In the 16th century we find a few literary works which can be called as the earliest

examples of Islamic texts in Bengal. Among them the important most were Lore-
Chandrani by Daulat Qazi and Paddabati by Alaole written during the Aracan
dynasty. These literary works were directly influenced by Maulana Daud’s
Chandayana and Jaisi’s Padumabat the earliest sufi literatures written in Hindvi
during 13th, 14th century.

Nothing is known in sure about Maulana Daud and his time. We find information
about Moulana Daud in various secondary sources like the text itself, the official
documents (malfuzat) of the Sufi order with which he was associated and texts like
Badauni’s Muntakhal ul-Tawarikh. It is assumed that the text is written
approximately in Hijri 781 (A.D. 1379).

Lor-Chandrani is a simple love-tale. It is about Lorik and Mainamati, a married

couple. At some point of time Lorik fell in love with Chandra, a heavenly beautiful
girl. Discovering this, Mayna gets angry and fights with Chandra. Lorik eloped with
Chandra. He returns with her after a long time and then the three lived happily ever
after.

The narrative is fully decorated with such elements which were well prevalent
among the general people. But interestingly it could be noticed that all the
characters were Hindu in religion. If we want to investigate the reason behind it it
would fall under the growth and development of the language of political Islam in
early mediavel India which demands separate discussion It is sufficient to say that
emergence of a religion in a new soil and in a new socio-cultural setting is
dependent on the norms, practices and habits of the existing religion.

Due to the influence of Persian practice Daud’s literary techniques like metaphor,
hyperbole etc got diverged from the Indian literary tradition. He also incorporated
elaborately the the Sufi philosophy through the various symbolic representation. A
complete say of attainment in the Sufi way is portrayed by Daud through the
characterization of Lorik. Throughout the text Lorik has gone through Khilawat,
Zuhd, Zikr and at the end Fana. He experienced the stage called Faqri-Fakhiri as
well.

In nakh-sikh of chandayana Daud vividly describes the ethereal beauty of Chanda;

sometimes the description seems rather erotic. But we should not take it in a
pejorative sense. What else a mundane soul can do except to describe the
perpetual beauty in existing norms? So at the end nothing remained, except the
sense of wahdat-al-wazud. Persian Sufi masnavi tradition amalgamated with Indian
symbolism, one can find a standard form of acculturation here.

These texts, written in Hindvi, Awadhi, Sindhi, Punjabi etc, differentiate themselves
prominently from the previous texts in a very particular way. For the first time they
give emphasize on the earthly human being alone. Their earthly desire, emotions
came into forefront in literature for the first time. A shift has been taken place from
the supernatural to human activity; involvement of unearthly being has been
replaced by human involvement. In many places, even in Chandayana, we find
activities of Godly presence. Even then human characters were no less important
for the poet; they were given prominence.

But what do we find when the same text was recreated in Bengal by the fifteenth
century poet Daulat Qazi from Arakan kingdom?

This is a truth beyond any doubt that there happened a transfusion of two cultures
when the Perso-Arabic culture came into contact with the culture of this sub-
continent. We have seen the time when Islam was trying to make a permanent
impression in this soil for the first time; accordingly their mode of contact with other
was also molded and affected. So what happened that time was a kind of
acculturation in both ways which was more prominent in the side of Islam. The form
and style of Persian literature has changed heavily, especially in the use of
metaphors, hyperboles etc. We can rename the situation, especially this very kind
of acculturation, as Transfusion/Acculturation-1.

Later on when these texts were translated and transcreated from their respective
languages to Bengali, another kind of mutation in cultural outlook took place. This
time the socio-political-religion scenario was different from the previous case.
Political Islam had already established its strong position in this soil. And Islamic
culture and social values by then became a part and parcel of the culture of this
sub-continent. They were no longer been dominated, rather in many cases they
were the dominant force. Now this time another acculturation took place which was
dissimilar to the previous one. We can rename this as Transfusion/Acculturation-2.

