Comprehensive Exam

Sanjay Kumar
Comprehensive Exam
Spring 2009
Dept. of Asian and Comparative studies
Prof. Jim Ryan
Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy in the Yoga Tradition of Hinduism:
Linguistic, Archeological, Mythological and Textual Evidence
Introduction
What is Yoga –
In her book Yoga and Indian Philosophy Karel Werner states, “Any attempt at an
explanation or definition of Yoga necessarily involves going into the questions of its
origin and purpose and its relation to the development of man’s philosophical thought
and also his religious ideas and experiences.”1 Any examination into the essence and
development of Yoga brings up two crucial questions. The first is the controversy over its
origins. While no one doubts that Yoga is a system that has roots in India, there is no
unanimous agreement that it exclusively originated in India. While some advance an
autochthonous origin, others suggest a possible Central Asian or Indo-European
influence. Additionally, one needs to ask the question of the psycho-spiritual necessity
for the emergence of Yoga in human consciousness. If one adheres to the belief that Yoga
is a product of the human psyche, then how could it only be an Indian phenomenon?
Could Yoga be a possible universal development that has similar philosophical and
cultural manifestations throughout human history? If Yoga is truly an external
representation of a universal concept that has arisen from the collective unconscious, then
1
Werner, K. (1998). Yoga and Indian Philosophy (3 edition ed.). Motilal Banarsidass, 93.
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what makes Indian Yoga so unique when compared to other possible psycho-spiritual
practices?
Whatever the origins of Indian Yoga might be, it is first important to offer a
definition as to what is Yoga? This also produces its own challenges, as it will be
demonstrated the definition of what Yoga is dependent from which angle one looks at it.
However, a very broad and generally accepted definition of Yoga entails three basic
aspects.
1. A psycho-spiritual practice that “yokes” the individual to the Divine – this can
manifest as shamanism, ritual, asceticism, bhakti, goddess worship, physical
postures, meditation, chanting, etc.
2. Transformation in consciousness from an ordinary state to a supra-conscious
or transcendental state, experienced in either the mind or body.
3. To establish one’s place within the cosmic order.
As Werner further declares when discussing the challenges of delineating the history of
Yoga, “…it is not really proper to speak about a historical origin of Yoga. What is
perhaps possible is to try to trace historical sources of information about the occurrence
of Yogis and Yoga practice in the past in India, as far as historical research permits us to
do.”2 It is in this conceptual vein by which this paper adheres.
There exists a common presumption among many scholars of Yoga who prefer to
define it as an evolutionary process that originated from an ancient “proto-Yoga” and
eventually developed into the various styles that one witnesses today. Rather than looking
at Yoga from an “evolutionary/chronological” model, a better approach is to explore the
different ways in which Yoga has been conceptually identified, expressed and practiced
2
Ibid, 103.
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Comprehensive Exam
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Prof. Jim Ryan
throughout Indian thought as a totality. Doing so dispels the misconception that human
consciousness and thought were “less evolved” in ancient times or that Yoga philosophy
became “more advanced” as Indian culture continued. Therefore, rather than looking at
Yoga from an outdated, evolutionary approach, I examine it from a “stratiographic
analysis”.3 This stratiographic approach explores the various philosophical, linguistic and
religious strata within the Yoga tradition using multi-dimensional methods from
archeology, mythology, linguistics and the actual texts. Thomas McEvilley and Michael
Witzel take a similar approach when studying the complexities of the cultural, linguistic
and religious traditions of ancient India. McEvilley states,
“…yoga is a reflection of the stratification of different

