EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories

Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University

EM111 Materials & Energy

Laboratories ROOM SB14 (Materials) & SB32 (Energy)

Lecturer: Dr. Joseph Stokes

Room S370
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering
Dublin City University
Dublin
Ireland
e-mail: Joseph.T.Stokes@dcu.ie
Web Address: www.mecheng.dcu.ie/staff/JosephStokes.html
Tel: 353-1-700 8720
Fax: 353-1-700 5345

One Report Due For This Module (EM111 Materials & Energy)

Due in (handed on A4 sheet paper) to Dr. Stokes in the

LAST LECTURE OF WEEK 10
READ CAREFULLY BEFORE ATTENDING THE LABORATORY

1
 EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University

SINGLE REPORT FORMAT

The Materials & Energy report will be written based on all Experiments (not as individual descriptions/reports – otherwise
loss of Marks if each experiment is written independently) The Report must be written within the „Number of Lines Guidelines
Given‟ (thus it will be Max. 10 pages including drawings/graphs). YOU MUST LAY OUT YOUR REPORT AS FOLLOWS:

Create your FRONT PAGE as follows: EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
For: Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering,
Dublin City University

MECHANICAL TESTING LABORATORY

STUDENT NAME: e.g. JOHN SMITH

STUDENT NUMBER: e.g. 5000000
PROGRAMME: MMEN 1
Group: Group ??

DATE OF MATERIALS LABORATORY: …………..

DATE OF ENERGY LABORATORY:……..

DATE OF SUBMISSION OF REPORT:…………..(last

lecture Week 10)

RECEIVED STAMP: RECEIVED GRADE:

Remainder of the report will go as follows:

1. Describe the COMBINED Aims of the OVERALL Materials & Energy Laboratory in your own words (8 A4 Page Lines
Max. typed or hand written):

2. Tabulate the results and Show any Calculations, Provided any Required Graphs, from Each Laboratory as Indicated
in the Laboratory Details :

2.1 Tensile Test:

2.2 Hardness & Impact Test:

nd
2.3 Label & Present the results of the Second (2 ) Experiment you conducted in your Energy Laboratory (one of either:
Heat Flow; Air Condition; Refrigeration; OR Heat Pump)

3. Discuss Your Results for Each Experiment described above, as follows:

3.1 Comment on the results obtained for the Tensile test, and the graph given to you (4 A4 Page Lines Max.)
3.2 Comment on the results obtained for the Hardness test. (4 A4 Page Lines Max.)
3.3 Comment on the results obtained for Impact test. (4 A4 Page Lines Max.)
3.4 Compare the results obtained for the Tensile (used the graph, as it describes each of the materials used in the
Hardness/Impact test), Hardness and Impact tests. (8 A4 Page Lines Max.)
nd
3.5 Discuss the Findings from your Second (2 ) Experiment you conducted in your Energy Laboratory (one of either: Heat
Flow; Air Condition; Refrigeration; OR Heat Pump) as explained in the laboratory session.

4. Conclusions
4.1 Draw conclusion/summary for the Combined Materials and Energy Laboratory. (i.e. can be a summary of the results
found, observations and findings. (5 A4 Page Lines Max.)
4.2 Comment on possible sources of error. (3 A4 Page Lines Max.)
4.3 Describe 2 examples of applications/uses where you would use any of the materials (steel, Al, Brass, nylon) above and 2
nd
examples of applications/uses for the Energy Experiment (your 2 Experiment) you have described (6 A4 Page Lines
Max.)

5. Bibliography (Detail and Reference the books you sourced to write up your report using the following format;
For example if it was a Book:
th
1. Callister, W. D. “Material Science & Engineering”, John Wiley, 6 Edition, (2003), pages 63-64

2
 EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University

MATERIALS
LABORATORY
DETAILS
ROOM SB14

3
 EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University
MATERIALS: - MECHANICAL TESTING PART (A)
Reference Books: Callister (page 109)
Ger. & Timoshenko (page 1 -17)

THE TENSILE TEST

INTRODUCTION
Many tests can be carried out on a material so as to gain information about how that material will react to different stimuli.
e.g. chemical attach, bending forces, tensile forces. etc. The most common mechanical test which can be carried out on a
material is the Tensile Test.
Tensile tests are carried out on specimens of standard size and shape. This is to ensure repeatability from test to test and to
allow for comparisons to be made between different materials. The specimen shape is normally dog-bone shaped as can be
seen in figure 1. The large ends of the specimen allow the specimen to be rigidly gripped or held so that the gripping will not
damage the gauge length. The gauge length of the specimen is an important dimension because it is used to calculate the
engineering strain on the specimen. The gauge length of standard specimens normally ranges from 25mm up to 75mm.