Daulat Qazi was the court poet of King Sri Sudharma (1622-38 A.D.) of Arakan
dynasty. Nothing is much known about Daulat Qazi. It was inferred that during the
period of King Sudharma he wrote Lore-Chandrani. It is divided in two parts. One is
the story of Lore and Chandrani. The other one is the story of Mainamati. Scholars
say that the second part of Lore-Chandrani was taken from Awadhi narrative Maina-
Sat written by Sadhana and the first part was the transcreation of Daud’s
Chandayana. Daulat Qazi did not complete the composition. After his death Saiad
Alaol, another famous court poet of Arakan dynasty had completed it.

In the Bengali transcreation we find an excellent amalgamation of different styles

like Vaisnava literature, Tantric-esoteric practices, elements of Natha literature and
Yoga sadhana. A very good example is the subplot of Prince Chatan where he got
moonstruck by the beauty of Mainamati. Chatan sends a messenger to Maina. The
messenger says

Helae jauban jaibo pache paiba shok

Purush milaia dimu bhunja sukhbhog.

Your beauty will become age old and you will be in desperation
 But I will find a man for you and you enjoy the happiness.

And said in Vaisnava Padavali style

Dakho Mainamati prathama asad
Choudike saje gambhir.

See Mainamati the first monsoon

Nature has changed…

Mainamati answers in Asabari raga

Aai dhai kujani ki mohe sunaoni

Bed-ukti nahe paatong…

What are you saying to me O inauspicious teller?

This is not a perpetual truth…

In the last segment of it which was completed by Alaol one can easily anticipate the
influence of esoteric yoga philosophy…
Uriaar bandha kati paran kaupin
Anahata shabda madhey man kaila leen
Tathate kundali debi aache nidrabat
Sarparupa dhari rahe susumnaar path.

Sitting in a posture, wearing minimal dresses

Mind dissolved where? in the pure unheard sound
There deity Kundali is sleeping
Contains the way of Susumna in the form of a
serpent

In various places Sufi ideas were becoming same with the ideas of Padavali poets-

Prem bine bhab nahi bhab bin e ras

Tribhubane jato dakho prem hante bash.
Prem hante janame biraha tinakhkhar
Panchakkhara birahini lakkha panchashar.

Without love there is no creation and without creation there is no

affection
Confined in the unavoidable trap of love
Three desperation emerges from the love
Five alphabet of a desperate woman aims the five arrows of desire.

Although Sufism is quite different than that of Goudiya Vaisnava religion in many
aspects and it is much more inclined to the simple philosophical viewpoint of
common mass/man.

In few parts of it the influence of Hindu Yoga Sadhana is prominent-

 Jgyan samudrete dubi manachitta
Bimbumata kaya bhase
Nahi mile sthal haia chanchal
Man bandhi sei aase.
Nayan mudia patal bhedia
Dristi Chandra mule kare
Sthale dimba rakhi jale kurma thaki
Kurme dimbe dristi dhare.

In the ocean of wisdom mind sinks

Only the body floats like a drop of water
Could not find earth, restless
Keeping mind in a hope
Closing my eyes through the nether
world/inferno
Eyes aim to the luner way
The egg in the earth living like a pumkin
in the water
Always keeping eyes upon them…

Few lines were influenced by Sahajia Sadhana Tatva

Siddhipada punyapada prithibite sab

Mrittika se rajdhani sakala sambhab
Mati hante ratnamani rupero pratima
Srijia prakase bidhi apan mahima
Parama hangser khola mayir panjar
Mati bhange hangsaraj gati sunyantar.

Pious and holy all in this earth

This is the pure land, everything is possible
From the soil the pure stone the ethereal one
This is the manifestation of destiny
Rib of the pious swan is the earth
Earth breaks and swan escapes towards the void.

In the last line the metaphor of swan and his movement depict the salvation of the
soul after the destruction of bodily existence.

