REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

• Reproduction is necessary to ensure :

– The continuation of the species
– The passing down of gene's to future
generations
• Two types of reproduction:
• 1. Sexual reproduction
• 2. Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction :
– The creation of offspring through the fusion of
haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote
(fertilised egg)
• Asexual reproduction:
– The reproductive process process in which
new individuals are produced without the
formation of gamete
– Do not involve the fusion of haploid gamete
Sexual reproduction
- involving gamete
- gamete formed by meiotic
division
- inherit genes from both
parent
- offsprings are genetically
different
- present in complex
multicellular organisms
Asexual reproduction
- does not involving
sex cells
- relies on mitotic division
- get genes from one
parent
- present in unicellular
organisms
- offsprings are genetically
identical to the parent
 The male reproductive system
• Consist of :
– Gonads that produce sperm, sex hormones
–
– Accessory glands – secrete fluid that needed
for sperm movement
– Duct – carry sperms and secretion
Testis
- enclosed in scrotum
- temperature 2-3 C lower than body
temperature
-
- ideal for development of sperm
• Sperm are formed in the seminiferous
tubules and mature inside the epididymis
 The movement of sperm

Semineferous epididymis Vas deferens

tubule
Seminal
vesicle secrete
fluid containing
nutrients for sperm
Prostate gland
secrete milky
white fluids that
increase the mobility
urethra
of the sperm
• Semen – sperm + secretion from
accessory gland
Sperm formation in human
- spermatogenesis ( spermatozoa formation)
take places in seminiferous tubule
 Seminiferous
tubule

Geminal epithelial
Sertoli cells
cells
 Germinal epithelial
cells divide by mitosis
to produce diploid
spermatogonia
mitosis

Spermatogonia grow to
mitosis become primary
spermatocytes
spermatogonia

Spermatocytes undergoes
meiosis I to form 2 haploid
Primary spermatocyte secondary spermatocytes

Secondary Secondary spermatocytes

spermatocyte undergoes meiosis II to
produce spermatids

Spermatids
spermatogonia

Four spermatids are formed

for every primary
spermatocyte
Secondary
spermatocyte
Spermatid mature into
sperms through cell
differentiation
 spermatogonia

Primary spermatocyte

Secondary
spermatocyte

Spermatids

spermatozoa
The female reproduction system
Ovum formation in humans
• Ovum – one cell
• Oogenesis – process that develop ovum in
an ovary
Oogenesis
- Process that formed oocytes
- Begins before female foetus birth
• The germinal epithelial cells multiply by
mitosis to form diploid oogonia
• Oogonia grow to form primary oocytes
(2n)
Meiotic events Oogonium Follicle development
2n 2n In an ovary
mitosis
oocyte
2n
growth
Primary oocyte in
2n Primary follicle

childhood Primary follicle

2n

Meiosis I Secondary follicle

Graafian follicle
First polar Secondary oocyte in
body Graafian follicle
n
ovulation
Meiosis II Ovulated
Graafian
follicle
Secondary
n n Meiosis II oocyte
• Foetal development (until before puberty)
– primary oocytes undergo meiosis but
stop at prophase I of meiosis
Meiotic events Oogonium Follicle development
2n In an ovary
2n
mitosis
oocyte
2n
growth
Primary oocyte in
2n Primary follicle

childhood Primary follicle

2n

Meiosis I Secondary follicle

Graafian follicle
First polar Secondary oocyte in
body Graafian follicle
n Meiosis II

ovulation
Ovulated
Graafian
follicle
Secondary
n n oocyte
• Puberty – a few primary oocytes become
active and meiosis resume
• Primary oocyte – surrounded with follicle
cells that nourish the developing oocyte
and secrete female sex hormones
• Primary follicle – primary oocyte + other
» accessory
Ovulation
• Only one primary follicle matures
completely
• Diploid primary oocyte completes meiosis
I to form haploid cells which are not equal
in size
– The smaller cells is called first polar body –
degenerates and leaves the body
–
– The larger cells becomes a secondary
oocytes
• Secondary oocyte surrounded with layer
of follicles are called secondary follicle
 • The secondary oocytes starts meiosis II
•