4.5 mm x 1mm section

Gauge length 22 mm

Figure 1. Example of a tensile test specimen.

THEORY
In the context of a materials tensile test:

2
Engineering Stress = Force divided by Original Cross Sectional Area (Newtons/mm )
 Engineering Strain = Extension divided by Original Gauge Length (mm/mm ) i.e. no units or dimensionless
(note: referred to as stress and strain.)
Stress and strain are used to describe the effects of an increasing tensile force on a material during a tensile lest. Stress
relates the force on a specimen to the cross-sectional area of that specimen. From the formula for stress above we can see
that if the area is reduced the stress increases, or if the force goes up the stress increases. Strain relates the elongation of a
specimen to the original gauge length of the specimen.
OBJECTIVES
To find the tensile characteristics of a material (i.e. how the material reacts when pulled apart). The material properties are
normally recorded and calculated as detailed on page 5. (see lecture notes for more information)

Normally a Stress V" Strain graph is produced from the tensile test recorded data. Values of "YS" and "UTS" can be taken
from this graph "read from the Y axis", Values of Young's modulus are calculated by finding the slope of the straight line
section at the start of the graph.

Stress and strain values can be calculated from the elongation and force values and a graph of Stress V" Strain can be
plotted.

MECHANICAL TESTING (B)

Part 1: HARDNESS TEST
Introduction
The hardness of a material is a measure of its resistance to abrasion or indentation. A number of scales are used for
hardness, depending on the method that has been used to measure it. The hardness is roughly related to the tensile strength
of a material, the tensile strength being roughly proportional to the hardness. Thus the higher the hardness of a material, the
higher is likely to be the tensile strength.
Objectives
To determine the hardness characteristics of different materials used in engineering.
Equipment
 OMAG Brevetti Affri hardness tester, model 206 with a diamond V tool and a ball tool
 Selection of material blocks

4
 EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University
Procedure
Record the hardness value for each material (Aluminium, Steel, Brass and Nylon) as per the demonstrator's instructions.
Calculations
Determine the Rockwell B hardness values for the chosen engineering materials.

Part 2: THE IMPACT TEST (c)

INTRODUCTION
The toughness of a material is a different property to strength. It specifically indicated the material's resistance to fracture. It
represents the materials ability to absorb energy up to fracture. Therefore materials which require a lot of energy to fracture
are more tough than others which fractures with little use of energy. In the case of dynamic loading an impact test is used to
measure toughness. The most common methods are the Charpy and lzod Impact tests. The principle of both is the same: A
weighted pendulum hammer is released from a fixed position, and strikes the specimen located as shown in the diagram
attached. Some energy is needed to cause the fracture of the specimen. After impact the hammer continues to swing, raising
to a maximum height depending on how much energy is left in the system. The difference between the original height, and
the final height is a measure of the impact energy used to cause fracture. The difference between the methods is in the way
in which the notched specimens are held (see figure in notes).

Note: The swinging hammer in this test contain a lot of energy, which would cause serious damage to anyone (or part of
anyone) in its path. The guards are for your own safety, and must be respected. NO-ONE is allowed place fingers in the path
of the hammer once it has been raised.

PROCEDURE
 A load is applied as an impact blow from a pendulum hammer is released from an initial position at a fixed height h.
 The specimen (Aluminium, Steel, Brass and Nylon) should be positioned at the base of the apparatus as shown in
Fig. 2.1 below.
 Upon release, a knife-edge mounted on
the pendulum strikes and fractures the
specimen at the notch, which acts as a
point of stress concentration for its high
velocity impact blow.
 The pendulum continues its swing, rising
to a minimum height h', which is lower
than h. The energy absorption, computed
from the difference between h and h', is a
measure of the impact energy.
Procedure
Record the Impact value for each material
(Aluminium, Steel, Brass and Nylon) as per the
demonstrator's instructions.
Calculations
2
Determine the Impact (J/mm ) values for the
chosen engineering materials.


