, or better, sometimes they happen, and
sometimes they don’t. These ulterior determinations are non-necessary
determinations, that is why they are called accidental, which exist over the
substrate of the substance which supports it from underneath. What is
substance? What is accident?
In the logical structure there are certain predicates that are necessarily
required by the subject, there are others that are allowed. In this way, the
logical subject triangle always requires the predicate has three sides and
three angles. The link between this subject and this predicate is necessary.
It is not possible to think or speak triangle without the characteristics
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of having three sides and three angles. These necessary predicates cor-
respond to the essence of things. The logical structure corresponds to
the ontological structure. According to Aristotle, essence is the substance
determined by its necessary characteristics. The allowed predicates, the
non-necessary predicates of things correspond to the accidents. Acci-
dental is a characteristic that a substance can equally have or not have. A
triangle can be blue or red. The color is accidental. It is a logical predicate
and an ontological characteristic which is not necessary.
The mutations which occur in nature at times affect the substance itself.
The living thing is born and then dies. Birth and death are transforma-
tions that affect the substance itself of the thing. Aristotle, with his own
terminology, speaks of generation and corruption. There are many other
mutations that are merely accidental. The animal that is now awake is
also the same that later is sleeping. Be-Awake and Be-Sleeping designate
accidents, i.e., non-substantial relationships. The color of the geometric
figures is always something accidental.
The essence of things is different from the accidents. The essence is nec-
essary for the thing to be what it is, accidents are not necessary. So far so
good but does that mean that substance and essence are the same thing?
Is substance, which is under the accidents and gives them support, the
same as the necessary essence for the Being-this-way of the thing? Aris-
totle says no. Substance contains within itself two constitutive elements;
one of them is the essence that works as form, the other is the matter.
There is here, in the heart of Aristotle’s Ontology, a conceptual articu-
lation that sends us back to Plato’s Theory of Forms. Aristotle, Plato’s
disciple, completely abandoned the dialectic method of his teacher, but
he did not abandon the Theory of Forms. Here it is back again.
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internal parts. Let’s take a statue made in honor of Apollo. The sculptor
is the efficient cause; the honoring of Apollo, the reason for which the
statue was made, is the final cause. Both are outside the statue itself. The
marble is the material cause; the form of Apollo is the formal cause of
the statue. Form and matter are elements that enter into the composition
of the statue of Apollo, they are within it. The statue is the form while
realized in matter. Without form, the matter is something undetermined;
the unshaped marble is not yet the statue of Apollo. The pure form,
without matter is just an idea in the head of the sculptor and of mankind.
An idea? Exactly, now we are back to the Theory of Ideas, Plato’s Theory
of Forms. The idea of Apollo is the formal cause, the ideal form, which
upon being sculptured in marble will acquires materiality and becomes a
statue of Apollo. Form and matter together, the form of Apollo plus the
marble, as a whole, make up the substance. Almost all substance is made
up of form and matter. And what about the accidents? Accidental in the
statue is the fact that it is marble, of being this or that color; remember
that the Greeks used to paint the statues which we today admire in the
museums only with the natural color of marble.
Let us review. The being, or as you may, the concrete thing to which we
point is something made up of substance and accident. Accident is that
which is not necessary, it is that which just happens. Substance is the
being subjacent to what happens. Water, which at times is liquid, at times
evaporates and becomes gas, at times becomes solid as ice − water is a
substance. The liquid, solid and gaseous states are accidents of the water.
Substance, on the other hand, is made up of essence and material. Es-
sence is the formal reason that determines the Water-Being as water. Mat-
ter is that matter from which and within which form becomes a concrete
determination. But what is matter after all? Matter is the undetermined,
the emptiness, Aristotle is going to say. Matter itself and from itself has
no determination, it is shapeless, inert, it is the mere passive possibility
that something can be done on it and from it. Thus matter is something
unutterable. All comes to it from form, which is the principle that molds
it, determines it and gives it shape and outline. Within substance the es-
sence is the formal cause; the matter, the pure potentiality, is the material
cause. It is there in this hard nucleus of his Metaphysics that Aristotle
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Metaphysics of knowledge
The things in this concrete world in which we live act upon our senses and,
starting from the sensations that we perceive, elaborate a sensitive image
that within us shows us how something is. This sensitive image however
is something mixed with the body, it is something corporeal, something
determined by space and time, something susceptible to production and
corruption. The image given by the senses changes as the things present
themselves or do not present themselves. The image elaborated by the
imagination, an internal sense, is something more independent, something
more interior. The image of the imagination, a more elaborate product of
the knowledge process, represents the things even when they are absent,
therefore, when they are not anymore acting upon the external senses. The
imagination is a powerful internal sense. Everything traverses it. But it is
only sensitive, it is not an intellection. The imagination represents things,
makes them present again even when they are absent, like a signal that,
being a signal, refers to a real thing that is not itself. The image produced
and elaborated by the external and internal senses is always just a sensitive
signal. But how do we get to the intellection, the concept? If the sensitivity
is still corporeal, contaminated by space and time, how do we get from it to
a universal concept out of space and time?
Things are individual, they are extensive, spatial and temporal. Concept
is universal, unextensive, out of time and space. How can individual, ex-
tensive, space-temporal contingent things that act on our senses produce
universal, unextensive concepts necessary in their nexuses? How does
one gets from the world of things to the world of ideas?
Things cannot, on their own, make this change, teaches Aristotle. He,
who produces the concepts, is the intellect itself while actively function,
while active intellect. There is in man, in all men, a powerful active in-
tellect. This nous looks back to the image produced by the external and
internal senses and brightens it with its light. Under the light of the active
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intellect, Aristotle says, the Form that was within the sensitive image and
of course also within the thing itself shines. This is again Plato’s Theory
of Ideas now in the hard nucleus of Aristotle’s Metaphysics of Knowl-
edge. In his heart, Aristotle is still Plato’s disciple. The conceptual nucleus
of the Myth of the Cavern appears again here more soberly, more prosa-
ically, with fewer images. Here is the Platonic idea again. The Form that
gives shape and outline to something - as a vital principle within each
thing - is the same Form that is implicit in the sensitive image repro-
duced by the senses. Only under the light of the active intellect does this
Form acquire visibility and become transparent to itself again. Form is
extensive, space-temporal and contingent in the thing; this is its material
way of existence. Under the light of the active intellect, Form stands out
from the matter which individualizes and holds it and returns to being
pure Form, Form without matter, necessary, unextensive, out of space
and time form, intelligible form. The triangles, which exist in the material
world of things, are contingent, they are space-temporal, they have vari-
ous sizes, and they are colorful. But the concept of a triangle is necessary
in its nexuses, it is unextensive and abstract; it is no longer space-time re-
lated, allowing us to think about it in different sizes. Form, pulsing in the
heart of things, when it penetrates our senses under the light of the active
intellect, transforms itself and acquires its real characteristics. Forms are
ideas; they are necessary, unextensive, out of time and space. The triangle,
the Form of the triangle, is eternal and forever valid, throughout time and
everywhere. It is this eternal Form that comes from the light when our
active intellect acts. Then we see the universal and eternal forms of the
individual and contingent things.
space and time. In the inanimate things and the animals of our sublunary
world the Form exists only in its potentiality, it is just sleeping. Through
the light of the active intellect the Form is actualized; it goes back to be in
act again, it goes back to being the actuality of itself, it becomes transpar-
ent and aware of itself. Act and Potentiality, the Being and the Can-Be are
here interwoven. The active intellect is the Act that actualizes the Form
that was sleeping in its potentiality within the thing itself and within the
image produced by the senses.
The descriptive propositions say just how things really are. This table has
a broken leg is a descriptive proposition. But the table should not be like
that, the leg should not be broken. This Should-Be, in the case of the ta-
ble with the broken leg, is something merely functional. For this table to
work well as a table it is necessary that it be firmly set, which means that
the leg cannot be broken. In the world of useful things the Should-Be is
determined by functionality.
Things have nexuses that are substantial and necessary. They have oth-
ers nexuses that are merely accidents, that can happen or not. This is
the extent of contingency: one thing can be like that, but it can also be
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What is Ethics? What act is ethical? That act - Aristotle teaches us - which
is done according to virtue. But what is virtue? Plato has already discussed
this to extent. Virtue is a habit, virtue comes from far, and virtue comes
from local tradition. To be virtuous is to obey the rules of the land where
we are. Is virtue then, pure conservatism? Tradition is most important,
according to Aristotle, but is not the deciding factor. The deciding factor
of ethics, the last criterion, is straight reason, straight logos, orthos logos.
A straight line, in geometry, is the shortest way between two points. In
architecture it is the lineament that one draws and gets by stretching a
rope. Following the line, in construction, we get the architectural lines of
floors, walls and ceilings. Orthos is the logos, straight is the reason that
obeys the grammar of the practical logos. Here Aristotle introduces the
idea of practical reason as something different from and opposed to the-
oretical reason. Practical reason, Ethics and Politics, do not obey the same
rules as theoretical reason. The rules of practical reason are more flexible,
they are less exact. They are a different kind of logos.
How then, when in doubt, does one find the straight reason? A good
practical criterion, Aristotle says, is to stay in the middle. The golden rule,
as it will be called in tradition, says that we should not opt for extremes,
which are ethically wrong, but we should stay in the middle. Cowardliness
and recklessness are extreme poles which are both ethically wrong. Virtue
is in the middle. Virtue is in the courage that is in the middle between
cowardliness and recklessness. If there is a fight, one should leave, not
so slowly as to look audacious, nor so quickly as to look cowardly. Those
who live by practicing middle of the road actions will be happy. Hap-
piness, eudaimonia, is the crowning of a virtuous life. Aristotle knows
very well that the rule of the middle road, of mesotes, is just an auxiliary
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Men live with each other, men need each other. Only the beasts do not
need anyone and live alone. That is why men organize themselves in
States. The man who lives within the structure of a State is a citizen.
The main virtue of a citizen is justice. Justice is the straight reason that
says how the many men, equal among themselves as citizens of the same
State, should treat each other: equal to equal. That is why a fair law is that
which works the same way for all. If it is not the same for all it is not a
law, but a privilege (privi-legio, private law), they said in the Middle Ages.
That Aristotle, in this context, has forgotten that the slaves, who existed
in his time, could not be slaves shows us how even the greatest among the
great thinkers could have periods of blindness. There are various forms
of governing the State, but all of them should strive for the common
good, the well-being of all citizens. Even when there is only one head
of government - Monarchy -, he governs in the name of common good
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and for the common good of all citizens. This is why a king, even being
an individual, must speak in the plural. When he speaks, all the citizens
are speaking, when he decides, all are deciding. The same happens when
a few govern - Aristocracy -, or when the public assemblies govern -
Politeia -. When the governing power loses the view of common good
and governs for the good of some, contrary to the good of others, then
the government degenerates. When the government of one degenerates,
despotism comes into being. When the government of a few degenerates,
there is an oligarchy. When the government of many meeting in assembly
degenerates, there is democracy. In Aristotle democracy, as we can see,
has a strong pejorative meaning. What we call democracy today - the only
ethical way to govern and be governed - Aristotle called Politeia. But
Aristotle did not realize that this was the only ethical way to structure the
State. We only discovered this in Modern Times.
But Aristotle, following the opinion of his time, thought that the earth
was fixed, that the earth was an immovable point in the center of the uni-
verse. The sun, moon, planets and stars turn in circles around one central
point that is the earth. This idea is later elaborated by Ptolemy who in the
2nd century described the universe by perfecting the Aristotelian cosmo-
logical model. The fixed sun, moon, planets and stars turn in eight orbits
around the earth. The fixed stars are the highest and last sphere. Next, in
order, come the orbits of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury and
the Moon. The moon constitutes the first sphere, the lowest one, which is
nearest to the Earth. From the moon down we have the sublunary world,
which is the world in which we live. In the world above the lunar orbit
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In the sublunary world however, the forms are mixed with matter. In this
concrete world of ours the forms, upon entering into substantial compo-
sition with matter, become extensive, space-temporal, they are delivered
to the process of generation and corruption. Plants, animals and men are
born, live and perish. This space of movement, which is full of chances
and contingencies - a space were man's freedom of choice is permitted
-, is not a complete chaos because it is ordered by the forms. The forms,
principles of order and determination, are eternal. Man is man because
he has the form of the Man-Being. A dog is a dog because it has the
Dog-form, and so on with cats, fish, plants and everything else. In our
sublunary world all that stays, all that remains, all that is stable is so be-
cause the eternal forms give them stability. Everything else is accidental; it
appears and disappears, comes and then goes. In this mesh of accidental
events the individual man, as well as the men united in Polis, many times
has more than one alternative way to act. It is there, in this space opened
by contingency, that the free choice, the free will is processed. If man
chooses the correct alternative, his act is ethically good. If not, it is bad.
But even in this sublunary world of ours there are necessary nexuses, and
that is why it is possible to have a science that knows these necessary nex-
uses. Not only the necessary nexuses existing inside the things, but also
the theoretical science about these necessary nexuses are based on the
Theory of Forms and are explained from there. Until Copernicus, in the
16th century, Aristotle’s geocentric model was accepted and used by all
as the explanation of the cosmic universe. In 1514 Copernicus proposed
a more complex but much more exact model: the sun is the center of
the system, around which the planets, including the Earth, turn. Coper-
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nicus’ model explained something which the geocentric theory could not
explain, the reason why at times the planets turn in the opposite direc-
tion. The geocentric theory, defended for so many centuries, started to
collapse and was abandoned because it could not explain a phenomenon
observed by all those who studied the starry sky. Copernicus’ heliocentric
model, later elaborated on by Kepler and Galilei, is a theory that explains
well all that happens, including apparently strange movements of some
planets, and which permits exact predictions. Only much later, in 1687,
Newton is going to explain through some very simple principles how this
whole universe functions: through the Law of Gravity. With Newton the
analytic thinking begun by Aristotle and the Greek geometrists, passing
through Copernicus, Kepler, and Galilei conducts us to Modern Times,
to the Physics and Cosmology of today, to Hubble and Einstein.
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There are things in the universe that have this structure, this no one
doubts anymore today. Greek biology already knew the phenomenon of
development from an egg, present day Biology only amplified and deep-
ened this knowledge. Present day Biologists think of the world of living
things as a great evolution process in which everything develops from a
first extremely simple structured living being. In the beginning there is
something like an egg, a first live cell. This cell has a center, a nucleus.
This nucleus, which is alone in the beginning, unfolds into two in the
evolution process. Then the same cell has two nuclei. Then comes the
dividing wall, the initial cell unfolds into two, each nucleus staying in its
own cell. From the original cell two cells then developed. Now we no
longer have one, but two cells. These two cells also later develop through
bipolar duplication of their nuclei and turn into four and so on shaping
the cellular tissue. Present day biologists have no doubt about this process
of development starting from the first living being.
It is just that the Biologists normally do not know this; they do not realize
where they got their theories from. They are Neoplatonic Philosophers and
do not know it. The Neoplatonic Philosophers, the defenders of the Expla-
nation of the World, go on from there. This theory is not only true for the
evolution of living things; it is true for the entire universe. Whoever wishes
to understand and explain the universe has to intellectually reproduce the
unfolding process, fold by fold, from the first egg. This is ex-plicatio. Only
this is the real Explanation of the World.
Plato wrote accessible, easy to read dialogues for the public in general
illuminated by such beautiful and rich myths that even today they feed all
those who want to learn Philosophy. But the dialogues are almost always
inconclusive. Except for some written in his old age, Plato did not make
clear and well-defined conclusions. The arguments in favor of one side
are presented and discussed, and then the arguments presented by the
other side are discussed and evaluated. Okay, we know that this is the
manner of dealing with thesis and antithesis. It is the game of opposites.
Except that Plato almost never took his readers to the synthesis in which
both poles are overcome and preserved. In the dialogues, one does not
find the conciliation of the opposite poles that characterizes the real di-
alectic synthesis.
In the dialogue The Sophist, Plato clearly shows that he is not a defender
of Negative Dialectics, the Dialectics without Synthesis. He asks in this
dialogue which are the supreme classes. It is clear that they are oppo-
site poles, a game of opposites. The two pairs of opposites that come
about as the highest and most explanatory are rest - movement and the
same - the other. Is the universe made up of these four elements? No,
Plato says. The universe is firstly Being, synthesis of rest and movement,
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Plato derives everything, all the process of the unfolding of the universe,
from the two First Principles, the Principle of Unity and the Principle of
Duality or Plurality. The first principle says the all is the One, that every-
thing started with the unity. The Being is the One. The Being is that which
it is, firstly it is the One. The Being is the One; in the beginning there was
only the One and this is the Whole that is all. The One is the Universe.