We experience an over-whelming growth in the thoughts/philosophy of mysticism

after Sufis came to India. Earlier mysticism was higher form of philosophical
thoughts, beyond the reach of common people. We find the reflection of this new
kind of mysticism in various literature and lyrics of 15th century written mainly in
Hindvi, Sindhi, and Punjabi etc. In Bengal, Sufis put their foot around 11th century
onwards. They came from outside and adopted esoteric Tantric thoughts and
philosophy with their own pure mystic thoughts. It will be apt if we say that they
actually incorporated marginal religious thoughts and practices in their classical
body of discourse. We find this new kind of metamorphosised thoughts in various
forms of folk literature and especially in the new kind of music, which perhaps has
no parallel in the rest of India.

If we study the history of Bengal closely we will understand that from the time
immemorial, this was quite an inaccessible place in comparison to the so called
Aryabarta, which is mainly the Northern part of India. The inhabitants of this place
were called Asura, dassu (pagans) in Atharba Veda, Satpath and Aitereya
Brahmana. The Bengalese of Caryapada were actually the so called lower caste
people, Doma, Candala, Pulinda, Sabara etc.

The oldest branch of Bengalese was the branch of Austric people. In later days they
came in contact with Dravidian people. By this way, the cultural base of Bengalese
developed by the amalgamation of less Aryan and much non Aryan culture. These
factors of this soil easily opened the scope of adaptation of various thoughts and
practices.

The unstable political circumstances of Bengal came in much stable position after
three Paala and Sen Dynasty. A kind of cultural stability can be seen at this time.
The relation between Hindu Tantra , Yoga practice, Esoteric Buddhism and Sufism
were taking shape slowly after this period.( Though Sufis came in this land much
early . In 7th-8th century we find the name of Sufi sages in the court of Arakan
Dynasty in Chattagram). Hindu Yoga practice like Recaka, Kumbha, Puraka became
the Sufi austerity of breathing. A close proximity can be seen among Hindu
austerity of Satachakra, Buddhist esoteric practice and Sufi Mokama Tatva.

Position of Hindu Satachakra

Position in the body Name of the Chakra Name of Lotus in a Chakra
Concerning Female

deity of the Chakra

In the reproductive Muladhara Chakra Four Petals Lotus
Brambha Dakini
Organ

Susumna Svadhisthana Chakra Six Petals Lotus

Raakini

In umbilical cavity Manipura Chakra Ten Petals Lotus

Laakini

Chest/Heart Anahata Chakra Twelve Petals Lotus

Kaakini

Throat Bisuddha Chakra Sixteen Petals Lotus

Shakini

Middle of two eyebrow Aajna Chakra Two Petals Lotus

Haakini

Buddhist Model of Caturkaya

Position Name of the Kaya Name of the Lotus

Concerning Female

deity situated in the Kaya

Naval Cavity Nirmanakaya Sixty Four Petals Lotus

Locana

Heart Dharmakaya Thirty Two petals Lotus

Mamaki

Throat Sambhogakaya Sixteen Petals Lotus

Pandara

Head/Brain Sahajakaya Four Petals Lotus

Aryatara

In Sahajia Doctrine

Position Name of Sarovaar or Cakra Name of the Lotus situated in

the Sarovaar
Head/Brain Akshaya Sarovaar Thousand Petals
Lotus

Throat Kanthya Sarovaar Four Petals

Lotus

Heart Kheer Sarovaar Eight Petals

Lotus

Belly Maana Sarovaar Hundred Petals

Lotus

Naval Cavity Naavi Sarovaar Jada Lotus

Prithu naval Prithu Sarovaar Six Petals Lotus

Mokama Tatva in Yogakalandara

(Oldest Bengali text of Sufi Doctrine, according to Dr. Ahmed

Shariff.)