Figure 2.1

5
 EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University
2. Tabulate the results of each test as follows:

2.1 Tensile Test:

Tabulate 1 Sample (Steel or Aluminium or PVC) below and Calculate the following based on the results given; Engineering
Stress & Engineering Strain
2
Force (N) (Measured) Extension (mm) (Measured) Stress (N/m ) (Calculated) Strain (Unit-less)(Calculated)
154 0.1
184 0.2
190 0.3
192 0.4

Show in detail how you calculated one of the Stress and Strain values (include units throughout) above (8 A4 Page Lines
Max.):

Calculate the following based on the Sample Results provided:

Yield Strength for 0.2% Final Gauge Length (mm)
Strain
2
200 N/mm 30
 Young's Modulus of Elasticity (E) = Stress divided by Strain "Within the elastic region, i.e. slope of straight line",
 % Elongation at fracture = Elongation at fracture divided by Original gauge length and Indicate if the material is
Ductile or Brittle (Provide the graph in your report)

 On the graph provided overleaf label the following the 4 lines according to their material types (Metal, Ceramic,
Plastic) and suggest an example of a material which would behave in this way (use Steel, Aluminium, Glass/brass,
PVC/Nylon, etc.) (Provide the graph in your report)
 On the graph provided indicate the following regions/points; Modulus of Elasticity (E), Yield Stress (Y S) (The stress
at which Yield occurs), Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) (The maximum stress recorded), Breaking Point, and which
material is Ductile or brittle.

Stress V's Strain

A B C D
300

250
Stress (N/m2)

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Strain

6
 EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University

Space for Calculations:

2.2 Hardness and Impact Test

Tabulate the hardness and Impact data (Record the data of the energy used to fracture specimen of each material type.
2
Include units in your table, e.g. J/mm )

Material Hardness (Rockwell A) Impact (J)

Steel
Aluminium
Brass
Nylon

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 EM111 Materials & Energy Laboratories
Dr. J. Stokes
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University

ENERGY
LABORATORY
DETAILS
ROOM SB32

8
 School of Mechanical and Manuf&during Engineering

E F 'i 7' i , (

Experiment : Turbulent Flow Heat Exchanger

Introduction

Numerous industrial applications require heat transfer from hot to cold fluids and a
wide variety of Heat Exchangers have been developed for this purpose. Heat is
transferred whenever a temperature difference exists and the modes of transfer
namely conduction, convection and radiation may operate separately or
simultaneously.

Conduction is the mode of heat transfer through solids and liquids whcre there is no
movement of the fluid in the direction of the heat flow.
Convection is the mode in which heat is transferred through a fluid system by the
motion of the fluid.
Radiation is the mode of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves. This mode is very
important at high temperatures and is considered negligible in small heat exchangers.

Apparatus

The unit consists of a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger with hot water flowing through
the central tube while cooling water flows through the annular space. Thermocouples, ""
are used to sense the stream temperatures at various points throughout the system.
Other features include hot and cold water circuits, temperature control and cooling
water control valves. ( See circuit diagram 1 for more details.)

Dimensions and Useful Information

Heat Exchanger: Core Tube Material - Copper

External Diameter (dJ =9.5mm
Internal Diameter (dJ = 7.9mm
Length = 3 x 350mm

External Heat Transfer Area, A" = O.031m 2

Internal " ~ = O.0261m 2
Mean " Am = O.0288m 2
Flow area Sj = 49 X 10-6 m 2

Outer Tube Material - Copper

External Diameter = 12.7mm
Internal Diameter = 11.1mm
Annulus flow area, So = 25.9 X 10-6 m 2

Specific heat of water

H951 WATER-WATER TURBULENT FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
~~:4riet -.~CO\.l')ler Currenl Pressure
FIII~ POOl/Cap
Flow Relief Valve
-. -.
~ - . Oren
Sig'll Glass
C()(){i-g
Water Inlet -.
Heaters

Cool~ Water Concurrent

Flow Cootrol Flow
..- ..- Heath;)
ToN<
TemperatLCe
Irdcator

I~I
T~tLCe
Selector Sw~ch
t
II @ II
13 t5
Heal Exchanger

t Healer
Power
+
Oran
Incfcolor
0
19 Hg, Low

~
Flow Flow
0 Meter
MeIer
Ccxfug
Water
Flowmeter
t Hooler
COfilroi
and
COfilrol

Hi(tl Flow
C;xilral
V0 1ve

18 88
Man Healer

t Sw~ch

..-
Sw~ch

Mans
Cold
b==============>?=::[]_ Purp t
Waler In
Tori<
Drain

Ie Heat
Exchorger
Oran
Start up procedure:

1. Set the Cooling Water Flow Control valves to give either concurrent or counter-current flow as
indicated by the arrows on the front panel.

2. Tum on the cooling water supply and open the cooling water flow control valve on the cooling
water flowmeter. Ensure that cooling water flows freely through the flowmeter and heat exchanger
to the drain.

3. Supply power to the unit and tum on the main switc:;h. The hot water high and low flowmeters
should indicate a circulating flow.

Close the low flow meter valve and fully open the high flow meter control valve.

4. Tum on the heater supply switch and adjust the heater control.

The heater power indicator will flash, indicating the relative power to the water heaters. When the
indicator is on fully, the power supply is at maximum.