Meiosis II

Meiosis II
 • First polar body may complete meiosis II
to form two polar bodies

Meiosis II

Meiosis II
• Secondary follicle starts to grow in the
follicle –increase its size and mature –
becomes Graafian follicle
•
• Graafian follicle merges with the wall of
ovary
• The release of secondary oocyte from the
ovary – ovulation
•
• If sperm penetrate the secondary oocyte
during fertilisation – meiosis II will be
completed
• The larger cell is the ovum, the smaller
cell is the second polar body

Secondary oocyte
 Oogonium
2n
mitosis
oocyte

growth
Primary oocyte in
Primary follicle

childhood Primary follicle

2n

Meiosis I Secondary follicle

Graafian follicle
First polar Secondary oocyte in
body Graafian follicle
n
ovulation
Ovulated
Secondary
n n oocyte
 The role of hormones in the
menstrual cycle
• Menstrual cycle is the cyclic changes that
occur in the endometrium of the uterus to
prepare it for a fertilised ovum and its
subsequent development
• Ovarian and menstrual cycle occur at the
same time
• Both regulated by hormones
 Hormones involve in menstrual
cycle
Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH)
- Secreted by pituitary gland
- Stimulates the development of follicles in
ovary
Luteinising hormone (LH)
- Secreted by pituitary gland
- Stimulates ovulation
-
Stimulates the development of corpus
luteum
Promotes the secretion of progesterone
Oestrogen
- Secreted by follicle cells
- Stimulates further growth of the follicles
-
Promotes the repair of the endometrium
Has positive feedback action on the
secretion of FSH and LH
Progesterone
- Secreted by corpus luteum
- Stimulates the endometrium to become
thick, folded and highly vascular for
implantation of embryo
• Inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH to
prevent the development of Graafian
follicles and ovulation
 The relationship between hormonal levels, and the
development of follicles, ovulation and changes in the
thickness of the endometrium

• Menstrual cycle – 28 days cycle

• The lining of the uterus becomes thicker
with more blood vessels in preparation for
the implantation of a zygote
• If fertilisation does not occur the uterine
wall breaks down
• Menstruation – the breakdown of the lining
of the uterine wall and the discharge of
blood, epithelial tissues and mucus
through vagina
• The first day of a woman’s menstruation is
the first day of the menstrual cycle
• Menstrual flow – 3-5 days
• Days : 0-7
• Gonadotrophin releasing hormone
secreted by the hypothalamus
– Stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH
and LH into the bloodstream
– FSH stimulates the development of the
follicles
– The follicles secrete oestrogen
2

5
1

7
4

3
 Days : 0-7
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone
Secreted by the hypothalamus Stimulate the pituitary gland
to release FSH and LH

FSH stimulate development

Oestrogen stimulate of follicles
-repair and growth of the
Uterine lining
-Continued development Follicles cells secrete
-of the follicle oestrogen

Follicle mature, secretes Beginning of the development

greater amount of oestrogen Follicles produce small amount of
Oestrogen

FSH and LH level

low
Low oestrogen exerts negative
Feedback on pituitary gland
 Days : 8-14

Level of oestrogen rise

Stimulates the hypothalamus
In the 12 day
and pituitary gland

Exert a positive feedback

On hypothalamus
- Increase secretion of GnRH
The level of progesterone
Still low
High GnRH
-Stimulate the secretion of FSH
and LH
LH stimulates
-Completion of meiosis I (changing primary
oocyte Into secondary oocyte )
Peak of oestrogen is followed by
- Ovulation (14th )
Peak of FSH
-remaining follicle tissues develop into
and LH
Corpus luteum
estrogen
 Days : 15-21

Corpus luteum secretes small

amount of oestrogen, high
amount of progesterone Negative feedback

Oestrogen and pogesterone

Inhibits the hypothalamus and
pituitary gland
to secrete FSH and LH

Prevents development of more

Follicles and ovulation
Changes of endometrium
In preparation for implantation
Stimulate the development of
uterine wall (thicker), more folded,
highly vascular
 Days : 22-28