The One and the Whole, Hen kai Pan. And where does the multiplicity of
things come from? Don’t we live in a world of multiple things?
Multiplicity begins with Duality. The Two is the beginning of the Mul-
tiplicity. The One has always had the seed of multiplicity within itself:
aoristos dyas, the undetermined multiplicity. The One is not just the One,
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because it has always been within itself also the Other. It is bipolar. This
fundamental alterity has existed forever within itself. There is a pole that
is itself, the One, but there always is also the other pole that is the Oth-
er-Being. The Same and the Other, the first pair of opposites, have al-
ways been inside the Being. That is why there is a triad. Thesis is the
initial One, antithesis is the Other-Being that has always opposed the first
pole, synthesis is the Being that is not only the One but also the Other.
The Whole-that-is-Being, Totality, synthesis, includes two opposite poles
inside itself. The first principle, the Principle of Identity, supplies unity
to the universe, and is the source of all order. The second principle, the
Principle of Multiplicity, is the source of Multiplicity; it is the chaos from
which the diversity of things emerges. Later on in this paper, I add a third
principle to these two principles of Plato. To better clarify the sequence
and the interdependence between these principles, I unfold Plato’s Prin-
ciple of Unity into two principles, one which is the Principle of Identity
and comes before the Principle of Multiplicity, the other that comes later
and gives order to the multiplicity that appeared. I will call this third prin-
ciple the Principle of Coherence.
The Platonic and Neoplatonic dialectic triad goes deeply into the Chris-
tian tradition and the intellectual structure of that which the first Christian
thinkers called the most important and highest religious mystery, the Holy
Trinity. In the beginning there was only one God. There is only one God,
but this God is at the same time trine. He is One and Trine at the same time.
God is God the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. In the beginning of
the Trinitarian creation there is the One-God. This One-God begets the
Other, the Son. Father and Son are in opposition like opposite poles. The
Father is not the Son or vice-versa. But, when the Father and the Son meet
again, one loving the other, both conciliate into a higher synthesis that is
then called the Holy Spirit. This eternal process of engendering is called the
Holy Trinity. God, who is only one God, unfolds within himself into three
persons. The One-God is also the Trine God.
times do not realize where their roots came from. Until the 12th century
Christianity was always a rich and productive branch of the Neoplatonic
doctrine. Only with Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas did the west
go back to reading and studying the Aristotelian system and its static
conception of the world. From the 12th century on, Christian thinkers
were divided into Aristotelian and Neoplatonic, with the advantage al-
ways more clearly to the first. Aristotelianism in its thomist version will be
declared in the 19th century the official Philosophy of Catholicism, and
the Neoplatonic thinking almost fell into oblivion. When, in the 20th cen-
tury, a theologician and philosopher like Teillard de Chardin appears and
proposes the Neoplatonic doctrine again in a new form, nobody in the
intellectual catholic world knows how to evaluate it and say exactly what
is happening. Almost no one understands anything of what he wants to
say, no one can contextualize his intellectual proposal, no one can insert
it into the line of the old tradition.
This first One and this first Other-Being are alike. One is a mirror image of
the other. And both are conciliated in the Wholeness that holds both: one
and the other. Up to now we are dealing with the engendering movement
that the old ones called the Trinity. This is a movement that is internal to
the first beginning. The first beginning is trine. Okay. This first differenti-
ation between the two poles is an undetermined duality, aoristos dyas. The
poles of this first unfolding are still poles that are exactly alike. One is a
mirror image of the other; one is just the alterity of the other. This type of
alterity is a yet undetermined duality. The opposite poles do not yet present
themselves with different characteristics, each one with its own determina-
tions and characteristics. But the things of our real world have their own
determinations; each one is different from the others. Where then does this
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Determined Multiplicity come from? What are the root and the principle
of the different determinations? Where does the variety come from?
of a new fold. The One, in its evolution process creates folds that did not
previously exist. The preprogramming made by the first principles only
determined the general evolutive process; it did not determine the details.
This is the Principle of Difference; this is the chaos that within itself
creates the variations. This is why it is called Chaos. Because the varia-
tions that come into being and emerge are not predictable, they cannot be
deduced. But does this not take us to total chaos? A logical anarchy? The
destruction of science? No, it does not. Because as soon as the variations
appear, without being preprogrammed, the third Principle, the Principle
of Coherence appears, which reestablishes the order. If against pole A
comes a pole B, then three things can happen: either A eliminates B, or B
eliminates A, or A and B show themselves as compatible and enter into
coherence with each other. A and B in this case become constitutive parts
of a Greater Totality. Then come C, D, F etc., always under the rule of
the Principle of Coherence that brings back order into the evolution of
the universe and the unfolding of things.
Plato had two principles, the Principle of Unity, to on, and the Principle of
Undetermined Multiplicity, aoristos dyas. In this exposition, I unfolded Pla-
to’s first principle in two: the Principle of Identity and the Principle of Coher-
ence in order to better explain how the chaos that comes from the Principle
of Multiplicity is not such a chaotic chaos, but a chaos that comes to be or-
dered by a principle of order, which is the Principle of Coherence. The most
important thing in this exposition that I did is the role that is being granted
to chaos in the Emergence of the New. The New, the Other-Being, the De-
termined Alterity are not preprogrammed. They are not able to be previously
deduced. Initially we deal with a chaos; initially we deal with a Principle of
Difference that is a Principle of Chaos. But the variations that so appear are
immediately regulated by the Principle of Coherence.
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allows us to track down the genesis of the things, like walking backward,
saying how and when the variations occurred. But it does not presuppose
that all these variations are preprogrammed and that for this reason they
are necessary moments in the unfolding of Nature. Nature in this project
contains chaos, it contains chance, and it contains variations that could
have been different. Chance, even though it is not the most important
element, it is an indispensable element in the evolutive genesis of the
universe. Nature has a History that was like that but could have been dif-
ferent. That is why it is called Natural History. History, when it refers to
man, becomes the History of Free Men.
One Goddess offered the warrior Achilles a balsam that would give him
protection and make him invulnerable to the enemy weapons. The skin,
bathed with the miraculous balsam, would become impenetrable. Achil-
les, however, when he bathed himself with the balsam, had a leaf stuck
to the heel of his left foot. In that place where the leaf was stuck, the
balsam wasn't effective. This is the Achilles heel; in this area Achilles was
vulnerable. Wounded exactly in this place, his heel, Achilles was killed.
The Philosophy systems also have their Achilles heel. The Neoplatonic
systems, the Philosophy of the Explicatio Mundi, has as its Achilles heel
the question of Necessitarianism and the intention of wanting to deduce
everything a priori. Even the first Christian thinkers, the Greek and Latin
Fathers, raised the objection against the Neoplatonic Philosophers that
such a system ended up eliminating the contingency of the world, and
then also the freedom of choice and moral responsibility. Saint Augustin,
who was Neoplatonic, spent all his life trying to conciliate the predetermi-
nation with freedom of choice. He was not able to do it. Johannes Scotus
Eriugena, in the early Middle Ages, tried again. Nicolaus Cusanus during
the Renascence tried once again. Spinoza, a thinker who loved Ethics and
Political Philosophy, gave in to the rigorous necessitarianism and became
an explicit necessitarian. According to Spinoza, contingency simply does
not exist. Schelling and Hegel, imbued with the importance of freedom,
tried again. Hegel tried to put contingency back in, inside Logics. He de-
clares - the only one in the History of Philosophy - that the Absolute Ne-
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cessity is the Absolute Contingency. But he is not able to take the idea to
a good conclusion and got lost, in my way of thinking, in ambiguities. In
Hegel we never know if Necessity is really necessary or if it is contingent.
Deep, deep down, I think, Hegel presented a strong tendency for Neo-
platonic Necessitarianism. Among the contemporanians, Vittorio Hoesle,
although he tries to resist, falls back on the necessitarianism.
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The Crossroads
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The second question refers to the crossroads between Platonism and Ar-
istotelianism. It is connected to the first question, but is not identical to
it. How do we conciliate the game of opposites with the Principle of
Non-Contradiction? How do we use contradiction as an instrument of
construction and not of destruction? Is this possible? How can we play
with thesis and antithesis without doing anything foolish?
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What is Dialectics?
The Logical Square
The Great Confusion
Faced with these objections, the Dialecticians of the 20th century are so
perplexed they almost do not answer. Dieter Henrich, one of the main
researchers of Dialectics today, wrote in 1976 that no one really knows
what Dialectics is. Dieter Wandschneider said the same thing in 1995. It
is not that no one is working on, or writing about the subject. Just the
opposite: there are hundreds of works trying to undo the Gordian knot
which the Greeks willed to us. Newton C. da Costa, as he formalized the
Paraconsistent Logics, took a big step in the right direction and taught us
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No, of course not. We cannot, in trying to save Dialectics, deny the ratio-
nality of the speech. But then, what is going on there? A great confusion
is going on, that’s what, a confusion that has lasted centuries. This is what
needs to be cleared up with the question What is Dialectics?
When people speak and despite their good will cannot understand one
another, it is because they are speaking different languages. Speaking
without understanding is either a total lack of interest or it is a question
of different languages. A Brazilian and a Chinese, although they may wish
to, will not understand each other until they discover a language common
to both. For us Brazilians, what the Chinaman is saying is really Chinese;
that is, we do not understand anything. We use the expression It’s Chinese
to me (the American equivalent is It’s Greek to me) when we do not un-
derstand anything. The Chinese probably have a similar expression when
they do not understand what another person says. But if there is a will
to communicate and good faith, then this is not a reason to give up the
dialogue. There should be an interpreter or a common language that the
two parties understand.
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the logical predicate there must be a logical subject for the proposition to
make sense. Without the subject one does not know what is being spoken
about. If someone says the logical predicate is just, we immediately ask
Who are you talking about? Subject and predicate, argument and function,
mathematicians say today, are both indispensable for the proposition to
make sense. There are propositions with an understood subject. For such
a proposition to make sense, it is necessary for the listener, or reader, to
suppose the logical subject that is being understood. Generally the logical
subject was expressed a little earlier, like in the example: Pedro and Ana
were walking around. After a short time, they sat down. The proposition
After a short time, they sat down, makes sense, and is immediately under-
stood because the subject was mentioned in the previous sentence. This is
what happens in the cases in which the logical subject is not expressed. A
logical subject must exist, otherwise the proposition does not make sense,
it is not complete. There are a few expressions today which in Portuguese
we call propositions without a subject. Propositions without a subject?
But this, according to Aristotle’s Logic, cannot exist. Does it exist? The
example which the grammar teachers give for this kind of proposition is
chove (It rains) and neva (It snows). Who is it that rains? Who snows? In
the Portuguese language there really is no visible subject. But, if we put it
in English, it rains, or in French, il pleut, or in German, es regnet, the sub-
ject is always something masculine or neuter, undetermined, in the third
person, singular. Well, in these expressions there is a subject, although
indeterminate, it is the great impersonal It, third person. Who is this It?
Nature? Probably. These exceptions although rare, show that there are
propositions apparently without a subject in articulated language. When
we pass to body language, what was an exception in articulated language
becomes a general rule. In body language there is never an expressed
subject. And now, what do we do? Are we lost?
In our usual language the proposition always has to have a subject and
predicate, one distinct and separate from the other. This is what we call
articulated language. But the examples mentioned show that the subject
is not always visible. Even on a closer look, one does not find the subject.
Or, saying the same thing in a stronger way, sometimes there is no subject,
the proposition has no subject. This mentioned we must register the fact:
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there are languages which have a different syntax which is not the syntax
of our usual articulated language. And then, how do we understand it? It
is necessary to translate from one language to the other.
And so on with all the categories of Logic and with the figurations in
Real Philosophy. But what is Hegel talking about? What Absolute is this?
The Absolute is God before creating the world, Hegel answers. But God
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there, right in the beginning of the system, is this not making an inap-
propriate supposition? Does God not go out like a shot from a gun? Too
suddenly, too immediately? Just like a shot from a pistol, these are Hegel’s
words. He knows very well that one cannot put God in the beginning
of the system without anything else, without careful criticism, without
preparation, without demonstration. Then why does he do that? Because
here, right in the beginning, it is not really God. God only appears in the
end of Logic, as a last category, the Absolute Idea, and in the end of the
system, as an Absolute Being. But what God is this one that appears in
the beginning like the logical subject of all the predications? This initial
Absolute is carefully explained, step by step, in the unnumbered chapter
that opens the Science of Logic and that has the suggestive title How
does one begin?
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The beginning is made by drawing a great dividing line in the mind and
placing on the left all the determined things. In the beginning, on the right
of the line, there is nothing. The space is empty. During the construction
of the System of Philosophy, it is here that we are going to replace all
the things that were placed on the left. To do Philosophy is to replace on
the right what was presupposed on the left. Except that, while doing this
replacing of what was presupposed, we ought to examine each and every
piece of this puzzle and account for why we are placing it in this part and
not in the other. Replace, yes, in the correct order. What is the correct or-
der? The order that it is ingrained in each piece that we pick up to replace
it on the right side, the order of the things themselves, the order called for
by the Principle of Coherence. If we do not obey this Order of Coher-
ence, what happens? Then, since one opposite is not compatible with the
other, one eliminates the other. The pieces must fit together; they must
be coherent with the immediate and mediate environment, in the last
analysis, with the total picture. Then the Great Mosaic of the Meaning of
the World appears.
What then is the logical subject of the dialectic predication, that under-
stood but never expressed subject? It is always the Absolute, God, All,
Everything, that Totality which is presupposed as real on the left so that
it can be replaced as a philosophical system on the right.
But since all this is only understood, or written in tiny letters in a foot-
note, the Dialecticians talk and talk but never say explicitly what they
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are talking about. And then the Analytic Philosophers say that they do
not understand anything. One language always uses a hidden subject,
the other insists on an expressed subject. The Great Confusion comes
from this.
This confusion becomes more specific and more complicated when one
deals with Contraries and Contradictories. Contraries and Contradictories
are very different things and obey different rules. Aristotle and the An-
alyticians know this well. But the Dialecticians, who do not have an ex-
pressed subject in the predication, make a big confusion. They talk about
contradiction, but they mean contrariety. They speak of contradictories,
but they want to say contraries. Are the Dialecticians speaking foolish-
ness? Yes and no. The old ones, like Plato, were not speaking foolishness
because it was only with Aristotle that we began to distinguish between
contradictories and contraries. But the later dialecticians should have per-
ceived that they were using the terms in a different way than that which
was defined by Aristotle. The Dialecticians should have perceived that
they were using - and continue to use - the same terms as the Analyticians,
but with a different meaning. That is where the confusion comes in. That
is why we now have to study the Logical Square, explaining exactly what
the dialectic game of opposites is and point out, with the finger, the exact
place in which it is done. Whoever does not do this, is condemned to
saying foolishness.
The Logical Square has four corners, each one designated by a letter - A,
E, I and O. A and E are on top, and represent the universal propositions.
A is an affirmative universal proposition; E is a negative universal propo-
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The logical subject is here ultimately determined by the terms All, None,
and Some. These ulterior determinations of the logical subject are called
quantifiers, because there is a quantification of the subject happening
there. In the proposition All men are mortal the logical subject Men is
further determined by the universal quantifier All. Some is the particular
affirmative quantifier, Some do not is the particular negative quantifier,
and None is the universal negative quantifier. A proposition is of the A
type (A of Affirmo); if it is positive and has a universal quantifier: All
men are mortal. A proposition is of the I type (I is the second vowel of
Affirmo) if it is positive and has a particular quantifier: Some men are
Brazilian. A proposition is of the E type (E of nego of the Latin verb
negare) if it is negative and has a universal quantifier: No man is immor-
tal. A proposition is O (O is the second vowel of nego) if it is negative
and has a particular quantifier: Some men are not honest. These prop-
ositions constitute, as we know, the four corners of the Logical Square.
As an example, we will make the construction with the same subject and pred-
icate in the four propositions. We will take the type A proposition: All men are
mortal, as the example. From this proposition which already has a subject and
a predicate, we can construct the other three propositions corresponding to the
other three corners of the Square. Proposition E, No man is mortal, is then
universal and negative. Proposition I is a particular affirmative - Some men are
mortal. Proposition O is a particular negative - Some men are not mortal.