~: A certain amount of air will come out of solution as the water is heated, but this will be
automatically vented within the heating tank.)

If this is the fIrst time that the unit has been operated then it may need to run for approximately
15 minutes in order to ensure that the majority of dissolved air is released from the hot water
circuit.

5. When the hot water temperature l:l reaches the desired temperature (noi. more than 75 to 80°C)
adjust the high or low flow control valves to give the desired hot water flow rate. Adjust the cold
water flow and heater control to obtain stable running conditions so that the system temperatures
remain constant.

6. Alternatively the flows may be set to the desired values and the temperatures adjusted by alteration
of the heater control.

7. Note that if the hot water temperature exceeds approximately 90°C then the high temperature cut
out will operate and tum off the power to the water heater. The heater power indicator light will
be extinguished under these conditions.

Power will be automatically restored when the water temperature l:l has fallen to approximately
70°C.

Shutting Down

1. Tum the heater control anti-clockwise to its minimum setting and tum off the heater switch.

2. Tum the cooling water flow to a high value, and fully open the hot water flow control valves.

3. When the system has cooled to about 40°C, tum off the mains switch and isolate the unit from the
mains.

4. Tum off the cold water supply.

 Experimental PI'ocedure

1). Write a ONE PAGE description of the apparatus using the enclosed diagram

2). Determination of lIeat Transfer Rate, Log Mean Temperature Difference and
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.

1). Set cooling water flow control valves for counter current flow.
2). Check that the heater tank contains water to the correct level.
3). Close the 'Low' flow control valve and fully open the 'High' flow control valve.
4). Switch on the mains and the water heater and set the heater control to a high
value.
5). Increase the hot water temperature to approx 70°C and then adjust the hot water
flow rate to a convenient value Eg 5 llmin (80 g/s)
6). Adjust the cold water flow until stable operating conditions are reached (approx
70°C)

Record results on Sheet 1.

Results

Calculate the following:

1
1) Hot water mass flowrate m. =V *p*---- (kg/s)
1 I 1000 *60

2) Heat transfer from the hot water (watts)

3) Heat transfer to the cold water (watts)

4) Log mean temperature difference

For counter current flow

5) Overall heat Transfer Coefficient U = ~

~lJe

6) Plot a graph of Temperature Distribution for counter current flow with Distance
from Hot Inlet on the X-axis and Temperature on the Y-axis
 OBSERVATION SHEET

For relative positions of temperature measurement points please refer to schematic diagram on Page 1.

CONCURRENT FLOW· COUNTER·CURRENT FLOW· *Delete as Requiied

TEST 1 2 3 4 5 6

Metal Wall at inlet tl 1°C 69.8

Metal Wall at exit ~ I °C 57.4

Hot stream at inlet ~ 1°C 71.3

Hot stream 1st

r../oC 70.4
intennediate

Hot stream 2nd

intennediate ls 1°C 69.2

Hot stream at exit ~ 1°C 67.2

Cold stream enay/exit ~ I °C 60.8

Cold stream intennediate fa 1°C 52.0

Cold stream intennediate ~/oC 393

Cold stream enay/exit ro I °C 21.6

Hot water indicated flow ~i 11 min-I 10.0

Hot water actual flow rh; / kg S-I 0.166

Cooling water flow rate rho / kg S·I 0.0175

~

Mean hot water ~)/oC

69.25
temperature 2

Specific Heat at mean Cp I kJ kg-I K"l 4.19

Density at inlet to
p Ikg m-) 978.0
flowmeter ~

Thermal Conductivity at
k/Wm- I K- 1
mean temperature

Viscosity at mean p IHI N s m- 2

temperature

Prandtl No. at mean

Prj
temperature

Reynolds No. at mean

temperature
R<;
 hpHimenl ,Air C"odiliooin~ Unl,

Inlrod"Ol;OIl

Air oolldWoning m.ay be <l<scribed as lite ,,""Irol of lite a1D'DS!,h,:re so ~lal a desirtd
leIop"':"u"" humidily aoo air dislribulion is achieved uruJer "o,"rolled and repealablt
circwm"ances. Applir:a'k"" i"c1ode dnnleS1ic, "ffoces, b",pitals Ilnd buildiJlg uni"
IIIlJ D~,er arras wbich "'lllire human comfort. Induslrial application inclode
1""",,"luries, food slOJ3gt, manafaclurillg, and pharmaceulical produclion

Appanuo.

l11e unjt C<)II.isl, of a Ilunlocr Dfkey oomponcllts. The.'ie inclade Cans, filt"", heal
c>:ehangers and homidifiers. We' and dry bulh ,hem",mOlen are os<:d '0 find lhe
humidily oflbe air al various pointS Ihroughout II><: rig "loog wi'h " range of Dlher
i""nullenialin" fm p"","ure rncasweme,,1 and tlow measuremenl

