Mathematics Department

(MD)

Centre for Foundation Studies and Extension Education

(FOSEE)

PMT 0055
IT Mathematics II

Foundation in IT

ONLINE NOTES

Chapter 1

MATRICES

FOSEE , MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY (436821-T)

MELAKA CAMPUS, JALAN AYER KEROH LAMA, 75450 MELAKA, MALAYSIA.
Tel 606 252 3594 Fax 606 231 8799
URL: http://fosee.mmu.edu.my/~asd/
PMT0055 IT Mathematics II_________ Chapter 1

OBJECTIVES:
1. Understand the definitions of terms that usually used in matrices.
2. Be able to solve systems of linear equations.

Contents:
1. Matrix Operations
2. Determinants
3. Cramer’s Rule
4. Inverses of Matrices
5. Solving Systems of Linear Equations Using Inverses

1. Matrix Operations

Definition:
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers denoted by
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a 22  a 2 n 
A   a ij    21 aij is called an entry /element.
    
 
a m1 a m 2  a mn 

The ith row of A is  ai1 ai 2  ain  1 i  m

 a1 j 
a 
The jth column of A is  
2j
1 j  n

 
amj 

If a matrix A has m rows and n columns, then we say A is a matrix of order m by n

(written as m  n ).

If m = n, then A is called a square matrix of order n, and that the elements

a11 , a22 ,..., ann are on the main diagonal of A.

Equality of Matrices

Definition:
Two matrices Amn   aij  and Bmn  bij  are equal if and only if
aij  bij for i  1,2,..., m and j  1,2,.., n .

Example:

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1 2  1 1 2 w
The matrices A  2 3 4  and B   2 x 4 
0 4 5   y 4 z 
are equal (A = B), if and only if w = -1, x = - 3, y = 0, and z = 5.
Matrix Addition and Subtraction

Definition:
If Amn   a ij  and Bmn  bij  , then

A  B  a ij  bij 
and A  B  a ij  bij  for i  1,2,..., m and j  1,2,.., n .

Example:
1 2 3  0 2 1
Let A and B
2 1 4 
1 3  4

1 0 4 1 4 2
Then, A  B  3 2 0 and A B  
  1 4 8 

Scalar Multiplication

Definition:
If Amn   a ij  and c is a real number, then the scalar multiple of A by c,
cA   ca ij  for i  1,2,..., m and j  1,2,.., n .

Example:
1 2 3
Let A  2
 1 4
1 2 3  2 4  6
Then  2 A  2  
2 1 4   4 2  8

Matrix Multiplication

Definition: (row-by-column multiplication)

If Amn   a ij  and Bn p  bij  , then the product of A and B,
AB  C m p  cij  
n
where cij   aik bkj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ...  ain bnj for i  1,2,..., m and
k 1
j  1,2,.., p .

Note:
 AB is defined only when the number of columns of A is the same as the number of
rows of B, i.e., Amn Bn p  Cm p
 AB  BA

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Example:
 p
1.  a b c 13  q    ap  bq  cr  11
 r  31
 2
a b c    2a  3b  4c 
2. d e f   3  
  23  4 2d  3e  4 f  21
  31

a b  p q r
3. A B
c d  22 
 s t u  23
ap  bs aq  bt ar  bu 
 AB  
 cp  ds cq  dt cr  du  23

However, BA is not defined.

Transpose of a Matrix

Definition:
If Amn   a ij  , then the transpose of A, AT is the n  m matrix defined by
   
T
AT  aij  a ji

Thus the transpose of A is obtained from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A.

Example:
1  3
1 2  1 
If A  , then AT   2 2  .
  3 2 7  23   1 7  32

Algebraic Properties of Matrix Operations

Properties of Matrix Addition:

If A, B, and C are m  n matrices, then
a) A  B  B  A
b) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C
c) There is a unique m  n matrix Omn such that
A  Omn  Omn  A  A
for any m  n matrix A. The matrix Omn is called the m  n zero matrix.
The m  n zero matrix is called the additive identity of A.
d) For each m  n matrix A, there is a unique m  n matrix D such that A  D  O ,
where D   A .
The matrix  A is called the additive inverse of A.

Properties of Scalar Multiplication:

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If c and d are real numbers and A and B are matrices, then

a) c (dA)  (cd ) A
b) 1A  A
c) c( A  B )  cA  cB
d) (c  d ) A  cA  dA
Properties of Matrix Multiplication:
If A, B, and C are of the appropriate sizes, and c is a scalar, then
a) A( BC )  ( AB)C
b) ( A  B)C  AC  BC
c) C ( A  B)  CA  CB
d) c ( AB)  (cA) B

Properties of Transpose:
If A and B are matrices, and c is a scalar, then
a) ( AT )T  A
b) ( A  B)T  AT  BT
c) ( AB)T  B T AT
d) (cA) T  cAT

2. Determinants

Determinant of a square matrix

input output
A  A
square matrix real number ( = determinant of A )

Determinant of a 2  2 matrix

Definition:

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 a1 b1 
If A   is a square matrix of order 2, then
a 2 b2 
a b1
A  1  a1b2  a 2 b1 .
a 2 b2

Examples: Evaluating determinants of order 2.