Corpus luteum disintegrate

Fertilisation does not occur

Level of oestrogen and

Progesterone drop
Development of new
follicles and start of new
cycle Endometrium breaks down and
disintegrate
GnRH stimulates the release of
FSH and LH
The shedding of blood and
tissues, lining of the uterus
discharged through vagina
GnRH is released
again by hypothalamus

Reduce level of Menstrual flow

Oestrogen and on 28th day
progesterone no longer
inhibits hypothalamus
and pituitary
-If fertilisation occurs the corpus luteum will not degenarate

-Levels of progesterone and oestrogen continue to rise

-Uterine wall continue to grow

• Corpus luteum continue to secrete
oestrogen and progesterone 2-3 months
after fertilisation
• Corpus luteum degenerate and palcenta
will produce oestrogen and progesterone
• Progesterone inhibits the secretion of FSH
and LH that stop menstrual cycle and
ovulation
 hypothalamus
Positive feedback Negative feedback
Mechanism mechanism

stimulation inhibition
Pituitary gland
Increase in
Increase oestrogen Progesterone,
FSH
At midcycle stimulates Oestrogen after
LH secretion LH Ovulation inhibit FSH, LH
secretion

Growing Corpus
follicle luteum

Progesterone
oestrogen & oestrogen
Ovulation
Premenstrual syndrome
- Cyclical disorder of severe physical,
mental and emotional distress
- 5-11 days before the start of menstruation
• Could be due to imbalance in the
oestrogen and progesterone level
Menopause
- Menopause is a time when the menstrual
stop
- Ages 45-55 years
- Ovaries are less stimulated by FSH and
LH
• Inhibits the development of the follicles
and ovulation
– Lower secretion of progesterone and
oestrogen (irregular menstrual cycle )
– Menstrual cycle will finally stop
– Decrease bone density
• Women can no longer have babies
• Mood swings, sleeping difficulty, hot
flushes, depression, headaches
 Development of zygote
Fertilisation
- 500 million sperms are ejaculated into the
vagina
-
- Only one sperm is necessary to fertilise the
ovum
• Fertilisation – the union of the nuclei of a
sperm and an ovum
– In the fallopian tube
– Produce zygote
• Many sperm will attach to the surface of
the oocyte
– When a sperm penetrate the plasma
membrane of the secondary oocyte
–
– Fertilisation membrane forms on the surface
of the oocyte
– Prevent other sperms from entering the ovum
• Menstruation stops and nine month
gestation period starts
1. 36 hours after fertilisation
- Zygote divide repeatedly
- Travel along fallopian tube towards the
uterus
2. First division formed a two cell – embryo
3. Further division – solid mass of cells –
morula
4. 5th day – morula consist of 100 cells –
blastocyst
- reached the uterus – help by the cilia in
the fallopian tube
5. 7th day – blastocyst attaches itself to the
endometrium (implantation)
6. From the second month the embryo is
called – foetus
7. Foetus is enclosed in a membrane
( amnion)
- amnion fluid protects the foetus –
absorbing shock
• Trophoblast develop into the foetal portion
of the placenta
– The site of exchange of nutrients and wastes
between mother and foetus
• Inner cell mass develops into the embryo
trophoblast

Inner cell mass

 The formations of twins
• Twins are either fraternal or identical
Identical twins
- Formed when the ball of cells from a
fertilised ovum splits into two embryos
- Involved only one sperm and one ovum
– Two embryos develop into two separate
foetuses in the uterus
– Each foetus has its own umbilical cord
– Share the same placenta
Fraternal twins
- Two ova are released at the same time,
one from each ovary
- Each ovum fertilised by a sperm
- Two zygotes are formed – develop into
two separate embryos
• Both foetus have their own placenta and
umbilical cord
• Different genetic and physical
characteristics
Siamese twin
- Identical twins which did not separate
completely during embryonic development
- Attached at certain parts of the body
- May share common internal organs
- Can be separated surgically if do not
share major internal organs (heart, brain,
lung)
The functions of the placenta in
foetal development
• Placenta formed when the embryo is fully
implanted
•
Trophoblast develop into chorion and has
finger like projection
– Chorionic villi
– Project into the endometrium
– Gains nutrient from the uterine blood vessel
 Pool of maternal
blood
Foetal Chorionic Maternal
capillaries villi arteriole

