LOCOMOTION AND SUPPORT

Movement – change in the position of any part of

an organism's body but it does not necessarily
involve locomotion
• Multicellular organisms have soft and collapsible
body tissues which need to be held in a rigid
frame and be supported
• Skeleton provide support for the body
• Three type of skeletons :
– Exoskeletons(outside of the body)
– Endoskeleton (internal)
– Hydrostatic skeleton (made of fluid)
 Exoskeleton
• Support the internal organs and protect the
internal structures from damage
• Insects, crustaceans
• exoskeletons/cuticle – covered with wax –
prevent water loss
• Flexible and thin at the joins
• Incapable of growth
• To increase size – exoskeletons have to be
shed periodically – ecdysis
Endoskeleton
- vertebrates
- framework made of bones and cartilage
- attach with muscle
- functions :
- maintain body shape
- supporting soft body tissues
- protecting internal organs
– Store minerals – calcium, phosphorus
– Produce blood cell
Hydrostatic skeleton
- soft bodied organisms – earthworms, Hydra, sea
anemones
- consist of internal fluids within the confined
spaces of the body
Human skeleton
- two main parts :
1. axial skeleton
- skull, vetebral column, ribs, sternum
2. appendicular skeleton
-pectoral girdle, humerus, ulna, radius, pelvic
girdle, tibia, fibula
Skull
- cranial bones -enclose and protect the brain
- facial bones – protect and provide support for
the entrances to the digestive and respiratory
system
- suture – held the bones which make up the skull
- jaw – freely moveble
Ribs and sternum
- thoracic cage consist of ribs and sternum
- protect the organs inside the thoracic cavity and
upper abdominal cavity
- twelve pairs of ribs
- sternum located in the centre of the anterior
thoracic wall
Vertebral column
- functions :
1. encloses and protect the spinal cord
2. supports the head
3. point of attachment for ribs, pelvic, girdle,
muscle
- consist of 33 vertebrae :
- 7 cervical vertebrae
- 12 thoracic vertebrae
- 5 lumbar vertebrae
- 5 sacral vertebrae
- 4 caudal / coccyx vertebrae
- cervical, thoracic, lumbar – movable
- sacrum, coccyx – not movable
- intervertebral discs – permits movments of
vertebral columns, absorb vertical shock
The vertebrae
- consist of centrum, vertebral foramen, processes
- spinal cord goes through the vertebral foramen
Spinous process

Transverse
process

centrum Vertebral foramen

 Thoracic vertebrae

Spinous process

Transverse
process

centrum Vertebral foramen

Vertebra atlas (serviks pertama)
Cervical vertebrae
Vertebra aksis (serviks kedua)
• Transverse foramen – contains blood vessel
and nerves
 Thoracic vertebrae

Transverse Transverse
process process

Vertebral
foramen
• Spinous and transverse processes – points of
attachment for muscle and ligaments
Lumbar vertebrae
• Lumbar vertebrae – the largest and strongest
verterbrae
• Large centrum to withstand weight of lower
back
Sacrum and coccyx

sacrum

coccyx
The appendicular skeleton
-
Pectoral girdle clavicle

scapula

humerus

ulna

radius

carpals
metacarpals

phalanges
The structure of a joint
- the place where two or more bones meet
- the bones are helds together by ligaments
(tough elastic fibres)
- ligaments – allow bones to moves and prevent
dislocation of the joint
• Synovial joint– a joint which has a cavity filled
with fluid
– Freely movable
– Synovial membrane secrete synovial fluid
(lubricants – reduce frictions between the bones)
 Articulating bone

Synovial
Synovial joint contains membrane
Synovial fluid

Joint capsule

Articulating bone
cartilage
– End surface of the bones are covered with cartilage
• Cushions
• Absorb shock
• Reduce frictions
 Knee joints
• Swing back and forth
• Movement of bones in one plane
• Found in elbows, knee, phalanges of the
fingers and toes
Ball and socket joints
- allows rotational movement of bones in all
directions
- examples: shoulder joints, hip joint
Hinge joint
Tendons
- join skeletal muscles to the bones
- tough, strong, inelastic strands of connective
tissue
Skeletal muscles
- function – voluntary movements of the body
- not attached directly to the bones
- muscle must work in pairs
- muscle can only pull
- a pair of muscle work together to allows
coordinated movement of the skeletal joints
– The pairs of muscles are called antagonistic
muscles
• When one muscle contract the other muscles relaxes
One muscle pulls the bone in one direction, and
the other pulls it in the opposite direction
 The muscles involved in walking
• Calf muscle contracts (right) and raises the
heel
A forward thrust produced by pushing the ball of
the foot (right) against the ground
Hamstring muscle contracts to pull the femur back
and bends the knee. The leg is raised

Hamstring
muscle
• Right foot losses contact with the ground, left
leg supported the body
Quadriceps muscle contracts, pulls the femur
(right) forward and extends the leg

Quadriceps
muscle
• When the extensions of the leg is completed,
the foot regain contact with the ground