2 1
1.  ( 2)( 4)  (1)(3)  8  3  11
3 4

3 2
2.  (3)(1)  ( 2)( 2)  3  4  1
2 1

1 0
3.  (1)(1)  (0)(0)  1
0 1

x 0
4.  ( x)(1)  (0)( y )  x
y 1

Determinant of an n  n matrix

Evaluating Determinants of a square matrix A of Order n (n > 2)

With a given entry of A we associate the square matrix of order n  1 obtained by

deleting the entries in the row and column in which the given entry lies.

For example, given the matrix

 a11 a12 a13 
a a22 a23 
 21
 a31 a32 a33 

With entry a21 , we delete the entries in row 2 and column 1, leaving the matrix of order
 a12 a13 
2 as follows: a 
 32 a33 

The determinant of this matrix is called the minor of a21 .

a12 a13
Minor of a 21   a12 a33  a32 a13
a32 a33
Similarly,
a11 a13
Minor of a 22   a11 a33  a31 a13
a31 a33

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a11 a12
and Minor of a 23   a11 a32  a31 a12
a31 a32

The cofactor of the entry a ij is given by


cij  (1) i  j  minor of aij 
where i + j is the sum of the row number i and column number j in which the entry
lies.

Examples:
2 1
a12 a13
1. Cofactor of the entry a21 , c 21  (1)  ( 1)(a12 a33  a13 a32 )
a32 a33

31
a12 a13
2. Cofactor of the entry a31 , c31  (1)  (1)(a12 a 23  a13 a 22 )
a 22 a 23

Note: The only difference between a cofactor and a minor is the factor (1) i j .

Determinant of a Square Matrix:

To find the determinant of any square matrix A of order n (n > 2), select any row (or
column) of A and multiply each entry in the row (column) by its cofactor. The sum of
these products is defined to be the determinant of A and is called a determinant of
order n.
Example:
Evaluating a Determinant of Order 3 by Using Cofactors.
 12 1 3 
Find A if A    3 1  1
  10 2  3

Solution:
1. By choosing the first row,
1 1
c11  ( 1)11  (1)( 3)  ( 1)(2)  1
2 3
3 1
c12  ( 1)1 2  [(3)(3)  ( 1)(10)]  1
 10 3
3 1
c13  ( 1)13  ( 3)(2)  (1)(10)  4
 10 2
Thus,
A  a11c11  a12 c12  a13c13
 (12)(1)  (1)(1)  (3)( 4)
 1

2. By choosing the third column,

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3 1
c13  ( 1)13  ( 3)(2)  (1)(10)  4
 102
23
12 1
c23  (1)  [(12)(2)  ( 1)( 10)]  14
 10 2
12 1
c33  ( 1) 33  (12)(1)  ( 1)( 3)  9
3 1
Thus,
A  a13c13  a23c23  a33c33
 (3)(4)  ( 1)(14)  ( 3)(9)
 1

Properties:
1. If each of the entries in a row (or column) of A is 0, then A  0.
2. If two rows (or columns) of A are identical, A  0.
3. The determinant of the product of two matrices of order n is the product of their
determinants, that is AB  A B .
4. The determinant of a square matrix and the determinant of its transpose are equal, that
is A  AT

3. Cramer’s Rule

Solving a Linear System in Two Variables Using Determinants

Cramer’s Rule
If a1 x  b1 y  c1
a 2 x  b2 y  c 2
then,
Dx Dy
x and y
D D
where
c1 b1 a1 c1 a1 b1
Dx  , Dy  , D 0
c 2 b2 a2 c2 a 2 b2

Solving Three Equations in Three Variables Using Determinants

Cramer’s Rule
If a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1
a 2 x  b2 y  c 2 z  d 2
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d 3
then,

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Dx Dy Dz
x , y and z
D D D
where
a1 b1 c1
D  a2 b2 c2  0
a3 b3 c3

d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
Dx  d 2 b2 c2 , D y  a2 d2 c2 , D z  a 2 b2 d2
d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a 3 b3 d3

4. Inverses of Matrices

The Multiplicative Identity Matrix of order n

An n  n matrix with 1s down the diagonal from upper left to lower right and 0s
elsewhere is called the multiplicative identity matrix of order n.
I n   aij  where aii  1 and aij  0 for i  j .