Lining of Uterine
Foetal
uterus muscle
chorion
 Bhg dinding tebal yg
Berkembang jadi embrio

blastomer

blastosel

trofoblast
 korion

amnion

Tali pusat

Vilus trofoblast
(plasenta)
• Blood vesels of the chorion and mother
grow and expand together to form the
placenta
• Chorionic villi and uterine lining formed the
placenta
• Function of placenta:
– Site of the exchange of nutrients, gases and
wastes between the foetus and its mother
– Secretes oestrogen and progesterone that
maintain the thickness of the endometrium
• Placenta is connected to the foetus by the
umbilical cord
• Umbilical cord :
– One umbilical vein ( carry deoxygenated blood)
– Two umbilical arteries ( carry oxygenated
blood)
• The exchange of materials in the placenta
• Blood capillaries of the endometrium break
down and released blood within the
placenta
•
• Chorionic villi extend into these pools of
the maternal blood
• Numerous blood capillaries in the chorionic
villi provide large surface area for the
diffusion of materials
• Exchange of material occurs across the
thin membrane of the chorionic villi
– Nutrients, oxygen, antibodies, hormones are
transported through the umbilical vein from the
maternal arteriole into the foetus
–
– Carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste are
transported through the umbilical arteries from
the foetus into the maternal vein
 The advantage of separate foetal
and maternal circulatory system
• The blood capillaries of the foetus and the
mother's blood do not mix
•
This is important because:
– Prevent harmful bacteria and their toxin from
entering the foetus
This is important because:
– Prevent harmful bacteria and their toxin from
entering the foetus
– Prevent the mixing of blood groups of the
mother and foetus
– Ensure the fine blood vessels of the foetus do
not burst because of the high pressure by the
mother's blood
• Membrane of the capillaries and the
chorionic villi provide only partial protection
• Drugs, alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, HIV virus
are able to penetrate
• The contribution of science and technology
to human reproduction
contraception
- the practice of preventing pregnancy
- to ensure the mother's health and finance of
the family are not affected
Methods :
1. Preventing ovulation
2. Preventing sperms from fertilising the
ovum
3. Preventing the implantation of the embryo
in the uterine wall
4. killing the sperms
Categories of contraception methods:
1. Natural contraceptive methods
2. Male contraceptive method
3. Female contraceptive methods
Natural contraceptive methods:
- rhythm method
- avoid sexual intercourse during the
woman's fertile period
Male contraceptive methods:
1. Condom
- prevent sperms from entering the vagina
-protect against disease
2.withdrawal method
- penis is withdrawn from the vagina before
the release of semen
- prevents sperm from entering the vagina
during ejaculation
3. vasectomy
- sperm ducts (vas deferens) are tied and cut
in surgical operation
- irreversible method
Female contraceptive methods:
1. Diaphragm
- dome shape rubber cap inserted into the
vagina to cover the cervix
- stop sperms from entering the uterus
2. female condom/femidom
- thin sheath which lines the vagina
- prevents the entry of sperm
3. Intrauterine device (IUD)
– Plastic coated copper coil that is fitted into the
uterus by a doctor
– Can be used for two years
– Irritates the uterine lining thus preventing the
implantation of zygote
 TUBAL IUD
LIGATION