Dehatana Manjil in the deha/body Mokum Position

Guard of the

Mokum/Feresta/Angel

Latifu Sariyat Naasut Muladhar

Aajraail

Kasifu Tarikat Malkut Manipur

Israafil

Fani (Fana?) Hakikat Jabrut Brahmbhataalu

Mikaail

Bakau (Baka?) Marifat Laahut Dil/Laahut

Jibraail

Agama Shashtra is the root of both Hindu and Buddhist Tantra. During the 10th
century Abhinabha Gupta wrote his Tantraloka based on numerous Agama shastra.
Buddhism got divided into two main sects namely Hinayana or the Lower Vehicle
and Mahayana or the Higher Vehicle few days after the death of Buddha. In
Mahayana doctrine Buddha is omnipresent, Adibhuta and is like Absolute tatva.
They imagined three Kayas or embodiments of this absolute being; namely
Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya. The last one is the embodiment of
historical Buddhadeva. As days passed by, Mahayana sect had again divided in two
sub-sects, namely Paramitanaya and Mantranaya. It can be assumed that this
Mantranaya or Mantrayana and Tantric/Esoteric Buddhism or Bajrayana, which is
the proto form of Kalacakrayana or Sahajayana, are the same. It is being said that
Asanga, the founder of Yogacara doctrine was responsible for influencing Mahayana
doctrine with Tantric thought. In Mahayana doctrine the Mudras are frequently used
along with the Mantras or Hymes. In Tantric Yoga Sadhana there exist occult power
within these Mudras or posture and inner power of sound in the Mantras or Hymes.

Among the three sub sects of Mahayana doctrine, in Kalacakrayana we find many
hidden traces of minor religious sects of later days Bengal. Among them the
important Islamic religious thoughts were Marfati, Fakiri, Darbeshi etc. According to
the Kalacakrayana, our own body represents the whole Universe with its absolute
capacity to incorporate all the omnipresence and the entire organism present in our
own body. The infinite small segments of time with its normal cycle of days and
nights, the solar cycle, are present in our body as our life breath. One will be able to
control the Kala only if she/he can master the flow of this life breath through the
vein.

The inclusion of body oriented doctrine of the Sahajyana thoughts by the minor
religions of Bengal is one of the important socio-religious facts. The Sun, Moon,
Lunar months and all other celestial bodies, along with the mountains and rivers
situated in our earthly body only. Our body contains all the major rivers; namely
Ganga, Jamuna, Saraswati. A pious/holy person has to locate the truth within her/his
own body. It is an interesting point to research that how the pure Sufi mysticism
had mingled with this kind of body oriented doctrine. It is really fascinating subject
of study that how Bengali lokayata culture and religion has got a new kind of
nomenclature, for example terms like Ida, Pingala has become Ganga, Jamuna etc
due to the acculturation and gave birth to a new encyclopedia of Metaphors
altogether. This Sahajyanis in later days came into contact with Vaisnava Sahajias
due to the socio-political situation of Bengal. As time passed by higher philosophical
form of Vaisnavism transformed into a common religious practice. This trend we will
find in the various Islamic religious practices like Marfati, Darbeshi, Fakiri etc. If we
study minutely, we will realize that may be by this way Sufis redefined their pure
form of transcendentalism in a new language, with the help of new vocabulary and
metaphors. The very notion of An-ha-lak can be found in a new terminology of
Maner Manush, the soul/being of one’s own heart. The idea of Kalacakra placed a
new philosophical germ in the Mokama Tatva/doctrine of sufis/Marfatis.

Bengal was influence by seven Sufi orders. Among them the Surawhardi sect,
founded by Jalal-Ud-Din Tabrizi may be the oldest one. The Chistia order is founded
by Seikh Farid-Ud –Din of North India. The Qadiria order was founded by Shah Safi-
Ud-Din of Pandua, Hugli. The Madari order was founded by Seikh Shah Maadaar
himself. We find in some places of Bengal the influence of the Fidoary order. In 17th
centuty Shah Hamid founded the Naksbandi order. Abdul Qadir Gilani founded the
Qadiri order. These various Sufi orders amalgamated with Sahajia religious practice
and slowly developed a new kind of Islamic musical tradition which was drastically
different from the Pan-Subcontinent Sufi music.