I) II.", d .. dtn",,,s'ralor give " <l<lailoo i"trOO,"'I;oo aboullhe ')'SIt'" aud lughliglll
II><: I:cy oomponenls follJl<l On lhe: rig in 0 <hort ,me page overview oflhe: systom

2) hlilow lhe ;ns!rnc'....... on je,t shed I 10 gene",le lit"", e)'<k evenlS on "
Psyd.omclric CIw1. HigJ<iighl lite wet and dry bulb lempe"'lu"" a, c<'IC!I po;1lt ond
find Ihe mois",,,, conlent alld II", specific c"llwlpy "Clhe ai, III "",h poi"l. Preenl
Ihis da13 in a table for ead c)'<I".

J) Commenl Oil your ""olts

Tos, Sh«' I

I) Tun] on II>c rig and SCI die fM to gi,.., on orifice prt::SStlrt: drop of 401""'.
2) To'" On lhe oon'pressor only and record table 2 OIl the "b>crvali"n sltt<:l.
3) Tlln, on dIe 1- preheattr and allow lhe: 'ySltm 10 settle for S rni"" I:>efore
""""rding lable J dala.
4) Tom on Ih" I ~ rebealer all"w "'" sy,le.., '0 ",,,Ie for S min, b<fo.., recording
table 4 dOUL
S) Ask ,he demon""'I"r I" can-fully mnl 00"" ,he rig.
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 Test Reference: 1 2 3 4

A Air at Fan Inlet Dry t1 (oC)

Wet t2 (oC)

B After Pre-Heat or Steam Dry t3 (oC)

Injection
Wet t4 (oC)

C After Cooling / Dry t5 (oC)

Dehumidification
Wet t6 (oC)

D After Re-heating Dry t7 (oC)

Wet t8 (oC)

%Saturation (%)

Moisture Content (kg/kg)

Specific Enthalpy e
(kJ/kg)
 no ,,, "0
Figure 10
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 School of Mechanic:,:! and Manufacturing Engineering

Experiment.: Refrigeration Cycle Demonstration Unit

Introduction

A refrigerator is defined as a machine whose prime function is to remove heat from a

low temperature region. Since energy cannot be destroyed, the heat taken in at a low
temperature plus any other energy input must be dissipated to the surroundings.
nd
The 2 law of Thermodynamics states that heat will not pass from a cold to a horter
region without the aid of an external agency. Thus a refrigerator will require an
external source for it to operate. This energy input may be in the fonn of work or a
heat transfer at a high temperature. However the most common type of refrigerator
uses a work input and operates on the vapour compression cycle.

Apparatus

The unit consists of a vapour compression cycle utilising a small work input to
transfer heat form a Water source evaporator to a cooled condenser. All relevant
temperatures, pressures and flowrates are measured enabling the complete cycle to be
investigated. (See Fig 1)

Useful data:

Condenser water coil surface area: O.032m 2

Evaporator water coil surface area: O.032m 2

Specific heat capacity of water Cp: 4.18 kJ/kgK

Refrigerant type: R141b

Experimental Procedure

1) Have the demonstrator give a detailed introduction to the system and a outline of
how pumping over into the condenser is achieved.

2) Follow the instructions on test sheet 1 to generate a refrigeration cycle diagram on

the pressure-enthalpy chart. Record one set of results on the observation sheet.
3) Follow the instructions on test sheet 2 to calculate the ow'rail heat transfer
coefficient between the refrigerant and water in both the evaporator and the
condenser. Use the same set of results from 2 above in these calculations.

Results

1) Write a ONE PAGE technical description of how the refrigeration unit works
starting at the compressor.

2) Using the data collected during test 1 plot the refrigeration cycle diagram on the
p-H diagram supplied. Comment on the condition of the refrigerant at each point
on the diagram (i.e. liquid, vapour etc,)

3) Using the same data collected during test 1 calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient between the refrigerant and water in both the evaporator and the
condenser.

4) Comment on the results.

 Refrigeration

Heat Transfer to ambient

air or to cooling water

High pressure Liq.