The logical rules that allow - and in some cases do not allow - the passage
from one corner to the other are called Laws of Inference. Therefore, if
proposition A is true, the corresponding proposition O is always false.
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This is important. There are, in certain cases, logically valid passages; they
are the laws of inference. But these laws, according to the path that we
take in the Logical Square, are different. It is not one rule that can always
be applied. And here then it is necessary to distinguish with Aristotle
the various paths existing in the Logical Square, or in a more technical
language, the various types of opposition. Each of the four letters is in
opposition to all the others. But each type of opposition has a special
name and obeys its own rules.
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and start there, then we can infer the falseness of the other contrary. But
this does not work backwards: if we know that one of the contraries is
false, it is not possible to conclude anything about the opposing contrary.
This can be false as well as true; both are possible hypotheses. Example: It
is true that All men are mortal, therefore it is false that No man is mortal.
From the truth of A, one correctly infers the falseness of E. This also
works vice-versa; from the truth of E one can infer the falseness of A.
But one cannot conclude anything when one starts from the falseness of
A or E. If A is false, nothing can be inferred about E; in this case it can
be either true or false.
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and only here that one does Dialectics. The one and only place where Di-
alectics can be exercised, pointed with the finger, as promised, is this: the
game of opposites is always done between contraries that are both false,
between propositions A and E. It is exactly here that decision is made. If
we do not understand that it is always about contraries and never about
contradictories, Dialectics becomes foolishness.
When one talks the analytic language it is easy to distinguish between con-
traries and contradictories. In order to form a contradictory of a univer-
sally affirmative proposition A, that is to form a correspondent proposi-
tion O, it is necessary to do two things. First, insert the negation; second,
alter the quantifier. Then starting from All men are mortal, one can make
the contradictory proposition which is negative and particular, Some men
are not mortal. But to form the contrary proposition it is only necessary
to do one thing: insert the negation. The quantifier remains the same. All
men are mortal is proposition A, No man is mortal is proposition E. We
can immediately see why the Analytic Philosopher, the one who learned
and knows well what is contrary and what is contradictory, does not get
lost. It is just a matter of getting the propositions and verifying if the
quantifier as well as the negation was altered. If the quantifier was not
altered, if it continues being universal in both propositions, one is dealing
with contraries. If it was altered, if is became particular, then one is deal-
ing with contradictories. It is easy and exact.
The problem is that the Dialecticians do not use the expressed subject.
The logical subject in the syntax used by Dialectics is almost always hid-
den. And that is why the quantifier also stays hidden. That is why Dialec-
ticians are never sure, when they talk about two opposite poles, if these
are contrary or contradictory. Besides, the Dialectics terminology here is
different from the terminology of the Analytics. The Dialecticians speak
of contradiction and want to say that which the Analyticians call contrari-
ness; the Dialecticians speak about contradictories, but want to say con-
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Dialecticians always work with contraries, they never even mention con-
tradictories. That is why they never even ask how to build contradictory
oppositions. This is an invention of Aristotle and the subject of Analyt-
ics. The Analytic Philosopher finds it very easy to form opposite propo-
sitions, either contrary or contradictory. Now, here, the way to construct
the contrary propositions interests us. Starting from any A type propo-
sition, in order to form the corresponding contrary proposition, we just
need to insert a negative without altering the quantifier. The proposition
continues universal, but becomes negative. This can be done, as every-
body can see, by logical-formal manipulation. One just needs to add the
negative. But the Dialecticians had great difficulty in forming the contrary
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pole, because they do not have, in the syntax they use, explicit subjects
and quantifiers. For Analyticians the command insert the negative with-
out changing the quantifier is enough. For the Dialecticians the engender-
ing of the contrary is a much more complicated operation and therefore
subject to misunderstandings.
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A more concrete example can make the understanding of this point, which
I consider of great importance, easier. We will take the thetical concept
of white and ask: what is the contrary of white? Immediately the answer
comes: black. In Brazil, in the culture in which we live, the contrary of
white is really black. In Brazil, which was a country of slave owners and
slaves, in Brazil in which the commerce of black slaves originating from
Africa was usual, the contrary of white really is black. But what is the con-
trary of white in Tokyo or Shanghai? I do not know, but I think it should
be yellow. What is the point? white and black are opposite poles in the
contrary way, yes, but we presuppose and allow other configurations of
contrariness to exist. Adding white and black we do not have the totality
of existent and possible things, but only two opposite poles which do not
exclude the existence of a tertium quid. Other contraries, such as white
and yellow can exist. The opposition of contraries here comes from the
language and from History, both of which are concrete and contingent.
The opposition of contraries in Dialectic Philosophy is always like this.
That is why contingency and History entered in Dialectics.
This is the methodical door through which contingency and history enter
the heart of the dialectic method itself and, therefore, the system. This
is the engendering mechanism of the contrary pole. In Dialectics the
contrary is not constructed a priori by the mere anteposition of negation.
In Analytics this can be done because they have an expressed subject and
quantifier. Since Dialecticians do not have them, they need to look up in
language and History what the semantically opposite pole of their thesis
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ist. But only the hard nucleus of the system is common to all the horizons
and to all time. Only the hard nucleus has the pretension of only truth.
The other perspectives (Nietzsche), the other horizons (Heidegger) are
respected and enter, as peripheral elements, in the Projects of the System
that are always concrete, contingent and historic. The disadvantage is this,
the abandon of the pretension of a deduction a priori of all the system,
is not a disadvantage, but an advantage. This is my opinion.
Analytics and Dialectics are languages with different syntaxes and produce
Philosophies with different profiles. Now, through the methodical problem,
it is possible to see how each of these philosophies projects a specific and
easily recognizable profile. If we take Hegel’s logic and schematize accord-
ing to the two methods, the difference in the two profiles becomes visible.
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Analytics cuts in two and separates. The logical subjects multiply them-
selves and, if we are not paying enough attention, Philosophy gets lost
in the post-modern fragmentation of reason. In Dialectics, on the other
hand, the logical subject is always the same. We have there always the
same logical subject, hidden but understood: the Absolute. What changes
are the predicates which further determine the subject. The profile of
Dialectics is the following:
Both methods have specific disadvantages. Analytics runs the risk of los-
ing the unity of the subject of the System and ending up talking about
non-important things. This happens in certain representatives of con-
temporaneous Analytic Philosophy. Dialectics runs the risk of turning
the only logical subject into something totalitarian. This happens, for
example, in the Dialectics of Leninism and Stalinism. The specific ad-
vantage of Analytics is its clarity. Since in it the logical subject and the
various aspects of the subject are always explicitly enumerated, they gain
in clarity. The specific advantage of Dialectics is that it always deals with
the Absolute, with Totality. Under these aspects Dialectic Philosophy is
more Philosophy, it is more System. The important thing now, I think,
is to realize that both methods, if correctly applied, do not exclude but
complement each other.
The ideas in Plato and the Neoplatonic Philosophers have their own
life. Just watch and observe. Sometimes they are opposite to each other,
sometimes they are attracted and come together forming a higher idea.
The ideas are not composed of subject and predicate but despite that
they say and tell the truth. Actually, it is in them and only in them that the
truth is. To know what the truth is, it is necessary to enter into a dialogue
like Socrates did and teach on the street corners and public squares. In di-
alogue, thesis and antithesis, the spoken and the rebuttal, appear naturally.
In concrete and real dialogue, on the streets and corners, when someone
says something and gives an opinion, an answer soon appears. This an-
swer can be affirmative, in which case both are in agreement and in con-
sensus. The initial thesis proposed by the first speaker was endorsed by
the second speaker of the dialogue. Great. The initial thesis, which was
only one, was accepted and endorsed by another and now it is a thesis
with an ample and more general base. This beginning is valid and import-
ant but here one is not yet dealing with Dialectics. The dialogue started
but there is only thesis.
Antithesis appears when the second speaker disagrees with the opinion
expressed by the first, when the second speaker does not accept the thesis
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poles are preserved and kept in all that they had that was positive. The
third meaning: in the unit of synthesis one reaches a higher plane, there
is an ascension to a higher level.
After this initial meeting between these two opposing poles, in a second
moment, the learning begins. The Master explains, the Disciple cap-
tures the explanation, repeats the explanation, and sometime later, he
knows how to repeat and redo alone what he learned. In the learning
process the Master exposes an idea which in the beginning exists only
in himself. This idea does not exist in the disciple; he has not yet heard
and learned it. But after the Master speaks and explains the idea, the
Disciple captures it and has it. The idea in the beginning was an idea
alone, now it is one and the same idea that exists and is in two, the Mas-
ter and the Disciple. The same idea, although still a single idea, exists in
the Master as well as in the Disciple. In relation to this idea Master and
Disciple are unified.
Even though they are two different people, Master and Disciple have
the same idea, they share the same idea. The idea shared by both,
continues to be a single idea. At this point, under this aspect, Master
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and Disciple became exactly the same. One knows what the other
knows. They know the same thing. They participate of the same
idea, which is a single idea but exists in two different poles. Master
and Disciple, here, became equal and came together in a higher,
nobler unity.
When, during the process of teaching and learning, the Master taught
all that he could and the Disciple learned all that he should, the learning
process is over. The relationship of Master and Disciple, which in the
beginning was asymmetric, becomes symmetric, and the Master publicly
declares that the Disciple stopped being a Disciple and that he too is now
a Master.
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In the dialogue The Sophist, Plato deals with the five supreme kinds.
The supreme kinds are those which form the apex of the pyramid under
which the ideas fall into order. All the ideas, in their nexus of opposition
and attraction, group themselves in the shape of a pyramid. The apex
of this pyramid of the Order of the World is made up of two pairs of
opposites, Rest and Change, the Same and the Other, and by the idea of
Being which hovers over everything as a final synthesis. It is for the idea
of Being that everything flows together and from this that everything has
its unity.
Rest is not Change. What is resting is not changing and vice-versa. The
poles here mutually exclude each other. The Same is not the Other, nor
vice-versa. The poles here are also excluding.
But Rest is Being and Change is also Being. If they were not Being, they
would not exist. They would be nothing. Rest and Change are Beings.
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Even though they are opposite and excluding poles, in Being, Rest and
Change are unified. Both of them participate in the idea of Being. In
Being the opposition stops being excluding and the opposites reunify in
unity.
The Same is Being, the Other also is Being. Sameness and Alterity, initially
excluding poles, are unified in Being, in which they participate. Both are Be-
ing. Being is the Supreme Idea. To Being everything comes together, from
the unity of Being everything originates. The Universe is then an unfolding,
an explanation, plica by plica, fold by fold, of this Being which is there
in the beginning. The Multiplicity of things, in Plato, originates from the
Unity of Being. In other writings Plato says that this Supreme Idea, which
is the Being, is also called the One and the Good. There we have the One
of the Neoplatonic philosophers and the Supreme Good of the Unwritten
Doctrine. From this all the rest is derived and originated. The only question
was exposed before in another place: is this process totally necessitarian or
does it contain some contingency and some chance? The Neoplatonic ne-
cessitarians hold to the first alternative, I hold to the second, which is what
is being exposed and defended in this book.
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chance? Does God throw the dice? Spinoza says no. Hegel is in doubt.
I think there is contingency, that God does throw the dice, and I think
that this is the space of equally possible alternatives which allows for
liberty, moral responsibility and political democracy. Dialectics, yes, but
Dialectics with contingency. Contingency and Historicity are, after Schell-
ing, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Gadamer, indispensable ele-
ments for any thought that one wants to be critical. He who does not take
this into account falls in the hole of Necessitarianism. And the Thracian
Slave starts laughing.
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Iterative Identity occurs when the first A repeats itself, then becom-
ing A and A. Or it repeats itself again for the third time, fourth time and
so on, becoming A, A, A, A....etc. While the repetition is merely iterative,
or while it is only A that repeats itself there is nothing new. This iterative
identity is the first and most basic form of Multiplicity. But it is still a
multiplicity of what is always the same. It is only A that repeats itself. We
observe, however, that this is where movement begins.
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Reflex Identity begins when we say that A equals A, that the first A
is the same thing as the second A, when we say that they are identi-
cal. It is right here that Identity arrives at its maturity and plenitude. Just
here we are able to formulate the first predication, because only now we
have distinct subject and predicate. The logical subject of this first pred-
ication is the first A, the predicate is the second A. That is how tautolo-
gy appears, the mother of all further predications: A = A. The various
Identity Logics, which we know today, are all founded on the Reflexive
Identity, in the great initial tautology.
The difference in the strict sense, or the Difference, begins when some-
thing that is not only a repetition of A is added to A or to the series of
A,A,A...etc. In this generic sense it is all that is not A, that is Non-A. This
Something Different, this Non-A, can be in two forms of opposition to
A, in contradictory opposition or in contrary opposition.
Contradictory Opposition
Contrary Opposition
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and possible things. Here we will always have datur tertium, like C, D etc.
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there are no exceptions. Anyone who denies this is denying the rationality
of speech. Anyone who affirms and denies the same predicate of the
same subject under the same aspect is saying foolishness. At times such
foolishness happens in our daily speech and in science. But this should
not happen. Never ever, although it does happen at times. If someone
ignores the prohibition expressed by the Principle of Non-Contradiction
and really contradicts himself, the punishment comes right away. Such a
person, who speaks saying and denying, is not doing anything but saying
nothing. He abandons rational speech, and reason, and from then on he
must stay quiet like a plant. Aristotle there is completely right. Aristotle is
not right when, in the Gamma book, he uses the traditional modal oper-
ator It is impossible to formulate the Principle of Non-Contradiction. It
is not that it is impossible, but one should not predicate the same pred-
icate of the same subject under the same aspect. Outside of these log-
ic-formal systems, which are free of contradiction, contradiction is not
logically impossible, but rationally undue. The contradiction is improper,
it is inconvenient, it should not exist, and it is foolishness. This is a uni-
versal and ample meaning - this is the definition of Rationality. Rational
is all the speech that intends to free itself from contradictions. But if in
concretely existent speech contradictions really do exist, then what does
one do? What can one do? If there are still contradictions, it is because
the rational speech was not completed; it is because the rationality of the
speech is still under construction. In such cases, in order to complete the
installation of rationality in speech it is necessary to apply two subprinci-
ples which are implicitly contained in the Principle of Non-Contradiction
in accordance to the Aristotelian tradition. In order to overcome the ex-
isting contradiction, it is necessary to apply one or the other. According
to the tradition one should try to apply the first subprinciple. If this does
not solve the problem, take the second.
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on how to use it, there are also instructions on how to use reason. Here
we are dealing with one of these instructions for the use of reason when
facing very specific difficulties. If, during the elaboration of the speech
a contradiction appears, then one tries to apply the first subprinciple. If
this is possible, one of the poles of opposition is annulled. If this does
not work, if this is not possible because both of the poles are false, it is
necessary to make the due distinctions in the logical subject. By making
these due distinctions in the logical subject of the predication, we avoid
that the same predicate be attributed and not attributed to the same sub-
ject under the same aspect. This cannot be done. Through the elaboration
of different aspects, which is indispensible for the contradiction to be
overcome, the logical subject of the predication is reduplicated. In the
Middle Ages this was called propositio explicativa, in some cases propo-
sitio reduplicativa. In such a case the same given subject is not predicated
and not-predicated to the same subject under the same aspect, but under
different aspects. This second subprinciple of Principle of Non-Contra-
diction, which - as the first - does not have universal validity and is not
always applicable, is the fundament of Dialectics. This is what will be
demonstrated below.
First, however, I will mention and unfold step by step a classical example of
traditional Logic and Ontology. All the tables that exist are, on one hand,
existent. While they are existent, they cannot not exist. On the other hand,
these tables are contingent beings and, as such, they can equally exist or
not. That is the way the said and countersaid, thesis and antithesis, appear.
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distinctions, says tradition. And then two diverse aspects are born, which
reestablish the good sense of reason.
The necessary distinctions were made. The logical subject was reduplicated
through the two propositiones explicativae that were added. The original
subject was maintained (The contingently existent tables), but through the
explicative propositions it was reduplicated, and the logical subject - which
was only one - became a double subject. This way, from now on, one no
longer predicates from the same subject under the same aspect necessity
and non-necessity, that is contingency. Through the reduplication of the
logical subject two new aspects are born which elaborate the previously
existent contradiction and overcome it in such a way that the contrary poles
are conciliated on a higher level. All the contingently existent tables have
necessity as well as contingency, but under different aspects. Through the
distinctions made, the contradiction which existed between two contrary
propositions was discursively handled and overcome.