TUBAL
LIGATION
4. Spermicide
- chemical cream,gel or foam that is
applied to the vaginal wall before
copulation
- spermicide kill sperms ejaculated into the
vagina
5. Contraceptive pills
- pills with a combination of oestrogen and
progesterone (synthetic progesterone)
- inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH so
that follicle development does not occur
6. Contraceptive implant
- a capsule inserted below the skin of the
upper arm
- inhibits ovulation
7. Tubal ligation
- both fallopian tubes are cut and tied in an
operation
- released ovum cannot be fertilise by the
sperm
8. Depo-Provera injection
- injection of synthetic progesterone every
three month
- causes changes in the uterine lining that
interfere the implantation of a zygote
 Overcoming infertility
• Common cause of infertility :
1. Blocked fallopian tube
2. Failure of an embryo to implant itself on
the endometrium
3. Inability to produce ova
4. Blocked sperm duct
5. Low sperm count
• Methods to overcome infertility:
1. Artificial insemination
- sperm of men with a low sperm count
are collected over a period of time
- wife can be inseminated with the
husband sperm
- sperms is injected directly to the
fallopian tube
2. Sperm bank
- sperms are collected from donor and
stored in laboratory
- woman is inseminated by sperms
obtained from sperm bank
3. Surrogate mother
- sperm and ovum that are fertilised is
implanted to the surrogate mother uterus
- surrogate mother becomes pregnant and
foetus will develop in the uterus
4. In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
- immature ova is collected from the ovary
- ova is placed in the culture solution
- sperms from the father are added
- ovum and sperm fuse and develop
embryo
-
- 2-4 days – embryo reach eight cell stage
- inserted into the uterus for implantation
 Sexually transmitted disease
1. Gonorrhea
2. Syphilis
3. Genital herpes
4. AIDS
 Sexual reproduction in flowering
plants
• Flower is the reproductive organ of
flowering plant
• Basic part of a flower:
– Sepal
– Petals
– Stamens
– Carpels
• Normally flower has both male and female
reproductive structure
Stigma
• Male reproductive structures are stamen:
– Filament
– Anther – produce pollen grain
• Female reproductive structures are the
carpels
• Several carpels fuse to form a pistil
• Pistil consist of:
– Stigma
– Style
– Ovary
 The formation of pollen grains in
the anther
• Pollen grain are formed in the anther
• Anther has four pollen sac
• Each pollen sac – hundreds of pollen
mother cells (2n)
• Each pollen mother cells undergoes
meiosis to produce 4 haploid microspores
(n)
•
• Each microspores divides by mitosis to
form :
– Tube nucleus
– Generative nucleus
• Microspores develop into pollen grains
The formation of the embryo sac in
the ovule
• Ovule develop from the ovarian tissue
– Has a diploid embryo sac mother cell (2n)
– Protected by integuments
• Embryo sac mother cell undergoes
meiosis
– Form 4 haploid cells (megaspores (n) )
– 3 megaspores die, 1 remain active
• Megaspores continue growing filling the
ovule
–
– Nucleus of the megaspores undergoes
mitosis three times
– Eight haploid nuclei form
• Three of the eight nuclei migrate to one
end of the cell to form antipodal cells
–
– Another two nuclei ( polar nuclei ) move to the
centre
–
– One of the three nuclei nearest the opening of
the ovule (micropyle) develop into egg cell
(female gamete)
- Another two cells is called synergid cells
• The structure formed is the embryo sac
• The ovule will becomes seed
ovule