C Condenser B High pressure vapour
Compressor

Expansion
Work
Valve

Evaporator Low pressure vapour

Low pressure D A
Liq/vapour mix

Heat Transfer from

Refrigerated Space (e.g.
food)
 Refrigera tion Cycle Demonstration Unit R633
~I
Condenser
Pressure ~
Temperalure Indicalor
Evaporotor
Pressure

(OptionaD

Pressure
Pressure c====~~v.. Relief Valve
Relief Valve

- Wallmeter (OplionaD
-
..-
Vent Water Drain + -
Valve _--H---\t-"

Control
Valve
0 - t Sight
Gloss tJ
Control
Valve

tJ Evoporatar
Condenser Water
Woter Flow Meter
Flow Meler Oil Return
Condenser Capillary
Compressor

t Expansion
t
Valve

t
t8
(Optional)

Main
Swilch
t
Pressure
SWitch
- Charging
Valve t
l81
-
t
-
Figure 1 Water Inlet
2
R633 Valve Positions
NORMAL OPERATION

REFRIGERANT PUMP DOWN

OIL RETURN
(Only when In Pump Down Condition)

SHUTDOWN

Figure 2
 GENERATION OF A REFRIGERATION CYCLE DIAGRAM ON A PRESSURE-
ENTHALPY CHART

Note this procedure can ONL Y be undertaken by the following detailed method with the optional
temperature indicator fitted to the R633 unit as the temperature of the refrigerant liquid in the
condenser is required for one state point on the cycle diagram. However the procedure may be
modified for use with the standard thermometer set. See Page 48.

The fining procedure for the optional temperature Indicator kit, if not already fitted, is given in
Appendix A. Details of the kit are available from P.A. Hilton Ltd, or their local representative.

The vapour compression refrigeration cycle is of paramount importance in terms of food and drug
preservation, air conditioning, and heat pumps. In order to analyse the system performance in terms
of the thermodynamic cycle it is common for engineers to record system pressures and temperatures
and then to plot the various Slate points on a pressure-enthalpy chart of the working fluid.

The working fluid in the Hilton Refrigeration Cycle Demonstration Unit Series R633 is R141b. This
has the chemical name 1,1,-Dichloro-l-fluoroethane.

A pressure-enthalpy chart for this substance is shown on Page 55.

A detailed description of the various parameters displayed and obtainable from pressure-enthalpy charts
will be found in most text books on thermodynamics and therefore will not be expanded upon in this
manual.

In order to plot a cycle diagram for the unit the following procedure should be adopted.

Procedure:
(i) Start the unit for normal operation as shown on Page 15 and ensure that the unit is air free by
venting air from the condenser as described under air venting on Page 18.

Once air free increase the condenser cooling water flow to a mid range value. The pressure at
which the condenser stabilises will depend upon the water inlet temperature.

(ii) Set the evaporator water flow to a mid range value and allow the unit to run for approximately
15-20 minutes. The time taken to stabilise will depend upon the local ambient conditions and the
cooling water inlet temperature.

(iii) Record all the system parameters as illustrated in the table

(iv) In order to demonstrate that the cycle varies for different operating conditions it is recommended
that the condenser pressure is varied by adjustment of the condenser cooling water flow rate. The
unit should be allowed to stabilise and the system parameters recorded.

The procedure may also be repeated at different evaporating temperatures and the results plotted
on a pressure-enthalpy chart as described below.

The results from the following table are shown plotted on Page 50.

The slate points a, b and c on the diagram on Page 50 are located in the following manner:-

(i) Point a is at the intersection of the evaporator chamber pressure Po = 32 kN m,2 absolute and the
evaporating temperature ls = 4.0°C.

(ii) Point b is at the intersection of the compressor chamber pressure Po = 70 kN m,2 absolute and the
compressor discharge temperature ~ = 41.7°C.
Example of Measured Results and Calculations:

Using the Values on the Graph overleaf and information page after the graph, the Rate of Heat Transfer to
Water in Evaporator:
= Cp (t1 – t2) = 20.0 x 10-3 x 4.18 x 103 x (11.2 – 9.7) W = 125.4 W
inlet = (t1 – t5) = (11.2 – 4.0) K = 7.2 K
outlet = (t2 – t5) = (9.7 – 4.0) K = 5.7 K
mean = = = 6.4208 K

U= = = 610.3972 or 610.40 W/m2K

CENTRE D'APPLICATION DE LEYALLOIS

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

60
50
40
30

20
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l.. 15
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l..
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0.3
0.2
0.1
Unites I Units P: bar T : 0(' REFERENCES T=O°C h=200kJlkg s=lkJ/ kg.K
h : kJlkg s : kJ/1.;g.K v : m 1 !kg Tb : 32 Pc : 41.8 Tc:204.1 d(25°C) : 1.2(
rrrrmlllITTTrTrlll\T1
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T 'I I ,~T 1]1 rrrynrrrn rrrrrmFrprrrym \ I I '\'.