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the original logical subject. Analytics neglects the original unity and con-
siders the subject only as a double subject, that is, as two logical subjects.
Dialectics, on the other hand, does not thematize the specific manner in
which contrary poles coexist in the synthesis without triggering an im-
plosion. During the last one hundred years, Analytics, under this aspect,
got even poorer because it presupposes as a logical subject something
which is determined in the smallest detail. Analytic Logic, nowadays, does
not realize that the logical subject, in the construction of argumentative
discussion, many times is not completely determined and that it therefore
needs further determination through the engendering of new aspects that
are added to it and make it a more precise concept. This logical subject,
seen in the processual movement of its engendering, which was used in
Middle Ages, today is unfortunately unknown. In this way the link be-
tween Analytics and Dialectics was also lost.
All that is, be it existent or merely possible, is a being. All the things that
exist are a being, of course. But the things that are merely possible are
also beings. Possibilities, if they exist as such, are also beings: they are
possible. We can conclude that everything is a being. Or, using the great
art of capital letters: Everything is Being. This is the first thesis of all
the great dialectic systems. And this thesis, as we shall soon see, just like
that, is false. Instead of saying Everything is Being, we could also say, All
things are Being, or The Absolute is Being. This last formula is that, which
Hegel indicates and advises in an addition to the beginning of Logic of
the Encyclopedia. But it is Hegel himself who, in the polemic against
his friend Schelling, in the Preface of Phenomenology, recommends not
placing the Absolute in the beginning of the system without this being
duly mediated, that is, without the due explanations and foundations. The
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First of all, we will remember the context in which the question surfaced:
it was in dealing with the logical subject of the predication, which for
the Dialecticians is always hidden, which is always presupposed without
saying of whom or what one is talking. In order to communicate with
the Analyticians, so they can understand of whom and what the Dia-
lecticians are talking about, it is necessary to make the logical subject of
the predication and its respective quantifier clear and explicit. Without
this precaution we return to the state of confusion in which Analyticians
and Dialecticians each speak their own language but do not understand
each other. Each one of them says something and the other only under-
stands blah-blah-blah. The Greeks, when they did not understand the lan-
guage of another person, called the other Barbar, like that Bar-bar. Barbar
comes from blah-blah-blah and means exactly that. And the Thracian
Slave, seeing the confusion between the Analyticians and Dialecticians,
started laughing. Because of this the Philosophers continue to fall into
holes. In order to not fall into a hole, observe: the logical subject and its
respective quantifier must be expressed. The Absolute is Being, Every-
thing is Being. But what is the Absolute? What is Everything?
The Absolute, in these first steps of Dialectics, still does not mean God.
The concept is still so ample and so empty that one almost does not catch
a glimmer of that Absolute, of the real Absolute that is going to appear
at the end of the System as God. It deals with the same Absolute, for
sure, but in the beginning it is undetermined and empty, at the end it is
determined and very rich. But all this, which we are just anticipating, we
still do not know when we take the first steps. That is why it is better to
say - which is the same thing - Everything is Being or All things are Being.
Where do we get this logical subject from? How do we justify it? Simple.
The beginning of a critical system, since Descartes, has to rigorously jus-
tify its assumptions. It is even better not to make any assumptions. But
how do we argue if we cannot make any assumption? How do we make a
demonstration without presupposing at least two premises? Aristotle had
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already asked this question. The arguments logically depend on the previ-
ous arguments, and these on still previous ones, and so on. Since one can-
not move backwards infinitely, Aristotle says, in the chain of arguments,
we have to start somewhere, we have to presuppose some beginning. This
logical beginning, that initiates the order of the argument, is called Prin-
ciple. Principle means two things. Principle is the starting. Principle is
also the rule. The answer to the question of the first logical beginning,
according to Aristotle, is that these first beginnings, which are also the
first Principles, do not have and do not need justification. The Stagirite
cites as the First Principle, the hard core of the so called First-Philosophy,
the Principle of Non-Contradiction. This, being a first principle, does not
need to be demonstrated, this Principle is evident in itself. Just look with
the inner eye and the truth of it will jump into your sight.
Evidence comes from seeing. And seeing can be something very sub-
jective, because, as we know, there are illusions. Aristotle, much before
Descartes, already knew this, and knew it well. That is why in the book
Gamma of Metaphysics he makes seven attempts to justify the Principle
of Non-Contradiction, the First Principle that would allegedly not need
justification. The central argument in the end is only one. The skeptical
radical who denies the Principle of Non-Contradiction, but after denying
it, continues talking, discussing and saying things, this skeptical is presup-
posing, by continuing to talk and discuss, exactly that which he denied
before. That which was denied reappears, like Phoenix from the ashes,
in the speech that follows. The only thing that the skeptical radical can
do in a consequential way is to stay completely quiet. Total silence is the
only alternative for someone who denies the basic principle of all speech.
He, who denies the Principle of Non-Contradiction stays silent, reduced
to the state of plant. The act of speech itself, through which one denies
the Principle of Non-contradiction, upon denying it presupposes it again.
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picious noise, and asks: who is there? Johnny answers with a muffled voice:
nobody is here. The very act of speaking denies what was spoken. This is a
performative contradiction. The act of speaking presents a content - nobody
is here - that is negated by the very existence of speech. Another example
of performative contradiction: on a sheet of paper the following sentence is
written There is nothing written here. The content expressed in the proposi-
tion is denied by the existence of characters written on the paper. The Princi-
ple of Non-Contradiction, in Aristotle, is justified through such a performa-
tive contradiction. He, who denies it but continues speaking, replaces by his
acts of speech exactly that which he denied. This demonstration, subtle, but
very strong, is already in the book Gamma of Metaphysics.
A similar, but not exactly the same type of argument is the refutation
of Radical Skepticism. Whoever says and affirms that There is no prop-
osition which is true enters into self-contradiction and refutes himself.
Whoever says it und places this universally negative proposition as true,
replaces as true exactly that what the proposition which he denies is say-
ing. In other words, he says There is no proposition which is true except
this one. But, if this is true, then at least one proposition is true, and then
proposition There is no proposition which is true is false.
And what does all this have to do with the first thesis of the dialectic system
All things are being? The question is that this proposition, in order to work
as thesis in a game of opposites, has to be demonstrated as being false.
How do we do this? How do we show the falseness of this thesis? The
falseness of a thesis is not simply given; it cannot be admitted without crit-
ical justification. And there comes the question: in this very beginning how
do we justify the falseness of the thesis? And remaking the previous ques-
tion, which was not yet answered, how do we justify the use of this logical
subject All the things? Here the more subtle forms of arguing come into
place. The usual mechanisms of arguing, which are syntactic, are not yet
available to set up a discussion here. We also do not have premises which
we can presuppose as true. How then can we argue? We have to operate on
a deeper level, on the level of semantics and pragmatics. Semantics justifies
the use of All things as the logical subject of the predication; pragmatics
shows us the existing contradiction in the thesis, and therefore its falseness.
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No, the Totality which appears in this first beginning, in the logical subject
All things, is something completely clear which can be justified step by step.
The justification obviously cannot be syntactic. It is semantic. What does
All things mean? What is one pointing to, when one says this? Since a sys-
tem that wants to be critical cannot presuppose anything, then we are going
to begin without presupposing anything, absolutely nothing. Upon putting
it like that, we are not presupposing anything determined. We do not pre-
suppose chairs, tables, computers, gods, etc. But, upon saying that we are
presupposing nothing, we are pointing to an empty space where actually
there is nothing determined, but where there is a place to put anything we
want. He, who uses an ample concept, who does not point to a determined
place, who does not mean or presuppose anything determined is pointing
to an enormous empty space where all determined things can be placed.
Not presupposing anything determined means presupposing everything
of undetermined form. Let's take a very simple example: Chair and Non-
Chair. Chair is a determined thing; Non-Chair is a strong negation of this
determined thing. All the things that are not chairs are contained in the am-
ple concept of Non-Chair. The strong negation of something determined
is always an ample empty space in which all the other existent and possible
things fit. He, who denies determined presuppositions, is putting himself in
the totality of the undetermined presuppositions. Chair and Non-Chair, the
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It is as if we drew a dividing line in our minds and placed all the existing and
possible things to the left of the line. Then, to the right of the line an enor-
mous empty space remains. All the things are placed on the left. This is the
assumption. The job of Philosophy is to place all the things that were pre-
supposed and placed on the left, back on the right. This job of repositioning
is not just a copy. If it wants to be Critical Philosophy, like we really want it to
be, then it is necessary, when repositioning, to examine each piece with great
care and verify how it fits in - Principle of Coherence - with the neighboring
pieces and in the end in the global sense. Then, piece by piece on the right
side of the imaginary line appears a great mosaic which is the Philosophy Sys-
tem. What is the repositioning rule? Only one, just one, that of the Principle
of Universal Coherence, which we also call the Principle of the Contradiction
to be Avoided. Then the use of the logical subject of the thetical proposition
All or All Things is semantically justified. The Totality placed here from the
very beginning and now critically replaced is something that imposes itself
semantically. Anyone who wants to deny our argument in order to be more
critical, will always make a new negation, engendering and presupposing ex-
actly a totality like that which he wants to deny. Okay then, as far as the logical
subject of the first predication of the system. But how can we demonstrate
the falseness of this thesis? Through pragmatic contradiction.
All is Being, All Things are Being. The being that appears here as the log-
ical predicate is the simplest determination. When we say of something
that this something is a being, we are determining this something as an
ample and empty undetermined thing. Being is a very ample and almost
empty concept. The pragmatic contradiction consists of exactly this: we
want to determine something, and to determine it, we say that this some-
thing is a being, or in other words, that it is an empty undetermined thing.
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The falseness of the thesis has been demonstrated, therefore we cannot con-
tinue with it. One cannot live in the falseness. The logical explosion that occurs
with the performative contradiction throws us out. Where to? To the antithesis.
The thesis All is Being is False. The explosion throws us out of the thet-
ical position and we need an alternative. The antithetic proposition All is
Nothing, All things are Nothing appears.
All the things when they come to be are Being. All things when they stop
being are Nothing. Being is a Come-into-Being, Nothing is a No-Lon-
ger-Being. Being is the positive, Nothing is the negative. The Being is
to appear, Nothing is to disappear. How and in what way All things are
Nothing? All the things are Nothing, because all the things for the time
being, were determined only as Being in this initial determination in
which we are found in the reconstruction of the mosaic. This being is
empty and undetermined, it is something undetermined, it is a Non-De-
termination, it is a Nothing of determination. When the waiter, at the
end of a meal asks and we answer that we do not want anything else we
are not becoming nihilists nor are we thinking about finishing our life
or about the end of the universe. On the contrary, upon saying Nothing
we mean to say the opposite of that which the waiter offered us. Do you
want anything else? No, we do not want anything else. Nothing is not a
contradiction, but a contrary. This is the meaning when we say All things
are nothing. The thesis that all things are Being, pure Being is false. The
antithesis that all things are Nothing, pure Nothing is also equally false.
is Nothing, that All things are Nothing. In the antithesis the violence of
the explosion is, as one can see, always bigger than that of the thesis. This
is one of the facets of the tremendous force of negation.
Observe well the following: the logical subject of the predicate was not
changed. Neither was the quantifier. In thesis as well as in antithesis the
logical subject and quantifier stayed the same. Or, in other words, we are
dealing with contraries and not contradictories. And this is why the Ana-
lyticians cannot oppose this argument. Two contraries can be simultane-
ously false. We have already seen the Logical Square: two contradictories
cannot be simultaneously false, but two contraries can be simultaneously
false. No contradiction. No one is saying any foolishness.
The thesis is false, the antithesis is also false. What do we do? What can
we do? The Analyticians would say: we should make the necessary dis-
tinctions. The Dialecticians say: we are going to make a synthesis.
For the Analyticians as well as for the Dialecticians the rule that a con-
tradiction, if it really exists, has to be handled and overcome, is true. The
Analyticians overcome this by distinguishing two aspects of the logical
subject, that is making the two reduplicative propositions. The Dialecti-
cians, who do not have a logical subject - it is not expressed -, look for a
new concept which is synthetic.
The Analyticians, facing the falseness of All things are Being and All
things are Nothing, would make the necessary distinctions of the logical
subject in order to overcome the contradiction:
Subject All things,
Reduplicated subject while they originate and come to be being,
Predicate are Being.
All things are Becoming. All moves, all is moved. The things emerge and
appear. They die and disappear. Come and go, appear and disappear,
birth and death. The world is in movement, the Universe is in con-
stant Becoming. From this it is immediately clear that the Universe is
in evolution, it is developing itself. This urges Philosophy to talk about
Evolution, to build an Evolution Theory. We will do this further on in
the chapter Nature and Evolution.
The Logical Antinomies, known since ancient times, were considered and
dealt with by Philosophers as little monsters existing in distant lands at
the edge of the world of Reason. Such monsters have always existed in
Nature and were, especially in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, objects
of curiosity. Giants, dwarfs, two-headed calves and similar items were col-
lected and shown in the so called Room of Curiosities. In the beginning,
Logical Antinomies were not much more than this for the Philosophers.
Everyone knew the Antinomy of the Lying Cretan: A Cretan says “All
Cretans are liars”. If all Cretans lie, and if this is being said by a Cretan,
then this is a lie. If it is a lie, it is not true. Then, it is not true that all Cre-
tans are liars. Therefore, it is true that some Cretans tell the truth. But if
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this is true, and if this Cretan, who is speaking, is telling the truth, then
what he says is true. Then it is true that all Cretans are liars. But if it is true
that all Cretans are liars, then this Cretan is also lying. But, if he is lying,
then it is not true that all Cretans are liars. Then the Cretans tell the truth,
and so on. The listener is thrown from truth to falseness and back from
falseness to truth, in an endless movement.
The logical structure of the Antinomy of the Cretan in its ancient form has
been discussed and studied since ancient times. In the Middle Ages, Petrus
Hispanus and Paulus Venetus occupied themselves for a long time with it.
Paulus Venetus presented a list of 14 solutions that were proposed at the
time to solve the problem. In the 20th century, the question is picked up
again and the Antinomy of the Super Liar is formulated, which is logically
harder that the antinomy in its old formulation. The Super Liar, antinomy in
the strict sense, presented a logical structure which makes us oscillate, without
any other way out, between truth and falseness: if p is true, then p is false, if p
is false, then p is true. Anyone who enters an antinomic structure of this type
becomes a prisoner of it and cannot get out. The truth throws him to false-
ness, and the falseness throws him back to the truth, in an endless movement.
ment appears the concept of class that contains classes and right at the
top the concept of a class that contains all the other classes. Up to that
point, everything is fine. This pyramid structure, in which the concepts
are ordered and hierarchized, is something well known to the Logicians
since Plato and the Neoplatonic philosophers especially after Porfirius.
The new point, the great new point and problem consists of the fol-
lowing: there are classes that contain themselves and also classes that do
not contain themselves. For example, noun is a class and is at the same
time, something which is contained in this class; because the term noun
is in itself a noun. This exists and this does not cause any problem; it's
about a class which contains itself. The problem occurs when one builds
- and Frege needed this to make the substantiation of Mathematics - the
concept of a class of classes that do not contain themselves. Does one
such class belong to the class of those which contain itself or to the class
that does not contain itself ? If it belongs to the first, then it belongs to
the second; if it belongs to the second, then it belongs to the first and
so one infinitely. After all, which class does it belong to? There is no an-
swer; the oscillation between yes and no goes on infinitely and paralyzes
the thought. Bertrand Russell localized the problem and called Frege’s
attention to it: the class of the classes which do not contain themselves
is an antinomical concept. This class contains itself and does not contain
itself. Yes and No oscillating, one sending back to the other, one based on
the other, one presupposing the other, without end. This is the first great
antinomy elaborated and seriously studied in contemporary Philosophy.
Building the antinomy of the empty class, Russell forms the so called
Antinomy of Truth, which really should be called the Antinomy of False-
ness. The Antinomy of Falseness consists of the following proposition:
(p): This proposition p is false. If this proposition is true, then it is as it is,
that means, it is false. But, if it is false, then it is true, because it is saying
that it is false. Or rather, the truth of p implies the falseness of p and
vice-versa the falseness of p implies the truth of p. The movement of os-
cillation between truth and falseness appears without ever coming to rest.