Embryo sac
Mother cell (2n)
 The formation of the pollen tube,
zygote and triploid nucleus
• Pollination – the process in which mature
pollen grains from the anther are
transferred to the stigma of a flower
Pollination agent
• A pollen grain on a stigma initiates the
fertilisation process
•
• Secretion of sugar solution in the stigma
stimulates the pollen grain to germinate
and form a pollen tube
• Pollen tube grows down the style towards
the ovule
– Generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form
two male gamete nuclei
• The male nuclei follow the tube nucleus
down the pollen tube
• The pollen tube penetrate the ovule
through micropyle
• Tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of
the tube bursts leaving a passage for the
male nuclei to enter
• Double fertilisation
– One male gamete nucleus fuses with the egg
nucleus – diploid zygote (2n)
– Other male gamete nucleus fuses with two
polar nuclei forming a triploid nucleus (3n)
• Triploid nucleus give rise to the
endosperm
• The synergid cell and the antipodal cells
degenerate
• The synergid cell and the antipodal cells
degenerate
 The development of seed and fruit
after fertilisation
• After double fertilisation:
– Zygote multiplies by mitosis to form an
embryo
–
Embryo divides and differentiate to form radicle,
plumules and cotyledon
• Integuments form the seed coat (pericarp)
– Protect the embryo and endosperm
• Triploid endosperm cells divide and
develops into – endosperm
• Provides nutrients to the embryo
• The ovule develop into seed
– Multiple ovules develop into multiple seeds
• Ovary enlarge and develops into fruits
Multiple seeds
Cross section of a seed
The importance of double fertilisation
for the survival of flowering plants
• Ensures the genetic information is passed
down to the next generation
•
• Male gamete and female gamete formed
through meiosis cause variations –
survival of the species
• Endosperm provides food for the
developing embryo during germination
• Ovary which develop into fruits protect the
seeds and aids in dispersal of the seed
 Growth in multicellular
organisms
Growth
- Irreversible process, increase size, body
mass, number of cells
Development
- Changes in shape , function and degree
or complexity that accompany growth
- Involves qualitative changes associated
with differentiation and specialisation
 The process of growth

Cell division stage

Size and volume of cells increase through

Cell enlargement stage intake of water and other substances.
Involves vacuolation

Cell differentiation stage Cells become specialised, permanent with

Specific function
Primary growth in stem and root
Hujung pucuk tumbuhan
 Zone of cells division

Zone of elongation

Vascular tissues
Beginning to Zone of differentiation
Form

Mature tissues
 Rambut akar

Jidal akar
 Zone of cell division
• Apical meristem contains meristematic
cells which divide actively by mitosis
• Increase in length of the stem
• Mersitematic cells :
– Large nuclesi
– No vacuoles
– Compact cytoplasm
– Thin cell walls
 Zone of elongation
• Cells elongate and expand by absorbing
nutrients and water via osmosis
• Vacuoles increase in size
 Zone of differentiation
• Cells differentiate into permanent tissues
such as:
– Epidermis, cortex, xylem, phloem
 The growth curve
• Growth in multicellular organisms can be
estimated by
– Length
– Height
– Volume
– Fresh mass
– Dry mass
• Advantages of measuring fresh mass:
– Easy
– No injury
– Can be done repeatedly
• Disadvantages of measuring fresh mass
– Inaccurate – water contents fluctuate
• Advantages of measuring dry mass:
– Accurate measurement
• Disadvantages:
– Kills the organisms
– Necessary to weigh many individuals to get
an average dry mass
 The sigmoid growth curve of an
organism
• When a growth parameter such as mass
or height is plotted against time a growth
curve is obtained
 Growth
Parameter

time
A
- Lag phase
- Slow growth rate
- Little or no cell division
- Adapt to a new food source
B
- Rapid growth phase (exponential phase)
- Active cells division and elongation occurs
- Size of organisms increase rapidly
C
- Slow growth phase
- Growth is limited by internal factor and
external factor
D
- Stationary phase
- A plateau on the growth curve
- Growth rate is zero
- Reached maturity
- Size remains unchanged
- Cells division occurs to replace dead cells
E
- Senescence and death phase
- Ageing and eventually death
 The growth curve of human
• Two phases of rapid growth
– Early infancy
– Adolescence
• There is a period of steady growth
 The growth curve of an insect
• Insect has exoskeleton
• Undergoes moulting or ecdysis during
growth
• Ecdysis – process of removing an old
skeleton and replacing it with a new larger
one
• Process of ecdysis
– A new skeleton forms below the old skeleton
– Old skeleton soften and its essential
resources are digested and reabsorbed into
the new skeleton
– The old skeleton splits and discarded
– Insect enlarges its body volume by swallowing
air or liquid until the new cuticle hardens
Ecdysis
begin
• The growth of an insect produce a series
of steps graph
• The graph shows an intermittent growth
• The horizontal parts indicate zero growth
• Vertical lines are the sudden growth spurts
(ecdysis)
• Insects moult five times before reaching
adulthood
• Each stage between moultings is called
instar
 Primary and secondary growth in
plants
• Most plants continue to growth throughout
their live
• Growth in plants :
• 1. Primary growth
• 2. Secondary growth
• Some plants live as annuals or biennials
• These plants have a normal sigmoid
growth curve
• The decrease in mass initially is due to the
breakdown of stored food to provide
energy for the formation of leaves and
roots
• When the leaves start to photosynthesis
growth continues in a sigmoid curve
• End of the growing period the mass of the
plant decreases when the seed are
dispersed before death
• Perennial – plants that live for many year
 Primary growth
• The growth of plants that occur after
germination
• Flowering plant – begin when zygote
develop into embryo
• The seedlings carries out primary growth –
forming non woody part of the plant
• Herbaceous plant only undergoes primary
growth
• During primary growth several process
occurred :
– Cell division
– Cell elongation
– Cell differentiation
• Primary growth begin when meristematic
cells undergo rapid cell division
• This is followed by cell elongation and cell
differentiation
• Cell differentiation lead to formation of
mature primary tissues
Flower Seed Non woody plant