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Enthalpie I Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

elFatochem
~
 DETERMINATION OF OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN R141b AND WATER
IN THE EVAPORA TOR AND CONDENSER

The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) is the heat transfer rate per unit area of heat transfer surface
when a temperature difference of one degree exists between the hot and cold fluids.

In the evaporator, the refrigerant temperature is sensibly constant, but the water temperature falls as it
passes through the coils. In the condenser some degree of superheating may be present when the gas
enters the condenser glass chamber. However the quantity of heat delivered due to the superheating
will be small relative to that attributable to the condensing phase change. Examination of the high
pressure line of the cycle diagram generated in Experiment No.9 on Page 47 will confIrm this.

In order to analyse the overall heat transfer coeffIcient a representative temperature difference must be
determined that represents the driving force for heat transfer between the refrigerant and the water.

The temperature difference to be used in this case is the "Logarithmic Mean" which is given by

where SiDle, = Temperature difference between the two fluids at inlet,

and Soudet = Temperature difference between the two fluids at outlet.
A theoretical analysis of the logarithmic mean temperature difference may be found in most text books
on heat transfer and will not therefore be expanded in this manual.

Procedure:
(i) Start the unit for normal operation as shown on Page 15 and ensure that the unit is air free by
venting air from the condenser as described under air venting on Page 18.

Once air free increase the condenser cooling water flow to a mid range value. The pressure at
which the condenser stabilises will depend upon the water inlet temperature.

(ii) Set the evaporator water flow to a mid range value and allow the unit to run for approximately
15-20 minutes. The time taken to stabilise will depend upon the local ambient conditions and the
cooling water inlet temperature.

(iii) Record all the system parameters as illustrated

OBSERVAnONS

Local Aunospheric Pressure:

Test No. 1 2 3 4 5

Evaporator Gauge Pressure p. / leN m- 2

Absolute Evaporator Pressure p. / leN m- 2

Evaporator Temperature k, / °C

Evaporator Water Flow Rate rile / gm S-1

Evaporator Water Inlet Temp. tl / °C

Evaporator Water Outlet Temp. ~ / °C

Condensed Liquid Temp. ~ / °C

Condenser Gauge Pressure Pc / leN m- 2

Absolute Condenser Pressure Pc / leN m- 2

Compressor Discharge Temp. t-, / °C

Condenser Temperature ~ / °C

Condenser Water Flow Rate ril c / gm S-l

Condenser Water Inlet Temp. ~ / °C

Condenser Water Outlet Temp. ~ / °C

Compressor Power Input W / Watts

CENTRE D'APPLICATION DE LEVALLOIS

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

Unites / Units P: bar T : 0(' REFERENCES T=O°C h=200kJ/kg s= 1kJ/ kg.K

h : kJ/kg s : k.Jlkg.K v : m 3 /kg 10 : 32 Pe : 41.8 Te : 204.1 d(25°C) : l.2C
rmmmnmmmrrn nnmmmrrnmmT tmmmnnmnmm rmmmnnrmmn mmTmHnnmTmr!t nmTT 1111111111111111 mmrrmmmmnn ImmmmTTTT11TT1TT1 TTITl1mnlTTmnmnrnrrTTlmm TIm H1TTT~T1InTTTllrrmr
,nrrTT1rrrt

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 , .
Enthalpie / Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

elf atocheln
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 School of Mechanical and M~nufacturingEngineering

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Experiment : Heat Pump Cycle

Introduction

The vapour compression refrigeration cycle finds applications in countless industries

and domestic situations. The emphasis is upon maintaining a product or air stream at
a low temperature whilst rejecting heat extracted at a high temperature usually to
atmosphere.

However the vapour compression refrigeration cycle cycle may equally be used to
upgrade heat from a low grade ( such as a river, atmosphere, soil) so that it may be
discharged at a more useful higher temperature for some other application e.g. space
or water heating.

For Example large dairy fanns require chilled water for cooling milk and hot water
for cleaning pipework. A heat pump can provide energy savings in this situation
assuming the scale and utilisation factors justify the increased capital costs.

Apparatus
The air and water heat pump apparatus is a vapour compression cycle utilising a
small work input to transfer heat form either a Air or Water source evaporator to a
cooled condenser. AU relevant temperatures, pressures and power inputs are
measured enabling the complete cycle to be investigated. (See Fig 1)

Analysis

A machine whose prime function is to deliver heat to a high temperature region (

usually above ambient) is called a Heat Pump. For such a system the important
quantity is the heat rejectedfrom the system.

A machine whose prime function is to remove heat from a low temperature region(
usually below ambient) is called a Refrigerator. For such a system the important
quantity is the heat supplied (taken in )to the system from the surroundings.