The Antinomies have to be solved. We cannot say yes and no at the same
time. One cannot say something and at the same time and under the same as-
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pect deny it. The Principle of Non-Contradiction cannot be denied or else all
rationality will collapse with it. In order to solve the question of antinomies, a
proposal was then made in the very beginning which prohibited the construc-
tion of concepts and propositions which reflect upon themselves, or in oth-
er words which are self-referent (selbstbezüglich). This general prohibition
of using self-reflexive constructions found support in many good authors
like I. M. Bochenski and Albert Menne, for example. In Tractatus, Ludwig
Wittgenstein assumes and defends the hard prohibition to do self-flexion.
However, when Wittgenstein adds Here we have the Theory of the Types in
parenthesis, he does not honor the thought of his master Bertrand Russell,
who proposes a more sophisticated and more correct theory.
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contexts and those without meaning. The truth value Open is applied ad
infinitum to regresses and progresses. The truth value Non-Truth leaves
it open if a proposition is false or neutral. The truth value Not-False al-
lows a proposition to be true or neutral. Here we see the sophistication
to which the initial theory which distinguishes only two or three different
levels was taken. The antinomy, according to Blau, rolls from one level to
another, from one value of truth to another. The great advantage of the
theory proposed by Blau is that the antinomical proposition on each level
has only one value of truth. There is no truth and falseness on the same
level. One never says Yes and No at the same time, under the same aspect.
The discussion among the Logicians about the structure of the antino-
mies covers all the 20th century: Frege, Bertrand Russell, Bochensky, Tar-
ski, Blau and many others participated in the debate. It is natural that the
Philosophers dealing with Dialectics and interested in this theme return
to this question that is so much discussed between the Logicians and that
presents such an intriguing phenomenon. There are logical structures in
which truth and falseness imply each other mutually; there are structures
in which there is an oscillation between Truth and Falseness, between
Yes and No. Is this not Dialectics? Is Dialectics not exactly this? Is the
antinomic structure not the logical nucleus of all and any Dialectics? The
question of Dialectics phrased like that, placed on the horizon of the log-
ical discussion about antinomies, comes up naturally. Hegel had already
said that antinomy is a privileged way of presenting the truth. The antin-
omy to which Hegel is referring is that which is elaborated and shown by
Kant in Transcendental Dialectics. Antinomy, now, in the 20th century, is
something very well defined; it is the Antinomy of the Empty Class and
the Antinomy of the Truth of Bertrand Russell. It is this structure to
which contemporary philosophers, who believe they can find in antinom-
ic structure a conducting string which allows us to say what Dialectics is,
refer. Is the Dialectics of the classic authors an antinomic structure in
the contemporary meaning? Robert Heiss, Arend Kulenkampff, Thomas
Kesselring and Dieter Wandschneider think so. All Dialectics, they say, is
always an antinomy deep down. Whoever wishes to know what Dialectics
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is first has to know what Antinomy is. Antinomies are the propositions
which, if they are true, they are false; if they are false, they are true.
Some years later, in 1984, Thomas Kesselring published the book Die
Produktivität der Antinomien in which he strongly and in great detail
takes up the idea that the antinomic structure is the motor that makes
Dialectics run. Kesselring describes and maps out the antinomies, ana-
lyzes its structure, puts its logical structure of self-inflectional negation
up front and tries to make, starting there, the reconstruction of some
parts of Hegel’s system.
Why, he asked? Why stop here? Why is it not possible to go farther? Intellec-
tually honest questions made by an honest intellectual.
Dialectics consists of the game of opposites. We all know this. But what
is the game of opposites made of ? Which opposites? Contradictories or
contraries? Does Dialectics disobey the Principle of Non-Contradiction?
The thesis that the antinomies are at the nucleus of Dialectics says first of
all that the Analytic philosophers should not overreact in their defense of
the Principle of Non-Contradiction because even the Logicians recognize
that, in some cases - in the antinomies -, there is an oscillation between
Truth and Falseness. It is not only the Dialecticians, therefore, who chal-
lenge the Principle of Non-Contradiction, in Logics there are also struc-
tures that seem to elude it. One should not therefore disallow Dialectics
from the beginning and in general. This is the first message. The second
message, contained in the thesis of Kesselring and Wandschneider, is that
the true motor of Dialectics consists of the perpetual oscillation between
truth and falseness. The opposites, they say, always oscillating between
truth and falseness, being simultaneously true and false, need to be con-
ciliated. It is in the dialectic synthesis that this happens, they say. The
typical movement of Dialectics came about, according to Kesselring and
Wandschneider, in the movement that exists in the antinomic structure.
Which movement? The non-stop oscillation between truth and falseness.
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the passage from one level to another. This is central for Kesselring as well
as for Wandschneider. In spite of this distinction of language levels there
is a mixture, clearly affirmed by both authors, between the different levels;
there is always a certain superposition of levels which they cannot define
any better. Besides this, both authors get stuck on the reconstruction of
Hegel’s Logic after a few steps. What happened? What went wrong?
to make the distinction between the levels of language. What was done?
What happened? Yes, there was a contradiction, a potentiated contradic-
tion, and the solution was the same as always: making the necessary dis-
tinctions. Since the logical subject of the antinomies is in circular move-
ment, the solution is to make the distinction between the types or levels
of language. This is exactly the solution proposed by Russell, by Tarski,
by Blau, by all the Logicians. Kesselring and Wandschneider also make
this distinction. However, although they make the distinction between the
levels like the others, they emphasize the mixing of the levels, the partial
overlapping, and the passage from one level to another.
What is right after all? What is rational? Distinguishing the levels of lan-
guages or mixing them? In my opinion, this overlapping of different lev-
els of language which exists in the antinomies can and should be later
researched for the good of Logics as well as Dialectics. Dialectics, how-
ever, is something much more ample and encompassing. The webbing of
Dialectics is not as narrow as Kesselring and Wandschneider think it is,
and that is why they get stuck so early in the reconstruction of Hegel’s
Logic. The solution of the antinomies is just a particular case of a much
bigger solution: making the necessary distinctions. Yes, there is, I think,
something dialectic in the antinomies. But one cannot limit Dialectics to
the structure of the logical antinomies.
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A System Project
Dialectics, since it works with opposites that are just contraries, is always
inserted in the contingent historicity of language and the world in which
we live and think. In the game of opposites the antithesis is not con-
structed a priori but it is taken from language and History. Sometimes
the antithesis is constructed; however, we are not dealing here with an a
priori construction of concepts, but with a linguistic and social engender-
ing - a posteriori - of something new which is always an intersubjective
fact. Cornelius Castoriadis, in our century, showed very well how such
an engendering of intersubjective realities takes place. One is not dealing
here with a conceptual operation a priori in the technical sense of the
rationalists and Kantians.
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The project of the system proposed here has, according to the great Neo-
platonic tradition, three parts: Logics, Nature and Spirit.
Everything which was done in this work until now is part of Logics. It
deals with elaborating the structure and triadic movement of the logical
speech. Logics, so conceived, is many things. It is, first of all, a Philos-
ophy of Language which analyzes the rules and principles of all speech
and thought, which examines and raises the conditions of possibility in
our factual speech and thought. The main themes are, then, the triadic
structure of Thesis, Antithesis and Synthesis, the three First Principles
in Dialectics as well as in Analytics (Identity, Difference and Coherence)
and the interweaving existent between Dialectics, Analytics and Herme-
neutics. Logics is, second of all, an Ontology, because it formulates
valid principles also for the being of all the beings. Logics is, third, a
Theology, because on saying what a being is, it is always speaking of the
Absolute. Logics is, fourth, a History of Ideas, because it is in language
and History that it gets its contents. Formal Logics, in its contemporary
meaning, is included in the first meaning mentioned above, in Logics
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About the first part of the system project, about Logics, a lot can be
added; the basic has already been shown in the previous chapters of
this book. However, I want to emphasize a main point: I do not try
to make an a priori deduction of the logical categories, but a critical
reconstruction of the factual universe of all things, which is expressly
presupposed as the beginning and start, under the empire of the Co-
herence Principle. The contingency of things and the Historicity were,
I think, dully respected: the System just critically places what was pre-
supposed from the beginning. To place is only to replace critically. That
said and done, Logics done, what do we say about Nature? What is the
Philosophy of Nature?
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Identity
Simple A Identity Individual
Iterative Identity A,A,A Iteration, replication, reproduction
Reflexive A=A Identity Species
Difference
Difference of contradictions
A and Non-A (does not exist)
Difference of contraries
A and B Emergency of the new, mutation by
chance
Coherence
nnulment of one of the poles Death, natural selection
Elaboration of the due distinctions Adaptation
History of Dialectics History of Evolution
In the beginning it is this simple identity which stands out of the back-
ground, or its environment, as being something determined. From this
first beginning, long and complex processes, which represent all that we
call Universe, are developed. This is the first beginning of all: the simple
identity. The history of evolution of things has always been the first and
most important theme for the myth and when it is cleansed through rea-
son, for Philosophy. The history of genesis of the world, as well as of
the things existent in it, belong to the fundaments of our History, our
culture. Since the Pre-Socratic, the philosophers have tried to formulate
through the categories of Being, Nous, Atoms, Ideas, Substance etc. the
principles that determine the genesis and development of our complex
world starting from a simple first beginning. Recently, we philosophers -
unfortunately - have abandoned almost completely this theme, which may
be the most important of all, and have dedicated ourselves almost exclu-
sively to the analysis of the connections existent among the words. We
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have delivered the cycle of the great questions about the genesis of the
universe and life to the physicists and biologists who weave reasonable
theories about the origin and development of the universe. Cosmology
in the past was a task for philosophers and a subject of Philosophy, today
it is a subject only dealt with theoretically by physicists and biologists. It
should not be like that. If Philosophy wants to be loyal to its name and
tradition, then the question about the meaning of our lives, about the
beginning and development of the universe must be faced again in an
attempt to answer it.
central point, always describing the same orbit. In that way, they always go
back to the same place and constitute something which remains. That is
how the atoms and solar systems appear in the beginning. Another form
of iteration, which we find in crystals and living beings, for example, is
that which we call symmetry. Half is the iteration by mirroring the other
half. In Biology the iterative identity appears in a very specific way as
replication and reproduction. Today, these are the key concepts which
describe the specific characteristic of the living beings and in this way
constitute the very definition of what life is. Reproduction is a process
by which a certain organism creates and lets out of himself - re-pro-
duces - another living thing according to the same plan of construction.
Replication is the process where the plan of construction of a certain
organism, codified and packaged in the nucleic acid, makes copies of
itself. Reproduction is the iteration of organisms where one is the same
as the others. Replication is the iteration of construction plans which
are identical. There it is, everywhere, present and active, the principle of
iterative identity.
Reflex identity says that the second A (as well as the third, the fourth etc.)
is the same as the first A, A=A. Here, a phenomenon which has made us
think hard since ancient times arises. In order to declare the identity of A,
it is necessary to declare or write it twice; first on the left, then on the right
of the equal sign. Only then - through the explicit position of this first
difference - can we clearly declare the identity of A. The difference, the al-
terity, or simply the other, is what sticks out and begins to emerge here. We
are still dealing with the same thing, that which is identical to itself, but the
emerging difference begins to be seen. One perceives that there is a process
in course here in which the identical comes out of itself to, later on, return
to itself. This circular movement is the characteristic element of the basic
structure of many important things that appear later on in evolution, such
as life, that is, its autopoietic structure, or thought and free action, or spirit.
But we are not there yet; the difference is just a rough draft.
become the same without losing their own identity. In the species it is
not the singularity which is expressed (the this to which we point with
our finger), but the specific particularity, the species, or rather, that which
is common to many individuals. The plan of construction of a certain
species, engraved in the genes of all the individuals which compose it,
constitutes the typical structure of the species during ontogenesis. In that
way, from a chicken’s egg, there will only be a chicken. Two questions
come up here naturally: how does one distinguish what is characteristic of
the species and what is the determination of the individual? And second,
why is the structure of the species engraved in the genes and the individ-
ual determinations not? Both questions bring up a problem, which deep
down is the same: the slow and gradual emergence of difference.
does not enter the genetic construction plan, then it continues being just
an individual property; it is just an individual quality, not of the species.
If an originally individual property enters or not the genetic plan of con-
struction; i.e., whether or not an individual property becomes a property
of the species or not, we find out through the history of evolution. This
- Lamarck’s great theme - is initially just a fact in the course of an evolu-
tion which occurs in a contingent manner. When and how an individual
property enters the genetic plan of construction, which physical-chemical
circumstances are determinant are questions we do not yet have satisfac-
tory answers to. This is exactly one of the themes that biologists today
research most.
as we imagine many times today. In some cases, like here, the contrary is
true. The law of conservation what remains more is what most remains
explains very many things. It explains that only what is long lasting, not
what is temporary remains. It explains that, in the last instance, the order
has more success than the disorder. If B and C etc. do not remain longer,
then they do not remain, and they disappear returning to the chaos.
What stays is only what repeats itself, the series A, A, A etc., B, B, B etc.
Only stable entities last and continue to exist. This first law of conserva-
tion, formulated in a tautological manner, also says that there is a princi-
ple of selection that acts from the very beginning of genesis and in the
development of the universe. Only that which lasts longer is long lasting.
Longer lasting is only that part of the world which is more than and re-
mains longer than those entities that appear and shine like fleeing sparks
and soon dissolve into nothing. Only what maintains itself remains, or
that which through repetition of itself gives itself consistence, that is,
that which through the iterative movement becomes a durable sameness.
All the rest, all that is evanescent, all that does not repeat itself, that does
not reproduce, disappears in the course of development, returning to
indetermination and chaos. Without iteration, without this circular move-
ment that is characteristic of electrons and stars, without the replication
as it occurs in the DNA, without the reproduction as it characterizes the
organisms, nothing stays for very long. Or in other words: it is the iter-
ative identity that under the form of orbital movements, of replication
and reproduction, gives consistence to all things. The different being that
appears but does not remain longer and does not have duration - through
the circular movements, replication and reproduction -, such a different
being stops being and disappears. It existed and lasted for a short span of
time, but did not take hold. The law of conservation that is implicitly con-
tained in the Principle of Iterative Identity, if applied to the differences
that appear, is already a law of selection. The so called natural selection, as
we gather from this, is a more specific form of a simple logical principle.
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good for anything else and should be dismissed of the rational discussion.
In Nature we call this death. In Nature, when an opposition of contraries
appears, when there is a shock between A and B - between System and
Environment - two things can happen. First of all, one pole can eliminate
the other. In this case, only one of the poles remains, the other does not.
The pole that remains is then called - mostly only afterwards, ex post - the
winner. The other pole does not remain, it does not survive, it dies. In Log-
ics, this corresponds to the annulment of one of the opposition poles; the
false pole is false through the other which is the true pole. This annulment
is effective in Logics in a positive way: if we know from some positive
source - a positive reason, not just the simple structure of Dialectics as a
formal scheme - that a pole of a given opposition is true, then it logically
follows that the other pole is false. In Nature as in Logics, many times we
do not know beforehand, a priori, which of the two poles of opposition is
true. To be able to conclude about the falseness of the antithesis in Logics
it is necessary that the truth of the thesis be demonstrated starting from
a positive argument (for example, through a performative contradiction).
Also, in Nature, one of the two poles should appear as being the truth
or the correct. This demonstration, in Nature, many times is not a logical
nexus, but a simple fact. One of the two poles of the opposition in Nature
wins. Ex post we realize this and then say that this pole is the winner, that
is the one that survived. The other pole of this opposition which lost the
battle dies and disappears back into the chaos.
Is this not a very poor Philosophy that has as the final purpose of living
the mere survival, an ethic Philosophy without pity or love? No. If this
thinking is consequently taken to the end, one reaches, as we will soon
see, a humanistic vision of the world in which not only the dignity of
man, but also his roots in the cosmic order will clearly appear.
The alternative now is the following: if in Nature there are contrary poles
that are both false, or are not adequate, then two things can happen.