Body was getting importance this time and we can find this phenomenon in various
Muslim as well as minor Hindu occult religious practices. They have inscribed the
body-mind doctrine in their numerous literatures. Upward and downward flow of
fluid changed beautifully in the metaphor of Radha and Krishna. Various river
names, river banks, bathing ghats, lunar attraction, ebb and tide, river stream etc
changed into the multi dimensional metaphors.

Aabahaayater Nadi kena khane

Sei je nadir pichala ghata
Chand koltale khelre bhata
Diin dunia joRa aktaa
Miin aache taar majkhane.

Where is that river

Whose bank is slippery?
Moon, lunar attraction is there
Like our earth one fish
Lives there in between these
 Reasearch Goal/Synopsis

Sufism came to India from Persia and Arab country, and changed a lot after that.
But this is a typical case that a religious practice uses the language of local
doctrinal habits to some extent. But Sufism due to their own nature of wide
acceptance and nature of their capacity of incorporation of various thoughts got a
wide popularity among the people of this soil. But when Sufis came to Bengal some
remarkable metamorphosis happened. Sufism amalgamated with Tantrik thoughts
and Sahajai/Tantrik/esoteric Buddhism slowly within Five hundred years. The
traditional language of Sufi doctrine and metaphors the used in their literature
changed and developed a new kind of metaphors and vocabularies. Though we
experience this changed metaphors and vocabulary in the language of Kabir, Dadur
etc, but the effect is most prominent in Bengal. Nonetheless they incorporated the
doctrine of Natha as well in their body of religious thought. Due to the long lasted
unstable socio-political reason, Sufism got immense popularity among lower caste
people. The language of Sufism as well as other minor cults became the language of
subversion and protest for the neglected and ever suppressed lower caste people.

This research aims to study recognize how the metaphors has changed in the
language of Sufism in Bengal in comparison with the rest of the Pan-sub continental
notion of Sufism, special emphasize would be given on the languages of Hindvi,
Punjabi and Urdu.

The approximate chapter division is as follows:

1. History of Sufism.

2. History of Sufism in India

3. History of Sufism in Bengal

4. Various influences of other religious thoughts on Sufism in Bengal

i) Influence of Hindu Tantra

ii) Influence of Tantrik Buddhism

iii) Influence of Natha doctrine

iv) Influence of Vaisnava Cult

5. Other factors which shaped the new body of religious thoughts of Sufism in
Bengal

6. Clubbing various philosophical thoughts of Sufism in Bengal; Darbeshi, Marfati,

fakiri etc.

7. The language of Metaphors in selected Hindvi/Punjabi/Urdu literature.

8. The language of Metaphors in selected Bengali texts.

9. The analysis of Mataphors in the light of Indian Aesthetics/Alamkara Shastra

10. The analysis of Metaphors in the light of new Cognitive Linguistics

11. Conclusion
 Suggested Reading

FOR BASIC READING ON SUFISM

Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A History of Sufism in India, Vol-1 and 2. Munshiram
Manoharlal., 2002.

Sharib, Zahurul Hassan. The Sufi Saints of the Indian Subcontinent. Munshiram
Manoharlal. 2006.

Ernst, Carl W. Sufism. Shambhala. 1997.

Dehlvi, Sadia. Sufism: The Heart of Islam. Harper Collins. 2009.

Subhan, John A. Sufism:Its Saints and Shrines. Indigo. 1999,2002.

Valiuddin , Mir . The Quranic Sufism. Motilal Banarsidas. 1959,2009.

Khan Hazrat Inayat. The Mysticism of Music sound and World: The Sufism Vol- I I.
Motilal Banarsidas. 1988,2009.

Taher , Mohamed (Ed.). Sufism Evolution and Practice. Anmol Publications. 1997.

Dasgupta Shashibhusan. Obscure Religious Cult. Firma KLM Pvt Ltd. 1995.

Hak, Md. Enamul. Sufism in Bengal. Bangla Academy, Dhaka. 1995.

FOR REFERENCES

Haidar, Mansura (Ed.). Sufis, Sultans and Feudal Orders. Centre of Advanced Study,
Dept. of History, Aligarh Muslim University. Manohar. 2004.