•
• The weight of the body is now supported on the
right leg
 The structure of a muscle
• Skeletal muscle consist of :
– Mucle fibres
– Nerves
– Blood vessel
• Muscle fibre – long cylindrical cell
– Made up of myofibrils
• Myofibrils made up of protein filaments (actin and myosin)
• Skeletal muscle – voluntary muscle
– Has nerve ending that control its activities
-
contract in response to nerve impulses from the
nervous system
- require ATP for contractions
 Consequences of impaired
musculoskeletal system on
support and locomotion
• Muscle cramps
• Muscular dystrophy
• Osteoporosis
• Arthritis
 The mechanism of locomotion in
animals
Animal with a hydroststic skeleton
- earthworm
- the force of contraction is applied to a fluid filled
cavity called coelom
-
- coelom surrounded by two antagonist muscle
- circular muscle
- longitudinal muscle
Locomotion in an earthworm
- circular muscle contract, the longitudinal muscle
relax. The earthworm becomes thinner and
longer
-
longitudinal muscles contract the circular
muscles relax. The earthworm becomes
shorter and thicker
• The circular and longitudinal muscles contract
and relax rhythmically to produce peristaltic
waves along the body
• Peristaltic waves begin at the front and moves
towards the end of the body
• Has chaetae which anchor parts of the body to
the ground
keta
 Locomotion in animal with
exoskeleton
• Has antagonistic muscle
• The flexor and extensor muscles are attached
to the interior surface of the exoskeleton
• Flexor – muscle that bend joint
• Extensors – muscles that straighten the joint
Locomotion
- walk – use three legs to support it body off the
ground, the other three legs move together to
make successive steps
- when flexor muscle in the upper part of the leg
contracts, the lower leg is pulled towards the
body
- jump – flexor muscles contract (relax position ),
the hind leg is folded in the shape of z and the
grashopper is poised for a jump
- extensor muscles contracts, the leg jerks
backwards, propelling the grasshoppers
forward and upwards into the air
 Locomotion in an animal with an
endoskeleton
• Fish
• Most of the body supported by water
• Problem – water resistant
To reduce water resistant :
• Streamlined body
• Overlapping scales
• Slimy coating
• Vertebral column– flexible, move from side to
side
• Myotome muscles ( W shaped) – at each side of
the body
– Myotome muscles carry out opposite actions
– When the muscles on one side contract, the other
side relax
– The alternating waves of contraction and relaxation
pass down the myotomes on either side of the body
from head to tail
– Different parts of the body sweep from side to side
• Problem :
– Yawing (sideway movement)
– Pitching (vertical plane movement)
– Rolling ( transverse plane movement )
• Yawing and rolling – median fins (dorsal, ventral
fins)
• Pitching – resisted by pelvic fins, pectoral fins
(brakes, rudder)
• Many bony fish have swim bladders – maintain
bouyancy
– Change its bouyancy so that it has the same density
as surrounding water
Ways to care for musculoskeletal
system
Ways to care for the musculokeletal
ystem
• Following a balance diet:
– Taking adequate amount of calcium, phosphorus
– Food rich in calcium
• Having a good posture
– The position of the body and the way a person holds
his body
– Sitting– sit back on the chair, hips well up
against the back back of the chair
- weight of the entire body on the
thigh muscles
– Lifting or carrying objects
• Place feet shoulder apart
• Bend the knees, keep the load close to the centre of the
body
• Lift gardually and smoothly without jerking
– Standing
• Head, backbone, hips, legs should be aligned so that the
person is balanced
• The muscle carry little weight and keep the body balanced
• Using proper attire for daily activities
– Running shoes for jogging
– Do not use stilettoe
– Wear loose and comfortable clothing
• Taking precautions during vigorous activities
– Stretching exercise
– Warm up
– Keep the body adequately hydrated
– Drink fruit juice or sport beverage if working in hot
weather
• Practising correct and safe exercise technique
 Support in aquatic and terrestrial
plants
• Aquatic plants
1. submerged plants – hydrilla sp.
-very thin, narrow and flexible leaves – little
resistant to water flow
-
-have air sacs within leaves and stem which
keep the plants afloat to get sunlight
- have no woody tissue, because water provide
enough support
2. floating plants
- water hyacinth
- broad leaves – firm, flexible – can withstand
wave action
-
 - have aerenchyma tissues – in the stems and
leaves
- spongy tissues with large air space – provide
buoyancy

Aerenchyma
Tissue
3. Terrestrial plants
a) herbaceous plants
support – tissue modification – turgidity of the
parenchyma and collenchyma cells
- thickening of the cell walls with cellulose and
pectin in the collenchyma (mechanical strength)
 epidermis

Thick wall
Collenchyma cells
b. woody plants
- support – provided by the sclerenchyma and
xylem
sclerenchyma tissues –have secondary cell walls
that lignified
- thick, rigid non stretchable cell
walls
- two types of sclerenchyma
(a) fibres - around the vascular tissues
(b) sclereids – in fruits and seeds
- Xylem vessels and tracheids – thickened with
lignin
-
early development of the xylem vessel is called
primary xylem
- as plants grow, the primary xylem will
die and becomes wood
• Special structural adaptations
– Tropical trees – buttress roots
– Creepers, vines, lianas (rattan) – use other tree for
support
 Support in plants

Aquatic plants Terrestrial plant

Submerged Floating Herbaceous Woody

plants plants plants plants

Thin, flexible Broad leaves

leaves trugidity Thickening
aerenchyma of cell walls
air sac
with cellulose,
pectin

Sclerenchyma, xylem
and tracheids thickened
with lignin, special
adaptations