Either one pole annuls the other, or - both being inadequate - Nature
creates new real aspects (corners, folds, facets etc.). These real aspects,
so developed, then overcome the previously existent contradiction. The
creation of new aspects, which in Logics was called the elaboration of
the necessary distinctions, here in Nature is called adaptation. Adapta-
tion, that is, the formation of real aspects, solves the problem of real
contradiction which previously existed and conciliates both poles on a
higher, more complex and richer level. System and Environment, which
previously were in contrary opposition and were both false, are conciliat-
ed and united through engendering of new real aspects. This engendering
of new real aspects can happen in the System as well as in the Environ-
ment; it can also happen in both. The process of evolution of living
things, in which all these adaptations concretely happened until reaching
the present stage, is called by the Biologists Evolution. Charles Darwin
is responsible for reformulating this old theory on the development of
the universe, already conceived by the Greek philosophers and later de-
veloped by the master-thinkers of the Middle Ages and Modern Times,
and have reunited such empirical and abundant material to prove it that
we can now discuss the subject in a scientific way. The importance given
to chance, or contingency, in my opinion, is decisive in this context. One
especially realizes this when one compares the different forms Darwin’s
theory of evolution assumed until reaching today's theory of systems.
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Ethics
The Ancient Family
In the beginnings of our civilization the Should-Be, main theme of all Eth-
ics, emanated from the Family and fulfilled itself in it. The Good and the
Bad, what one should do, what one should not do, which were the rewards
for good deeds and the punishment for the crimes, all was ruled and de-
termined by the Canticle song that the Father of the Family, the Pater,
vocalized while performing the ritual dance around the sacred fire of the
Home, which was then called Hestia. The Pater, all dressed in white, with
a crown of flowers on his head, in front of the Mater and the rest of the
family in line, started the sacred dance in honor of the Domestic Gods. The
Domestic Gods were the father, the grandfather, the great-grandfather, the
great, great-grandfather etc., all heroes of many virtues and many deeds,
represented by small statues placed on the edge of the home, where the
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sacred fire, that Prometheus had stolen from the heavens, cracked.. The
Hymn sung by the Pater in all the important ceremonies of the Family
was in honor of the ancestors or Domestic Gods. That is why all the great
canticles, in ancient times, started singing about the heroes who were ances-
tors, or rather the ancestors who were all heroes. In the Iliad, the poet sings
about the hero of the Trojan War, Achilles. In the Aeneid, the founding
fathers of the city of Rome. In the Lusiadas, “the designated weapons and
barons” who founded Portugal. The Song in honor of the ancestors, sung
by the Pater, started honoring the ancestors, but soon became much more
practical. All that the Pater sang in the Hymn of the Family was a rule that
either obliged or prohibited some kind of action. Nomos in Greek means
both canticle and law. Both meanings were, in the beginning of our civili-
zation, intimately connected. All that was in the Canticle sung by the Pater
was Law. The Good and the Evil, virtue and vice, good and bad action, to
distinguish them one just needed to listen and pay attention to the Sacred
Song which, besides honoring the Domestic Gods, established the norma-
tive statute for the Family.
The young woman, daughter of the Pater and Mater, before marrying,
needed to be disconnected from her Family of origin. The disconnection
ceremony was done in a dance around the sacred fire of the Home. The
fire was sacred because it was stolen by Prometheus from the Gods of
Olympus, and the Mater was the one responsible for never letting it go
out. If the fire went out, the family would fall into ruin, it would return
to the barbarian state; worse yet, it would be the same as the beasts who
ate raw food and suffered in the cold. The Home fire was something
very important. The Hymn of the Family was too. In order to disconnect
a legitimate daughter from the Family, the Pater had to sing the Sacred
Song including in this the mention that at that exact moment he was dis-
connecting his daughter so and so from the Family. The bride, dressed
in white and wearing a crown of flowers on her head, like her Pater, was
then taken to the house of her future husband. A cart decorated with
flowers, pulled by one white and one black ox, took the bride while the
bystanders sang a hymn called Hymenaeus. Upon her arrival at her future
Family's house, the bride got out of the cart, but could not enter the
main room of the house. This was prohibited under penalty of death.
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A stranger could never enter the room where the Sacred Home Fire was
burning. There was only one exception permitted to this rule: the guests
if they were brought in and conducted by the hand of the owner of the
house and host. Since the bride was not yet a member of the Family,
but she was also not just a guest who leaves, she could not enter. If she
entered and stepped on the sacred floor, under which the ashes of the
ancestors were kept, she would be a strange invader breaking the peace
of the home. And then, sacra esto: she would be sacrificed. That is why
the bride, not being able to enter on her own feet, had to be carried in
the arms of the groom until the sacred fire of Hestia, without stepping
on the floor. There, in the face of the Pater and the family reunited for
a feast, the groom deposits his future wife on the floor. The Pater then
asks if she wants to marry the groom and therefore, start belonging to the
new Family. On answering yes, the bride is taken by the Pater in the ritual
dance around the sacred fire singing the Hymn of her new Domestic
Gods, of the grandfather, great grandfather and great-great grandfather
of her husband. In this ceremony, the bride, already disconnected from
her family of origin, is connected to her new family. She is then, recon-
nected, she has a religion (re-ligare). In those times, the Religion, centered
on the Family and the Sacred Song of the Home, was the fountain and
criterion of all Ethics. That is how it was done, how it should be done,
because who is connected or reconnected to the Family has to obey what
is sung in the Nomos which is Canticle and also Law.
This is the Ethics of the old ones. Simple, solemn, sometimes cruel. This
is one of the fundamental norms of our civilization. Until now the brides
dress in white and wear crowns of flowers. But they do not know why.
Until recently all women when they married took on the family name of
their husband. And they did not know why. Until today the laws, to be val-
id, have to be promulgated; this is done first by singing, then pronouncing
in a good loud voice. Today in Brazil we have the Official Newspaper
which fills out this function. There has been modernization but not al-
ways and not in everything. Many of us, when we get up in the morning,
take care to put our right foot on the floor first; stepping with the wrong
foot will bring bad luck. In some older barrooms, in the countryside, the
yokel, before lifting his cup of spirits, offered the first sip to the saint.
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The Saint here is not from Africa, but from ancient Greece; it is a libation.
This is the Ethics that gave the origin to our civilization and which ruled
our culture for many centuries.
This is the main question asked by the Sophists. Socrates, Plato and Aris-
totle, each in their own way, tried to give a rational answer to it. The Dia-
logue making the critical examination of the reasons brought up by both
sides forms the central nucleus of Socrates’ answer. The hierarchy of all
values, in a pyramidal form, under the rule of the Supreme Good idea, is
Plato’s answer. The straight reason is Aristotle’s answer.
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these cases? Aristotle answers: Mesotes. Mesotes is the middle of the line;
it is that position which is neither at one extreme nor at the other, but in
the middle. In the middle is virtue, In medio stat virtus. Virtue consists
of being in the middle. The virtuous man is courageous; he is not coward
nor temerarious, but situated in the middle: that’s courage. But Aristotle
realized that the Middle of the Road is not always located exactly in the
middle. Courage is nearer to temerity than to cowardliness. If the Me-
sotes is not exactly in the middle, if Mesotes is not the decisive criterion
to decide between the Good and the Evil, then what are the last criteria
of ethics? Aristotle answers: the Straight Reason. Straight comes from the
straight line of the Geometrists, it comes from the rule of the Architects
of stretching a rope and building ceilings and walls exactly following the
straight line made by the stretched rope: the shortest distance between
two points, a basic element of Geometry and Architecture. Straightness,
yes, straightness like in geometric figures, like in Architecture. And Rea-
son. What is Reason? We are still asking what Reason is today; even now
we do not know well what Reason is. Why did Aristotle’s Ethics work so
well for so long - Thomas Aquinas adopted it, the Neoaristotelians today
still defend it - Why? What is Reason? What is Straight Reason? Kant, in
Modern Times, explains more and takes a strong step further on.
Kant always uses the same basic scheme in his three Critics. He starts from
a factic presupposition that is not questioned by anyone. This presupposi-
tion, accepted by all, is taken by Kant as being true. Kant applies upon it
the so called transcendental question: what are the necessary conditions of
possibility for this presupposition? Necessary conditions of possibility are
what the words say: if any p exists, what are the necessary conditions for
p to be able to exist? Mapping the necessary conditions of possibility of
knowledge, Kant calls these a priori truths. They are the necessary condi-
tions for something we all accept; they come before, they are a priori.
In the Critic of Practical Reason the reasoning structure is the same. Kant
starts from a factic presupposition: All the peoples of all times and in
all cultures have some kind of Should-Be. Kant does not presuppose
the straightness of the Ethics of any certain people or culture. No, he
just presupposes what is absolutely general: some kind of Should-Be. Al-
though the contents vary a lot from culture to culture, all of them have
some Should-Be. This Should-Be Kant calls Fact of Reason. This in the
second Critic is an initial presupposition. This is the place in which Kant
inserts the transcendental question: what is the necessary condition of
possibility of such a fact? What is the conditio sine qua non? For all the
people in all places to have such a Should-Be it is necessary that an a
priori structure exists, it is necessary to admit a practical transcendental
subject which is guided by a great and unique general principle. There
is, then, a transcendental principle of the Practical Reason that is the a
priori necessary condition and the common denominator of the local
multiple ethics. Kant calls this practical principle Categorical Imperative:
you should always act in such a way that the norm of your action could
be elevated to the statute of a universal law. This great moral imperative
is empty of contents but, by contrast, it is valid for everyone.
Principle, in its basic content, says the same thing as Kant’s Categorical
Imperative. Except that for this U Principle to work, it has to be applied
simultaneously to the D Principle, which is the Principle of Discourse.
Starting from the contemporary theory about all acts of speech, Apel and
Habermas construct the minimal structure which is presupposed in the
circle of rational discussion. In the circle of Discussion without violence,
in which only the reasons presented by each one of the participants have
any value, the private interests of each one are examined in their ethics,
starting with the application of the U Principle. Someone in the Discus-
sion group has in fact a determined interest; is this interest ethic? In order
to discover this, it is necessary to try to universalize this private interest
and verify if it is prone to universalization. Is it prone to universalization?
Then it is ethic. Ethics is done, according to Apel and Habermas, in the
coming and going between the D and the U Principle. From the U Princi-
ple, which is Kant’s old Categorical Imperative, comes the normativeness,
the Should-Be. From the D Principle, from the Discussion group, comes
the contingent and historic conditions which were missing in Kant’s emp-
ty Imperative. It is brilliant.
To the second question Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas answer with a list
of virtues and values. These, without further care of critical elaboration,
are declared the first principles of all ethics. Kant and Ethics of Dis-
course go deeper and farther. The First Principle in Kant’s Ethics is the
Categorical Imperative; the U and D Principles can be indirectly demon-
strated through the performative contradiction, Apel and Habermas say.
They are, in my opinion more right than the old ones.
The third question deals with the difficult but necessary passage between
the universal validity of a principle and its application to the concrete
individual situation. Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas used here what they
called prudence; this is a spiritual attitude with characteristics which are
difficult to define clearly. Kant, facing this question, has no satisfactory
answer. The passage of the Categorical Imperative, empty of content,
to the Moral Maxims and from these to the individual decision are done
with great bumps; this is the great objection which Hegel finds against
Kant’s Ethics. Apel and Habermas offer us a better answer to this ques-
tion. The interleaving between the universal and the private is done in
parallel to the interleaving between the D and U Principles, because the
ideal situation for the discourse (U) has to be anticipated in the real situ-
ation of the discourse (D). Since the acts of speech are always universal,
on one hand, but concretely individual on the other, the bifacial structure
of Ethics corresponds to it. One interleaves the other. This answer is to-
tally plausible, although not complete, because it just shifts the problem.
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How does one make the passage from descriptive propositions to norma-
tive propositions? In the project of the system proposed here, the answer
to this first question is easy and comes naturally. Because since the very
beginning of Logics we are operating with the Principle of Non-Con-
tradiction, which is one of the three basic principles. This principle, as
we modified and formulated above, worked with a modal operator, the
Should-Be. We say that contradictions exist at times, but they should be
avoided. The Should-Be is the modal operator of the Principle of the
Contradiction to Be Avoided. That is why from the beginning, in the
heart of Logics itself, we are operating with the Should-Be. How do we
make the passage from the descriptive propositions to the normative
propositions? We do not. From the first beginning of Logics we are oper-
ating with normative propositions. The Principle of Non-Contradiction
itself is a normative proposition.
The Should-Be, the practical reason in our system project, is a more am-
ple and encompassing circle. Theoretical reason is a smaller circle situ-
ated inside the bigger set which is the practical reason. Practical Reason
includes and contains Theoretical Reason within it. At this point what is
being proposed coincides with Habemas’ theory about Communicative
Reason, because this has the Should-Be as its characteristic. There is no
agreement at this point with Aristotle or Kant, which separate the reason
in two. Here, reason is just one reason, only one Totality which within
itself has a specific subsystem, Theoretical Reason.
talking only about some logic-formal subsystems, not about all reality;
the modal operator here is the traditional It is Impossible. Descriptive
propositions exist, of course, but they are not the beginning, they are not
the general paradigm, they are just a subspecies, a subsystem within a larg-
er system. The passage from the normative proposition to the descrip-
tive proposition is given by abstraction, by cutting and impoverishment.
One removes the deontic modal operator from the concrete normative
proposition and then, on one side, the kingdom of necessary possibilities
appears and, on the other, the kingdom of facts to be captured and de-
scribed in their factuality. Both kingdoms are just a result of cutting and
abstraction. That is why we can never be totally objective. We cannot,
because such pure objectivity does not exist, because we can never make
a perfect and finished cut.
The first Principle of the Should-Be has been, since the beginning of the
system, the Principle of the Contradiction to be Avoided, or by another
name the Principle of Coherence. Since the beginning of Logic we have
worked with this Principle: Contradictions, if they really do exist, should
be handled and overcome. All the Dialectic structure, as it was shown pre-
viously, is based on this. The Dialectic Discourse is ruled by a Should-Be.
tions appear. Simple beings, therefore, become more and more complex.
Why? Because they should adapt. That which does not adapt, which is
not coherent, should not be. It will be eliminated by Nature. Death and
Natural Selection are names used by Biologists to express that rule which
we in Logics call the Coherence Principle. It is a Law, but a flexible Law,
which in the long run conducts things but over a short time allows coun-
terfacts to exist. It is a Law that shapes and molds, but slowly, in small
steps, always allowing and presupposing the engendering of the new, and,
therefore, the reality as we know it. It deals with a reality in which not
everything is always determined in all details, it deals with a reality which
at times self engenders, regulates and reproduces itself. This is where Co-
herence comes in determined as a Should-Be. It is not that incoherences
never exist. Sometimes they exist but in the long term the Principle of
Coherence imposes itself, either by eliminating the opposites or by con-
ciliating them through adaptations. In Biology this is called Evolution.
But, what is this? Do plants and animals have a Should-Be? The answer at
first is: No. Not in the complete sense which we humans give the Should-
Be. But the answer is Yes in the meaning that plants and animals also have
certain degree of autonomy, they have some mechanism of self-deter-
mination, they make some choices and are subject to the Universal Law
which orders them to be coherent. Plants and animals must also have in-
ternal coherence between their parts, external coherence with their imme-
diate environment and, finally, coherence with the rest of the Universe.
In this ample meaning of Should-Be, plants and animals also participate
in the Ethics and could be called ethic. Who has not seen or realized that
dogs in living with humans and among themselves sometimes act in bad
faith? What rider has never realized that his horse reacts sometimes coop-
erating and sometimes with wrong intention? Plants and animals do have
a certain Ethics, in their own way.
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The great difficulty in Kant’s Ethics was the descent from the Categori-
cal Imperative through the Maxims of Reason to the individual decision
of man. How do we make a legitimate passage of a Universal Principle,
which is empty, to a particular one, which has concrete contents? Apel
and Habermas answer by saying that the U Principle has to be used to-
gether with the D Principle, that is in the concrete group of Discussion.
The answer is good, but does not totally clarify the question. How is it
possible to conciliate a formal and empty U Principle with the real situa-
tion of discussion? Apel and Habermas answer saying that each member
of the discussion group has to take his own private, concrete and histori-
cal interest and try to universalize it. If he can, then it is ethical. If he can-
not, then it is against Ethics. The defenders of Discourse Ethics make the
passage between Universal and Private by experiment. Like the Chemists
who, when they still do not know what substance they are dealing with,
do empirical experiments, Apel and Habermas order us to do a moral
experiment. They never say what I just said in these words. Probably
they would be furious with me. But it is like that, and only like that, that
it works. We only know what should be when we do the universalization
experiment. Ethics is experimentation.