The main running cost of both these systems is the power input 'W'.
 Experimental Procedure

Test 1:
I) Turn on the water supply to the unit and turn on the main switch.

2) Select the water evaporator by pressing the evaporator change over switch.

3) Set the condenser gauge pressure to between 700 and 11 OOkN/m 2 by adjusting the
condenser cooling water tlowrate.

4) Allow the unit time to reach a stable condition.

5) Record results on test sheet 1 and test sheet 2

Results

1) Plot the vapour compression cycle on the P-H diagram supplied.

2) Comment on the condition of the refrigerant (liquid/vapour) at each point.

3) Determine the specific enthalpy at each point from the graph. (Four points)

4) Carry out an energy balance for each of the following processes

.Evaporator:

Heat transfer from water source

Heat transfer to HFC 134a

Condenser:

Heat transfer to water

Heat transfer from HFC134a

Compressor:

Heat transfer to water

 TEST SHEET J<>
Specimen

HFC134a Gauge Pressure ~\\ r;ompressor 145

suction
PI 1 leN m- 2

HFCl34a Absolute" Pressure at compressor

suction PI 1 leN m· 2 250

HFCl34a Gauge Pressure at compressor

discharge PI/kN m· 2 651

HFC134a Absolute" Pressure at

P2/kN m· 2 756
compressor discharge

HFC134a Temperature at compressor

tl/OC 2.4
suction

HFC134a Temperature at compressor

discharge lz 1°C 64.2

HFC134a Temperature of condensed liquid t) 1°C 27.2

HFC134a Temperature at expansion valve
outlet 41°C -4.1

*Absolute pressures, Le. gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure.

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 TEST SHEET 2..

OBSER VAnONS Date:

Atmospheric pressure: l.05 Bar = 105 leN m- 2 Heat Source: Aj.f

Water
Atmospheric temperature: (delete)

Test I 2 3 4 5 6

Electrical input to
Electrlcd W / Watls 470
compressor

Mass flow rate Ill, Ig sol 5.5

Compressor suction
p. I kN m- 2 148
gauge pressure

Compressor suction
p.1 kN m- 2 253
absolute pressure

Condenser gauge
P21 kN m-2 1180
pressure

Condenser absolute
P2/ kN m- 2 1285
HFCl34a pressure

Compressor suction
tt / DC -1.4
temperature

Compressor delivery
~ I DC 80.0
temperature

Condensed liquid
~ / DC 44.8
temperature
'.

Evaporator inlet
~ I DC -4.2
temperature

Mass flow rate rh,,1 g sol 7.0

Water
Compressor Inlet temperature ~ / DC 13.0
Cooling
Outlet temperature t"fC 16.4

Mass flow rate rh,,1 g S·I 7.0

Water
Inlet temperature t"fC 16.4
Condenser
Coollng
Condenser outlct
LtI"C 49.8
temperature

Mass flow rate rh.1 g S-I 11.5

Water
Source Inlet temperature . ~ I DC 13.0
Evaporator
Outlet temperature 101 DC -1.2
 Air and Water Heat Pump R831
Condenser Evaporator
PresslXe Temperature Pressure
HgtI Pressure Indicator
0
~
Cut-Out

o
lsolaHog Valve Pawer Heter
Thermostatle Solenoid
Normal! y Open Expansion Valve
Valve
Evaporator

~
Condensed Evaporator '0 Water
Liquid
o Wate1
ReceJver Changeover
g Flowmeter 18 Solenold

1
Switch Valve

o AIr
Refrigerant
Flowmeter
••
IF"-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'"'-'-'-~..:J

- Non-Return
Valve
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~~
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Water
Filter
Compressor I6 (InternaD
COoling Waste Water
Coil Drain

Cooling Water
Inlet
 Fig 1 below shows the main components of a standard vapour compression cycle. The
changes in thermodynamic propertie::: of the refrigerant and the cycle of events are
detailed below
-Qcooo.to ,oem

Expansion valve
or .
capillary tube

Qevap from cold

refrigerated space

Figure 1.

Process 1-2. Compression - dry saturated vapour enters the compressor where it is
compressed increasing its pressure and temperature

Process 2-3. Condensation - cooling of hot vapours at constant pressure. Heat

rejected by the refrigerant

Process 3-4. Expansion - Simple throttle valve expansion form high to low
pressure. Constant enthalpy process

Process 4-1. Evaporation - Heating of liquid at constant pressure. Heat supplied

from cold sources

These processes and the corresponding thermodynamic properties are shown on the
following P-h diagram Fig 2.

Under-
~
rl-----t......;2

h j = h. h
Enthalpy I( kJ Ikg)
r=fh, ~h·)I~1
(hl-h,)

Figure 2