Cell division, cell elongation,

Cell differentiation
 The importance of primary
growth
• Stem and roots increase its length – plant
achieve maximum height
• Vertical growth
– root reach deeper into the soil
– Shoot obtain optimum sunlight
• Formation of primary xylem
• Formation of primary phloem
• Supports for the plants
 Secondary growth
• The growth in the diameter of the stems,
roots and the trunks of plants
• Occurs in woody plants only
• Unlimited growth
• Continuous growth throughout their lives
• Their growth pattern shows an annual
series of sigmoid curves
 Secondary growth tissues
• When primary growth is complete
secondary growth continues in woody
plants
• Occurs in dicotyledons and small number
of monocotyledons
• Secondary growth is the result of cell
division in the lateral meristem of the stem
and the root
• Lateral meristem
– Vascular cambium
– Cork cambium
Vascular cambium begins
To divide actively through
mitosis
The vascular cambium joins to form
A complete ring
Layers of secondary xylem
Accumulate – becomes wood

Wood consist of :
-tracheid
-Vessel
-Fibres

These cells have lignified

Cells –provide mechanical
Support
 The cork cambium divides
Actively to form the outer
cork and inner secondary
Cortex

Mature cork cells – dead

-Have suberin – makes the
cork waterproof
Secondary
cortex Cork layer –forms a protective
Bark
-Minimise water loss
-Protect from weathering and
-infections
Secondary growth in a
dicotyledonous root
Vascular cambium in all bundles divides
Actively and join to form a complete ring

The cells of the cambium ring divide to

produce secondary xylem and secondary
phloem
Secondary phloem

Secondary xylem

Primary xylem

Primary phloem
 cork
Cork cambium

Medullary rays

Cork cambium produces secondary dermal tissues

Old roots with secondary growth function as an anchor and transport water
And mineral salts between the younger roots and the shoot system

Annual rings can be seen in the secondary xylem

• Temperate country
– Secondary growth is interrupt by winter and
vascular cambium become dormant
– Spring – favorable conditions
• Vascular cambium active form larger and thinner
wall xylem vessel
• More water transported for the new growth season
– Autumn
• Cambium less acti
• vessel xylem – narrower
» - more lignified
• Wood form in spring – spring wood
– Lighter colour
• Wood formed in autumn – autumn wood
– Darker
• Cross section of tree trunks shows pattern
of alternating light and dark region
– Annual growth ring
• Indicates the growth of a tree in one year
• Can determine the age of the tree
• Tree in tropical countries do not show
distinctive annual growth because there is
no seasonal climate
 The importance of secondary
growth to plants
• Increases the diameters of the plant stems
and roots for additional support
• Produce wood from the secondary xylem
• Produce more secondary phloem and
secondary xylem to accommodate the
demand of water, mineral and nutirent
 Annual
Cork Growth
cambium ring Medullary ray
cork
Primary
phloem
Secondary
phloem

Secondary
cortex

Vascular
Secondary Primary
cambium
xylem xylem