The passage from the universal to the private and vice-versa, from the
private to the universal is a problem which always appears when one fol-
lows a dualist system. Aristotle, Kant, Apel and Habermas are dualists.
And that poses a problem which I think has no solution. In a monist sys-
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tem, like that which is being proposed here, there is not a non-conciliated
opposition between material and spirit, between particular and universal.
The monist system consists exactly in the conciliation of these opposite
poles. The material world has always been in its intimate somewhat spir-
itual. The Individual and the Particular are just cuts, which one makes
within the Universal.
Therefore the problem of the passage between universal, particular and in-
dividual, that is insoluble in dualist systems, is so resolved in monist Dialec-
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tics. And on top of that we understand that in order to grasp the meaning
of one concept, of an abstract signal, we have to know how to reinsert it in
the concrete totality where it has its complete meaning. To know a concept
is to know how to use it. Wittgenstein was right about that.
All good action is in itself its own reward. It is coherent with itself, with
its near and remote Environment. It is coherent and, because of this,
presents no conflicts - neither internal nor external. That is why a good
action feels good. It is happy and knows it is happy. A bad action, on the
other hand, has no coherence. It is in conflict either with itself or with its
Environment. In a bad action there is always conflict. That is why, feeling
the conflict, it feels endangered and it feels bad. It is its own punishment.
Reward and punishment, at first, are just the other side of the goodness
or badness of an action.
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The old ones knew that the Good and the Evil at times took entire gener-
ations to happiness or disgrace. Today we find this unjust. After all, what
is the guilt of this poor individual? There is not, possibly, individual guilt
in him; but the guilt of the collective remains. The Germans, after World
War II, realized that there is something like a collective guilt. The Jewish,
the primitive Christians, the Arabs, the Orientals, still have traces of this
ample concept of Collective Good and Evil, of Collective Reward and
Punishment. We, the modern heirs of Descartes’ Solipsism and Leib-
nitz’s monads, just see individuals; we see just the Individual and the Ab-
stract Universal. That is why we do not understand how and why Good
and Evil, Reward and Punishment do not only inhabit the Individual but
permeate generations, pass through whole peoples, creating extremely
complex structures of Collective Good Will, of Collective Guilt, or Evil
Feeling which we can no longer understand. This happens because we be-
came stupid, closed up in our extremely narrow individualities. Whoever
thinks correctly thinks of the Universal as a Concrete Universal, knows
that Good rewards itself, Evil punishes itself; if not in a short time, then
in the long run; if not in the specific individual, then in the social texture
of the group. This is where the necessity of having a State and a Law of
the State appears.
Good is that which in the kingdom of liberty, that is, of the free decisions
of man, is in coherence with itself, with its near Environment as well as
with its total Environment which is remote. Evil is that which contains
some incoherence. Good, according to the Coherence Principle, is that
which should be. Evil is that which should not be. Both distinguish them-
selves from each other because they are or are not coherent. The First
Principle of Ethics is the same Principle which is there in the beginning
of Logics, the Principle of Contradiction to Be Avoided, or the Principle
of Coherence. In Ethics this Principle takes the form of Kant’s Categor-
ical Imperative or Habermas’ U Principle: ethical is that which has the
capacity to be universalized.
Good exists in many forms, or as the Greeks say, in the form of many
virtues. Virtues are for the Greeks, for example, Knowledge, Courage,
Temperance, Justice etc. The cast of virtues varies from one author to
another, but one virtue always assumes a unique position: justice. In Plato
there are four cardinal virtues. Three of them correspond to the three
parts of the soul and the three professional groups of the State. Temper-
ance corresponds to the concupiscent soul and the professional group of
the farmers, craftsmen and merchants who deal with the material neces-
sities of the citizens, such as habitation and food; temperance orders and
disciplines the desires and pleasures, saying which are ethically good and
which are bad. Courage, the second of the cardinal virtues, corresponds
to the irascible soul and the professional group of the warriors who de-
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fend the State; the warrior, who has to be meek and strong at the same
time, takes care of the State and defends it from its external enemies.
Knowledge, the third of the cardinal virtues, corresponds to the intellec-
tual soul and the professional group of the governing bodies, which, be-
cause they know and contemplate the Supreme Good, have the capacity
to order the State and give the final word about what should or should not
be done, what is Good and what is Evil. Up to now, everything is in close
correlation. There are three virtues, there are three parts of the soul, and
there are three professional groups of the State. But Plato adds one more
to these three, Justice, the fourth and most ample of the cardinal virtues.
Justice does not correspond, in a specific way, to any part of the soul nor
to any of the classes that constitute the Polities. Justice is more ample
than the other three cardinal virtues, it surpasses them, it is common to
them and serves as their base and foundation. Is justice the first and most
important of the virtues? At least at first it seems to be. It is in the State,
the Ideal State, that Justice is completely realized. But what is Justice? Is it
by any chance the Supreme Good?
Aristotle also has a doubt. Justice is a chapter, among others, in the Nico-
machean Ethics. Is it a virtue among others? Or is it the queen of virtues?
With the beginning of Christianity the doubt of the Greeks is nullified in
favor of Charity. Justice is an important virtue but not the most import-
ant. Above all the natural virtues are the theological virtues, Faith, Hope,
and Charity. According to the Christian tradition, the queen of all virtues
is Charity. Charity presupposes Justice but goes beyond it. That is how
Augustine, Thomas Aquinas and the medieval classics thought. But the
question continues without an answer: What is Justice?
Justice is to give each one what he deserves, Suum cuique, the Romans,
who in this way summarize the doubts and perplexities of the tradition
before theirs, say. Justice is doing that which is just. Tautology, here, at
first sight, is not enlightening. After all, what is just? Just, since the begin-
nings of our civilization, is the action and attitude of the man who con-
siders the other man as being an equal. Just is the division of harvested
fruit or the animal slaughtered in the hunt, if and when the division is
done in equal parts. Just is the prize, if for the candidates of equal merit
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there are equal rewards. Just is the punishment that is equal if the crimes
are equal. Justice is equity. Equity deep down is the ethical counterpart
of the Principle of Identity which in Logic has the form A=A. Justice is
the equal situation between men that corresponds to the Reflex Identity
in Logic. Law is just if it is the same for everyone. Man and his action are
just, if and when the other man is considered as an equal and not as dif-
ferent. Justice is this; all this and only this; very rich and very good. Justice
is like that, it has two faces.
Justice is very rich and very ample because all men are equal by Law. The
Law is the same for everyone. Justice is very poor and very restricted
because some men are, by contingencies of Nature, well endowed from
birth; such men are rich from birth. Many others are, by contingencies
of Nature, poorly endowed. These are poor from birth. Many times it
is not Nature; many times it is men themselves that engender in their in-
terpersonal relationships the difference between rich and poor. You just
need to open your eyes to see this. Here, right here, a great temptation
appears. It is a temptation to say that the Laws that rule the concrete and
historic State, in which we live and in which there are such differences,
are completely wrong. It is a temptation to say that these Laws are unjust,
that these were the Laws that provoked poverty, that the Laws should be
changed in order to implant Justice, in such a way that all men become
exactly the same. Is that right? Yes and No.
are poor, we want to be the same as them. That's why there are the com-
munitarian and equalitarian societies, from the first Christians until the
hippies of love and peace. That's why there is the strong identification
of the socialists and communists with the class of those who at the time
were the poorest, the working class. And that is how the confusion starts.
Because, as wisemen and scoundrels know, only uppity intellectuals would
like to be poor. He, who is poor, really poor, wants to become rich. To
establish equality on the lower side, by the base, by the miserable ones,
means to transform poverty into a great ethical value. Poverty is not any
value; it is a social evil, which is the result of ethically perverse actions.
Poverty, that is misery, is not a virtue but an evil to be avoided. Wisemen
and scoundrels know this. And why don’t they talk about it? The scoun-
drels are not interested in telling, the wisemen many times do not know
how to express themselves. As you see, we then remain with no practical
or theoretical solution that is satisfactory. The fall of the Berlin Wall and
the breaking up of the so called World of Real Socialism were historic
marks that closed the mouth of some extremist politicians and many
thinkers, Dialecticians yes, but poor in critical substance. Marxism as a
deterministic theory of History and as a practical recipe to end poverty
and injustice was over, most recently, with the fall of the Berlin Wall. It
was over much before, since Horkheimer and Adorno in Germany, since
Sartre, Castoriadis and Lefort in France criticized it from the inside out.
But poverty in practice still continues and, therefore, also the Temptation
continues in Theory.
The relationship of Master and Disciple here serves again as the conduc-
tive thread. The just teacher is that who on the exam applies the same cri-
teria of evaluation for all the students, not considering favorites or friend-
ships. On the exam the teacher should be extremely just. Consequently,
in the exam situation, all the students are exactly the same and should
be measured with the same parameters. During exams there should not
be didactic incentive but justice. During the learning period, however,
incentive is indispensable. The professor, out of the exam situation, can
and should treat different students in different ways. Here there are in-
centives. That is what the pedagogic Eros consists of: treating unequally
those who are unequal so that they can come to equality in excellence.
But, one moment, is there justice in this? Where is Justice? Justice is not
always applied, Justice is not always the criterion of the Should-Be. Be-
tween husband and wife, between parents and children, between friends
Justice is not the most important criterion to distinguish Good from Evil.
On the contrary, the Should-Be in such situations is dictated by virtues
other than justice. The husband who wanted to lay, equally - to be just
- with all women, and the woman who wanted to have sex, equally, will
all, are not the paradigm of matrimonial virtues. They are not? Why not?
Does justice not require that we treat all as being equals? It is here, in this
equivocation, that the curious constructions come in like the equalitarian
and communist society of the primitive Christians; the vows of poverty
and the celibate life of the monks; general love which being equal for all,
prevents and excludes the private love for one determined person; the
libertinism which exists between some chiliasts; the free love between
anarchists, communists and hippies; the open marriage defended by some
intellectuals in the beginning of our century, as well as others. In all the
cases we are dealing with the same question: doesn't justice require that
everyone should always be treated as equal? The answer is clear: not al-
ways, not in everything. There are differences among men, they exist by
Nature, and this difference, in principle, is good and can exist as long as
it does not prevent Justice. And here comes the decisive question that
many times has no answer: where is it that equality is the criterion of the
Should-Be, that is, where is it that there should be Justice? And where can
there be inequality? In a more exact and harder way: where can there be
inequality without injustice? This is the question.
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In pure theory the answer is simple and well founded. Justice corre-
sponds, in Ethics, to that which in Logics is known as the Principle of
Reflex Identity: A = A. Nobody doubts that this Principle is important,
that it is valid in Logics. The Logics of Identity take root and are substan-
tiated here. Except that in Logics, we all know that this principle is not
always valid, that it is not valid for everything. In Logics it is necessary to
also admit the Principle of Difference next to the Principle of Identity.
Without this, the universe would be reduced to tautology A = A. Well,
there is a large variety of things. Besides A, there is B, C, D etc. Then the
Identity Principle is not always valid, it is not always applicable, under all
aspects, to everything. What is valid for all things, including for the New
that emerges with no prior reason, is the Principle of Coherence. Identity
does not prevent Difference; both can and should coexist under the egis
of Coherence. Identity corresponds to Justice; difference corresponds to
the Liberty each Individual has to be Different. What does Coherence
correspond to? We do not have a proper term to designate this. Maybe
we have to create a new expression: the Ethics of Human Rights. Why
Ethics? Why Human Rights?
But isn’t the society contaminated by injustice also a horror? Isn’t it, in
theory, incurring in error? Of course. Whoever knows the country where
we live cannot even pretend that this is a just world. And then we return
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As we know, this does not happen yet. But the conscience of which are
the Minimal Rights of Man is evolving in the History of our Civilization
in such a way as to include more and more elements. We are, happily,
becoming more and more Citizens, that is, more civilized. But to Be a
Citizen means only to be equal in the face of the Law, in face of that,
which is put in the statute of Law; this does not mean that men should be
equal in everything. To deprive a man of his individual liberty is a crime
against the Human Rights as serious as the crime of emptying the Citi-
zenship, that is, the ambit of that in which all men in the State are Equal.
Can we draw even more exact limits between the Citizenship of Equals
and Individual Freedom? Yes, in real life, the citizens are the ones who,
through their representatives and parliament members, should define the
outlines of the Sate, therefore of the Citizenship that should be. At this
level of details, Philosophy shuts up and lets the politician speak, or, for
those who desire, the Philosopher becomes a Politician.
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The men make the State. At a specific moment in the History of Evo-
lution, the men sitting down in front of the fire discussed as equals and
deliberated to make the State. The States are made, they are instituted,
and they are constructed. The States are in History. They are there where
Free and Equal men institute Justice and Law as a common denominator
that brings them together and unifies in acting together. The design of
the State, or the size of the State, corresponds to the decision which was
made together: this here is Law and holds true equally for everyone, that
there is the space of individual liberty. The State is a social construc-
tion - self-founding and self-founded - in which Justice is incarnated and
transformed into Law.
Before being the State, there was already the Ancient Family. And in the
Family there were already traces of that which we call Justice. The Father
should treat the children, in certain circumstances, as all being equal. This
happens for sure. Already in the ambit of the Family there are equalitarian
relationships between Husband and Wife, Parents and Children. Man and
woman as human beings are absolutely equal. Without it, there is no jus-
tice. Feminists are right in this respect. But Man and Woman as genders
are different: each one to his own manner. This difference cannot and
should not be destroyed. Between Man and Woman, genders, between
Parents and Children, the relationships are first of all complementary and
only secondarily of equality. Being complementary is on the first level,
equality which today nobody can nor wants to deny. This fades away on
a second level. In the Family, Justice, implicit and not developed, already
exists. But the Parity of Equal to Equal is not a determining characteristic
of the Family structure. As similar as they may be, Parents and Children
are different. The difference between an Adult and a Child is a registered
mark of this relationship. Between Father and Mother, between Man and
Woman, the equality only has a meaning when conceived together with
difference. Vive la difference! the Post-Moderns say nowadays in France.
On this point they are right. If the difference goes to a second level, and
the equality comes to the first level, then the Family disappears and other
grouping forms appear like the State and the Civil Society.
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Just like the State historically instituted itself at a certain moment in time,
the same happened to the Constitution, the Magna Carta, which posi-
tively determines which are the Human Rights and which is the sphere
of individual liberty of each Citizen. Justice as a virtue of the Pairs and
Equals permeates all life, but it does not determine everything in all the
smallest details. The existing interstices between the rules which lay the
beams for the structure are the spaces for individual liberty. Without rules
there are no interstices, without interstices there are no rules. Without
Laws there are no Freedoms, without Freedoms there are no Laws. In
theory everything is simple, clear and easy. In practice, as we know, the
difficulties are great.
Greek Philosophers very early in the History of our culture, realized that
it is very important to clearly define which form of government makes
Justice and Citizenship bloom is. There are various forms of government.
Government made by only one man is Monarchy, the Government of
Only One. Government formed by a group made up of some men who
are supposed to be excellent in virtue and knowledge, is Aristocracy, the
Government of the Best. The government done by the action of every-
one together is Democracy, the Government of All.
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Plato spent all his life worrying about this. Which is the best form of gov-
ernment? Which form of government takes one to Justice? The Republic
as well as The Laws have exactly this question as their central theme.
Plato hesitates and is at first inclined to the Government of the Best, to
Aristocracy. The State, he says, should be run by those who understand
the subject, or by those who know how to govern. Who knows how to
govern? He, who knows the difference between what is just and what is
unjust; he, who knows the difference between Good and Evil. Who is this
man, who knows better than the others what the Supreme Good is? The
Philosopher, Plato answers. That is why the State should be governed by
the Philosophers. Here Plato’s aristocratic concept of the Philosopher
King emerges.
The short circuit that exists in this reasoning consists of omitting a link
in the chain. It is only in the General Assembly that one discovers who
really knows what to do and thus it is only the general Assembly that can
legitimately designate this possessor of governing knowledge. Because it
is only like that, through the Assembly, that is, through Democracy, that
we know who is what. Since the knowledge is not only a priori, since
the knowledge is not just a gift of Nature, it is necessary that the choice
of Government is adequate to what we are: beings that self-determine
as free individuals and that also self-determine as State. Democracy is,
for this reason, the only form of ethically correct government. It is only
in it that men self-determine themselves as Citizens and as being free.