Example:
1 0 0
1 0
I2   ; I 3  0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1 
Note:
If A   a ij  mn , then AI n  A and I m A  A .
The Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix

Definition:
An n  n matrix A is called invertible, or nonsingular, if there exists an n  n matrix B
such that AB  BA  I n . B  A 1 is called the multiplicative inverse of A.
Otherwise, A is called singular or noninvertible.

Example:

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 3
2 3 1
A , B 2
2 2  1  1
 
1 0
Since AB  BA  0 1  I 2 ,  B is an inverse of A, B  A 1 .
 

Theorems:

1. The inverse of a matrix, if it exists, is unique.

2. If A and B are both invertible (nonsingular) n  n matrices, then AB is invertible and
( AB ) 1  B 1 A1 .
3. If A is an invertible matrix, then A1 is also invertible and ( A1 ) 1  A .
4. If A is an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible and ( A1 )T  ( AT ) 1 .

Finding The Multiplicative Inverse of a 2  2 Matrix

a b
If A
c d 
Then, the inverse of a matrix is given by
1 d  b
A 1  where ad  bc  0
ad  bc  c a 
If ad  bc  0 , then A is singular, matrix A has no multiplicative inverse.

Example:
1 2
Let A  3 7  . Find A1 .
 

Solution:

det A  A  (1)(7)  ( 2)(3)  7  6  1

Thus,
1 7  2  7  2
A1  
1  3 1   3 1 

Finding The Multiplicative Inverse of a 3  3 Matrix By Using the Cofactor Method

For a matrix of order 3,

 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
the inverse of a matrix is given by

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1
A 1   Cofactors of A T


1
A
 
c ij T

 c11 c 21 c 31 
1 
 c12 c 22 c 32 
A  
c13
 c 23 
c 33 

Note: a) The cofactor of the entry a ij , cij  (1)

i j

 minor of aij 
b)  
cij T is called the adjoint of A (adj A).
1
Thus, A1  adj A
A

Example:
3 2 1 
Find A 1
if it is invertible, given that A  5 6 2  .
1 0  3
Solution:

Firstly, we compute the cofactors of A, we have

6 2
c11  ( 1)11  18
0 3
5 2
c12  ( 1)1 2  17
1 3
5 6
c13  ( 1)13  6
1 0
c 21  6; c 22  10; c 23  2
c 31  10; c32  1; c33  28

Hence,
 18 6  10
adj A   17  10  1 
  6 2 28 

Secondly, by choosing the first row, compute the determinant of A, we have

A  a11c11  a12 c12  a13 c13
 (3)(18)  (2)(17)  (1)(6)
 94
Thus,
1
A1  adj A
A
 18 6  10
1 
 17  10  1 
94 
  6 2 28 

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5. Solving Systems of Linear Equations Using Inverses

Recall:
- A system of equations is a collection of two or more equations, each
containing one or more variables
- A solution of a system of equations consists of values for the variables that
reduce each equation of the system to a true statement.
- To solve a system of equations means to find all solutions of the system.
- When a system of equations has at least one solution, it is said to be
consistent; otherwise, it is called inconsistent.

Examples of systems of linear equations:

 x1  x2  x3  6
 2x  y  5 
 3x1  2 x2  4 x3  9
 4 x  6 y  2  x x x 0
 1 2 3

In general, a system of m linear equations in n unknowns can be conveniently written

as:
a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1
a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  b2

am1 x1  am 2 x2    amn xn  bm
We define
 a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1 
a a22  a2 n  x  b 
A   21 X   2 B  2
        
     
am1 am 2  amn  mn  xn  n1 bm  m1

Thus, a system of linear equations can be written in matrix form: AX  B

where A is the coefficient matrix of the system, and B is the constant matrix.

Solving a system of linear equations using Inverses

Linear system:
AX  B where A is n  n matrix

Suppose A is invertible, multiply both sides by A1

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A 1 AX  A 1 B
I n X  A 1 B
X  A 1 B

Thus, X  A1 B - a solution to the linear system

- a unique solution if A is invertible (nonsingular).

Examples:
Solve the following system by using the inverse:
 2 x  8z  8

 x  4 y  36
 2x  y  9


Solution:

We define:
2 0 8  x 8
A   1 4 0 X   y  B  36
 2 1 0  z   9 

Since the solution is X  A1 B , and A  A  cij   A adjA

1 T 1 1

1
 X  A 1 B  adjA  B
A

So, we need to find the cofactor matrix of matrix A and the determinant of matrix A:
 0 0  9
Cofactors of A   cij    8  16  2
 32 8 8 
 0 8  32
 adj A  cij  T
  0  16  8 
 9 2 8 
Det (A) = A  0( 2)  0(0)  ( 9)(8)  72

Finally, the solution to the system is:

1
 X  A 1 B  adjA  B
A
 0 8  32  8 
1  0
  16  8   
 72   36 
 9
  2 8 
  9 


 x  0 
  y   9 
   

z   1 


 x = 0 , y = 9 , and z = 1 .

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