Ansari , Ali . Sufism and Beyond. Mapin. 1999,2000.

Ali, A.Yusuf (Tr.) The Holy Qur’an. Islamic Book Service. 2004, 2007.
Palmer, E.H. (Tr.) The Holy Qur’an. Motilal Banarsidas. Series- Secred books of the
East.1880, 2004.

Saeed, Abdullah. Interpreting the Qur’an. Routledge.2006.

Sarwar, H.G. Origin and Development of Islam:Life of Muhammad. Adam Publishers

and Distributors.1996.

Hughes, Thomas Patrick. Dictionary of Islam. Munshiram Manoharlal. 1885,1999.

Fakhry, Majid. A Short Introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism.

Oneworld. 1997.
Jaffer,Mehru. The Book of Muinuddin Chishti. 2008. Penguin Books.

Dr. Bankey Behari (Tr.). Fiha-Ma-Fiha. B.R.Publishing Corporation. 1997.

Whinfield, E.H. The Mathnawi. New Age Books. 2002, 2004.

.

Aminrazavi , Mehdi. The Wine of Wisdom:The Life, Poetry and Philosophy of Omar
Khayyam. Oneworld. 2006.

Basher ,Shahzad. Fazlallah Astrabadi and Hurufis. Oneworld. 2006.

Zakariyya , Shaikhulhadith Maulana Muhammad. Faza’il-E-A’maal, Vol-I & II. Idara

Ishaat E Diniyat P.

Haeri , Shkyah Fadhlalla. Sufism, Islam. Third Eye. 2005.

Ahmed, Jamil & Qadeer ,Ashhar. Unani:The Science of Graeco-Arabic Medicine.

Lustre Press.

Offeredi, Mariola(Ed.). The Banyan tree: Essays on Early Literature in New Indo-
Aryan languages.. Vol-I & II Manohar. 2000.

( this is a collection of essays and these are the essays for which I have
bought the book)
.

Asani , Ali .S . Qazi Qadan: A Pioneer Sindhi Poet.

Hines , .Naseem In Quest for the Correct Combination: The Home-coming Episode in
Maulana Daud’s Indo-Sufi Masnavi Candayan.

Pandey, Shyam. Nakh-sikh in Candayan.

Gaeffke , Peter. Madhumalati and Gulsan-i-isq: A Question of Originality.

Bruijn,Thomas de. Visions of the Unseen:Rhetorical Strategies in Bhakti and Sufi
Poetry.

Offredi, Mariola. Jayasi’s Citrarekha.

Hansen , Kathryn. Heteroglossia in Amanat’s Indar Sabha

Petievich , Carl. Dakani’s Radha-Krishna Imagery and Canon Formation in Urdu.

Moir, Zawahir. Historical and Religious Debates amongst Indian Ismailis 1840-1920.

Bengali Books

Ghosh Bratish. Baanglaar Sufi Dhama and sahitya. Achin Prakashani. 2008.

Dasgupta Shashibhusan. Bangla Sahitye Guhya Sadhanar Dhara. Bharbi. 1996.

Hamid, Md. Abdul and Dhali, Md. Abdul Hai. Muslim Darshan Parichiti. Annanna.
2010.

Sen, Khisitimohan. Sadhak o Sadhana. Punascha. 2009.

Sen, Khisitimohan. Kabir. Ananda. 2007.

Chakravarty, Sudhir. Gabhir Nirjan Pathe. Ananda. 2008.

Chakravarty, Sudhir. Banglar Gauna Dharma. Pustak Bipani. 2003.

Sen, Sukumar. Islami Bangla Sahitya. Ananda. 2006.

Das, Girindranatha. Bangla Piir Sahityer Katha. Subarnarekha. 1998.

Khanam, Mahmuda. Madhyajugia Bangla Sahitye Hindi Sufi Kavyaer Prabhab.

Bangla Academy, Dhaka. 2003.