The other forms of government, Monarchy and Oligarchy are ethical-
ly legitimate only when they incorporate in themselves the Democracy:
Constitutional Monarchy, like there is today in Holland and Sweden, and
Collegiate Government, Democratic Oligarchy, like in Switzerland.
But the Great Temptation continues and at times it whispers in our ear:
why the Democratic Assembly if the Good Thinker, alone, knows better
what to do? And there lays the mistake. We only know what is best through
the ample and democratic discussion, or rather, in Assembly. Only through
Assemblies will we really know who the Good Thinker is. The knowledge
is only partially a priori; to this it is necessary to add the a posteriori knowl-
edge, including that a posteriori which emerges in the Democratic Assem-
bly. Ethics, or rather, the capacity that a private interest has to be universal-
ized, this we only discover by doing the Real Discourse in which all, equal
among equals, present their reasons. In this point Habermas is completely
right. However, the temptation of thinking that I alone know what is best
for everyone, this temptation remains with all it fallacious promises.
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That is why all the peoples in all the cultures, even after the invention of
Democracy by the Greeks in Athens, continue having political fallbacks
and go back to instituting non-democratic governments. Tyranny, Abso-
lute Monarchy, Dictatorships are forms of government which, under one
pretext or another, abandon Democracy - so slow, so time consuming, so
complex, at first sight so incompetent - and appeal to a pseudo-solution,
appeal to non-democratic forms of government. This is completely wrong,
but it is understandable; there is no justification but there is an explanation
for this. Democracy, the only form of government that allows the com-
plete self-organization of the People and therefore allows and respects the
self-determination of the Free Man, is something really complex. The I has
to think of himself as the concentric circles which appear when one throws
a stone in still water of a lake. I am the first circle that appears, but I am also
the second, the third, and so on, until the I reaches cosmic dimensions. The
I, which is the individual I, is also my Family, is also my people, I am every-
thing, I am the entire Universe. The so called Mystics always said this. They
were Neoplatonic thinkers. Today the good ecologists say this, sometimes
afraid to sound like idiots. It is right, very right. It deals with the dynamic of
the I which, besides being the Individual being, is also always a Universal.
But it is a Concrete Universal, a Family, a Society, and a State, which we can
point to with our finger. We are not dealing with a Universal Abstract, with
a mere signal taken - abs-tractum - out of context, but a Concrete Universal
that only exists and realizes itself when we, in fact, live and realize it. That
is why, deep down, very deep down, the only ethical form of Government
is Democracy.
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When the number of citizens increases, the Assembly becomes more difficult
and slower. At this stage of development it is necessary that we introduce
the Parliament. Parliament is the place where one parla (speaks), where the
political discourse is done. Parliamentarians are those that actively participate.
Since not all the citizens can always be present and active in all the de-
liberations, the figure of the Parliamentary Politician was instituted into
the Assembly. This re-presents a group of citizens in the Parliament. The
individual citizen, in the parliamentary institution, transfers his voice and
voting power to the Political Representative in his place. The Represen-
tative speaks in the name of the citizens that are represented by him; he
holds an office. His duty, in the Parliament, consists of mediating be-
tween a private group of Citizens and the General Will that includes Ev-
eryone’s interests. The Representative, if he does what he should, is just
an incarnation of the citizens who he represents in the Parliament room.
He should listen, speak and especially cooperate in order to constitute the
General Will that is the spinal cord of Democracy, the State, and Justice.
Never more or less than this. That is why the parliamentarians should be
legitimately elected. That is why the elections for choosing the Represen-
tatives should obey certain regularity in order for there to be legitimate
representation, for the citizen to really feel present in the Political Dis-
course that makes the laws of the State.
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In this Very Loyal and Valorous City of Porto Alegre we have been im-
plementing, during the last few years, a wonderful form of doing the
mediation, in political life, between the Private person and the Universal:
the so called Participative Budget. The common citizen continues having
his representatives, the city councilmen, in the Municipal Council, who
correspond to the Assembly of Citizens of the Democratic State. Besides
being represented by the city councilman elected democratically, the citi-
zen can take part in meetings done in every neighborhood, where the local
problems are discussed and ranked. The citizen of Porto Alegre, in recent
years, has been able to participate actively and personally in the budget
decisions of his city. To be able to, there is just a matter of wanting. Does
it work? Yes, it does. In the meetings that occur in each neighborhood the
open discussion and democratic spirit are surpassing the obstacles. The
introduction of the popular consultation through the computer, already
promised here, is advertising radical changes in the forms of political
representation. Democracy is becoming more and more real. Will it last?
I hope so. Enough barbarism.
The Greeks believed in Destiny. It was Destiny that ran the lives of men
and determined the course of History with an iron hand. Pitia, priest in
the temple of Apollo in Delphi, inspired by the steam coming from inside
the earth, said what the future would bring. The oracle, for the Greeks,
said what was going to happen. Man could try to resist, many times he
resisted, but the force of Destiny always won in the end. Whoever is wise
does not resist Destiny, but surrenders to it.
The Greek Tragedy deals exactly with this contradiction between the will
of the individual man and Destiny, which from above runs everything.
The case of King Oedipus shows what happens when man in his crazi-
ness thinks he can resist Destiny. Laius was the King of Thebes, Jocasta,
was his wife. The Oracle told Laius that he should never have children
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because if he did the afflictions and punishments would be great. The son
he conceived would kill him, his father, and marry his mother, Jocasta.
But Laius and Jocasta, despite the warnings of the prophecy, conceived a
son. In order to avoid the evil predicted by the Oracle, the son was aban-
doned by his parents and left in the wilderness for the wolves to eat. But a
shepherd found the child and gave him to another shepherd as a gift, who
then gave the child to the King of Corinth, who, not having sons, called
him Oedipus and educated him as his own. Oedipus, abandoned son of
the King of Thebes, is raised as the son of the King of Corinth. But he
does not know this; he thinks he is a legitimate son. When a stranger,
coming for a party reveals that he is not the legitimate son of the King
of Corinth, Oedipus has a crisis. He, who is in a crisis and does not know
what to do, should consult the Oracle of Delphi. Oedipus consults Pitia
who says that he should avoid the presence of his father because upon
seeing him, he is going to kill him, to later marry his mother. Frightened,
Oedipus avoids returning to Corinth to not see his father. He goes to
Thebes. Upon entering Thebes, Oedipus is offended and attacked by a
nobleman who is also going to the city with his entourage. Offended and
attacked, Oedipus reacts and kills the one who insulted him. He does
not know it, but he had just killed his real father. Oedipus then goes to
Thebes and ends up marrying Jocasta, his mother. When a fortune teller,
much later, told him that he had killed his father and married his mother,
Oedipus, who wanted to be a just man, tried to discover the whole truth.
And he verified that everything the fortune teller had said was true. Oe-
dipus, then, gauged out his eyes. Had he not been blind the whole time?
Had he not gone against Destiny? One should not play with Destiny.
Murderer of his father, husband of his mother and blind - Oedipus, who
only wanted good, got caught up in the web that Destiny had weaved.
Does Destiny exist? Is there a hidden meaning in the events of History?
The Greeks thought so. So did the Romans. Until today there is among
us Latin-Americans, remote inheritors of the legionaries of the Roman
Empire that stayed guarding the far away Iberia, an old saying: Fata vol-
untem ducunt, nolentem trahunt. Fate conducts those who deliver them-
selves, but drags those who intend to resist. Why resist, if Destiny wins
in the end? Is it not better to surrender to Destiny right away? That is
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what our Roman ancestors did in remote Iberia. This Roman fatalism
was then sharpened by the fatalism of the Arabs who conquered part
of the Iberian Peninsula. Double dose of fatalism, fatalism on fatalism.
Our ancestors were impregnated with fatalism to the bottom of their
soul. Christianity with its All Powerful God, which runs and administers
everything with its Divine Providence, did not alleviate the situation very
much. After all, it is not us, but Divine Providence that writes History:
God writes straight things on tortuous lines. Even when we men make
the lines quite crooked, God, with its Divine Providence straightens them
again and writes things right. It is not us, but God who writes history.
Then when the Portuguese and Spaniards discovered the New World, and
in mixing with the native Indians, began that which we are, Fatalism con-
tinued being the ruling line of our culture. We Brazilians, we Latin-Ameri-
cans are inheritors of the Iberian fatalism, which comes from the fatalism
of the Greeks, Romans and Arabs. That is why, in our History, we remain
inert, without action, without reaction so frequently. All of what happens
has already been written and determined. Why act, if everything is already
predetermined? The Destiny of the Greeks, the fate of the Romans and
the Thus it is written of the Arabs, the predetermination of the Chris-
tians, this is the cultural broth that we inherited and which explains, at
least partially, why the development of Latin America is so different from
that of North America.
As the name itself says, this determinist conception of the world is based
on Logic, to be more exact, on the idea of logic truth itself. A well-formed
proposition is always true or false; either true or false, Non datur tertium.
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Well, the proposition Tomorrow will occur a naval battle is a well formed
proposition, with an appropriate subject and predicate. Therefore, this
proposition is either true or false. That is, today, the day before, what
will happen tomorrow is fixed and determined. What is going to happen
tomorrow is a logical consequence of a truth that is already fixed and
determined today, even though we - finite cognitive subjects - perhaps
still do not know it. We are dealing here with just a deficit of knowledge.
We, contingent beings, do not know the whole reality. The reality is totally
determined within itself; it consists of the necessary links between neces-
sary events. This is the theory of Logic Determinism.
Aristotle, in Peri Hermeneias, went round and round to escape this trap.
After all, isn’t a logical law, which says that a well formed proposition is
always either true or false, valid? Aristotle vacillates. Thomas Aquinas,
commenting on Aristotle’s text, answers firmly: the Law of the Bipolarity
of the Value of Truth of the well formed propositions is always valid,
except as related to the future contingents. The propositions are always
either true or false, except when dealing with future contingencies. The
Law is valid, but an enormous space for exceptions is opened. And how
do we know that it is a future contingency and not a necessary future?
Thomas Aquinas does not answer.
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we have not yet understood and recognized as such. Contingency and fac-
ticity, according to this necesitarian way of thinking, are just a momentary
deficit of knowledge.
Philosophical Necessitarianism
Cable car and train are vehicles which ride on preplaced tracks; all the
way from the beginning it is predetermined. They spoke of the famous
Laws of History and were sure that, also in practice, the theory would
work out right. They were Neoplatonic philosophers and only repeated
an error which had come from Ancient Times. All this passed, but it is
important for us to understand the philosophic context which caused this
so that our children and students do not repeat the mistake. It is a mis-
take which comes from way back, which began with the divine Plato and
passing through Scotus Eriugena, Spinoza, Hegel, and Marx, got to our
colleagues and friends of the left: Philosophic Necessitarianism which
installed itself as Historic Necessitarianism.
Who pointed out the mistake? In Ancient times it was the Christian Fa-
thers. In the Middle Ages, the great Aristotelian thinkers, Albert Magnus,
Thomas Aquinas, Boaventura, Duns Scotus and William of Ockham,
who realizing the necessitarian defect in the Neoplatonic system start-
ed to defend Aristotelianism and especially the Aristotelian conception
of free choice. At the end of the middle Ages it was the English who
gave form to the renewed conception of free choice and Political Phi-
losophy. In Modern Times, emerge the English Empirism and a Political
Philosophy centered on the freedom of the Individual: from Hobbes to
Hume and Locke. In the German Idealism Schelling was the first to give
emphasis to the mistake in the Necessitarian System. In his Lectures on
Contemporary Philosophy, given at the University of Munich, Schelling
pointed his finger to the great mistake made by Hegel: the pilfering of
contingency. After Schelling almost all great thinkers hit on the same key.
Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, Horkheimer, Adorno, Popper,
Habermas, Apel, Rawls, Rorty all pointed out the mistake innate in ne-
cessitarianism. In the 20th century, the voice of the defenders of contin-
gency, historicity, temporality, multiplicity of reason was raised against the
necessitarianism, against the reason of Hegel and the Neoplatonic proj-
ects. Society had to be an open society; the Universe had to be thought
of as an open Universe.
Is the pointed out mistake really a mistake? Yes, it is a mistake. The ref-
utation of the Necessitarian Philosophic System in its first root is done
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Is the argument not weak? No, basically we are dealing with the same
argument which Aristotle had already used to substantiate the Principle
of Non-Contradiction. Whoever denies the Principle of Non-Contradic-
tion, upon doing so is presupposing it again. Otherwise he is reduced to
the plant state. Whoever denies that contingency exists in the Universe,
on making the negation, is putting on an act that is known to be contin-
gent; and presupposing that in the listener there is an equally contingent
act. Are there other arguments in favor of the existence of contingency
in the world as a rule? Yes, there are many negative arguments. Whoever
denies contingency, also by principle must deny free choice, responsibility,
Justice, Law and the Democratic State. Nothing of this can exist as a rule,
if there is no contingency and historicity. Heidegger and Popper were
in this respect completely right. At this point the criticisms made by the
contemporaneous thinkers against Necessitarianism of History in Hegel,
are in my point of view, absolutely convincing.
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respect he had for liberty and for the responsibility of man was so great
that instead of saying that liberty was something impossible, he created
the absurd theory of the two worlds. Do we, today, need to admit such a
theory? How do we solve the question? By the Theory of the Interstices,
as proposed by Charles Taylor; or by the Theory of Degrees, as proposed
in this work. The Theory of Interstices supposes that in the Universe
there are laws that encompass and cross it like a concrete structure that
supports a building. Between the concrete beams there are interstices
where one can place walls as one wishes. These interstices, which are not
regulated by deterministic laws, form the space where contingency exists
and where the free will decisions are inserted. According to the Degrees
Theory, there are Strong Laws and Weak Laws. The room given by the
Weak Laws is the place for contingency and free will.
Hegel had only one great objective in his philosophical work. It was to
conciliate Spinoza’s Substance with Kant’s Free Subject. Hegel wanted,
on one hand, to build a system according to the Neoplatonic project of
Philosophy, however, he also wanted that in this system there be space
for Man’s true liberty. Spinoza’s System, which Hegel knew very well,
took Necessitarianism to the extreme. What should he do? How should
he do it?
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Hegel studies the question. After all, this is a main question for him. He-
gel hesitates, staggers, and changes his mind. The Absolute Contingency,
which Hegel places there in the middle of the Logic of Essence, starts
getting corroded at the edges, dissolves itself and ends up becoming Ab-
solute Necessity. Hegel is the first, the last and the only thinker that con-
siders Contingency as a typical characteristic of the Absolute. But Hegel
does not remain coherent. Necessity follows him, assaults him, and ends
up conquering his heart and mind. Hegel also becomes, in my opinion, a
necessarianist. That is why Minerva’s Owl only flies in the evening. It is
only after things happen, post factum, after the events, that it becomes
clear that everything was moved and determined by Reason, by the Great
Force of Negation, thinks Hegel. History is then transformed into a stage
in which the great drama written by Reason is acted out by us, without
knowing, we are just marionettes guided by the Great Cunning. The script
of the History of the World, according to Hegel, is written by Reason. We
are just conducted by the Cunning of Reason.
Historical Materialism
Minerva’s Owl only flies when the evening falls. The melancholic tone
of these words of Hegel, turned towards the nostalgia of the past, gave
place to the young Hegelians on the left who, facing the future, wished
to substitute Minerva’s Owl for the early morning crowing of the French
Rooster. The French Rooster, cited in this context by Michelet, one of
Hegel’s students, referred to the French Revolution and announced a new
Great Revolution which, like the French Revolution, would completely
change the political world. From Michelet to Feuerbach, Karl Marx and
Lenin the distance is great, but the stress is the same. The young Hege-
lians thought that History was in gear and this gear was inexorable, until
the Berlin Wall fell. Whoever stopped to think, long before the fall of the
Berlin Wall, realized that contingency exists, that man is free, that many
times there are alternative options, that the State should not be total, that
History is not an inexorable process.
But if Reason does not write the script of History of the World, then
who is the author after all? Who writes it? We write it, we make History.
A human act, when done, completed and finished, finishes and does not
come back, right? Wrong. We can and should always reevaluate the acts
we have done in the past. Time has gone by, but our acts are never com-
pletely gone. We always continue to be responsible for them. It is up to
us, day after day, to bestow on them their moral value.
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the murderer. He is sorry. He does not want to kill again. Regret does not
change the fact gone by, but changes its moral coloring. It was s