cultural-psychological layers in Indian religions in general: a
composite primitive stratum of shamanic magic, totemic magic,
and agricultural magic; possible fresh shamanic input from Central
Asia at about the end of the second millennium B.C. (not to
mention other possible outside influences); an overlay of Vedic
ritualism in the middle Vedic period; and a general redefinition
under the influence of idealist philosophy in the following periods.
It must be emphasized that this mixing of elements cannot be
limited by a purely chronological scheme; the characteristic of
‘uneven development,’ which may be more pronounced in India
than anywhere else in the world, has allowed this interplay of
elements from various stages of religious history to continue to
renew itself down to modern times.”4
3
Jan Gonda used a similar stratigraphic approach toward Indian religion in his work Die Religionen
Indiens, vol. 1: Veda and ältern Hinduismus. Gonda, J. (1960).
4
McEveilley, T. (1981). Archeology of Yoga. Res , 1, 77.
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Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy in Hinduism and in Yoga –
The central hypothesis of this work is that the Yoga tradition, like Hinduism
itself, is a syncretism of many divergent and sometimes antithetical systems of thought
within Indian philosophy. These various philosophical schools within Yoga can be
generally divided into two encompassing categories – Vedic orthopraxy and “non-Vedic”
heterodoxy. What is today labeled as Hinduism is the result, over the course of
millennia, the merger of many different schools and traditions ranging from Vedic,
Vedāntic, Brahmanical, Tantric, Śaivaite, Bhakti, Śākta/Goddess, etc. The question
arises – is a similar stratification reflected within Yoga?
The earliest Indian text of the Ṛgveda suggests that there was a strong linguistic,
religious and cultural substratum and adstratum of indigenous languages, traditions and
philosophies that influenced the Indo-Aryan culture, which eventually resulted in the
development of the Vedic religion.5 The core features of the Vedic religion (sacrifice,
mantra and the observance of ṛta) became the backbone of Vedic and Brahmanical
orthopraxis. As Vedic religion and Brahmanism evolved and spread throughout the
Indian sub-continent, it incorporated (perhaps slowly and reluctantly) the religious
traditions and practices of the local and indigenous cultures that it encountered. Many of
these autochthonous traditions did not conform to the strict rules and regulations of Vedic
orthopraxis, and were seen as heterodoxy. Some (but not all) of these very early
heterodoxical religions might have included various forms of proto-Tantrism, proto-
Jainism, Shamanism, Śākta/Goddess traditions and Kashmir Śaivism. Over the course of
5
M. Witzel and A. Parpola have done considerable research in this area.
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several centuries, Vedic orthodoxy, perhaps recognizing the futility in “proselytizing” the
autochthonous practitioners of the indigenous religions, ultimately adapted and enfolded
the heterodox traditions into the predominant Brahmanical system.6 This eventual
mélange of Vedic orthopraxis and the “non-Vedic” heteropraxis resulted in what we
today know as Hinduism.
Similarly, within the context of the Yoga tradition there initially may have existed
a fundamental and contentious schism between the Indo-Aryan practitioners of Vedic
religion and the autochthonous “non-Vedic” practicing groups of ancient India. I propose
that elements of this division are evidenced throughout the corpus of the Yoga texts – in
both its practice and in its use of terminology. Just as a similar linguistic analogy exists
pointing to both Indo-Aryan and sub-stratum non-Indo-Aryan languages eventually
evolving into Sanskrit, a parallel situation perhaps occurred in the division and eventual
synthesis of the two strands of Yoga. In brief, ancient India witnessed a syncretism on
two fundamental levels –
1. Linguistic syncretism of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Muṇḍa and other possible
indigenous languages that led to the development of Vedic Sanskrit.
2. Religious/cultural syncretism from different magico-religious traditions (Indo-
European, Eurasiatic, Shamanism, Śākta, Tantric, Śaivism) spanning vast
geographic areas (Western Central Asia, the Indus Valley, the Hindukush and
the Gangetic Plains) that eventually merged over millennia to form Hinduism.
6
This very much parallels the rise of Christianity in the first few centuries C.E. as it encountered the
traditions of Pagan Europe. Rather than abolishing their customs, Christianity integrated them within the
religion.
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It is this same syncretism that also occurs in the Yoga system. Textual evidence
for the composite essence of religious practice, and possibly for Yoga, in ancient times
actually did exist as this passage from the Bhaghavāt Purāṇa explicitly indicates.
Śrī bhaghavān uvāca

na hyanto ‘nanta pārasya karma kāṇḍasya coddhavam
saṅkṣiptam varṇayiṣyāmi yathāvad anupurvaśaḥ
vaidikastāntriko miśra iti me trividho makhaḥ
trayāṇāmīpsitenaiva vidhinā mām samarcaret
(XI, 27, 6-7)7
“The Supreme Lord said, ‘There is indeed no end to the

innumerable prescriptions for acting [in Yoga]; so, I shall
in brief explain it one step at a time. One should properly
worship me by choosing one of the three kinds of processes
to sacrifice: the three of the Veda, the Tantric or mixed.”
In these two specific verses, it clearly states that there were three forms of acceptable
worship currently being practiced at the time of the Purāṇic texts. The first adhered to the
Vedic orthopraxis exemplified in the sacerdotal Brahmanical tradition of the three
“original” Vedas (Ṛg, Yajur and Sāma), another non-Vedic heteropraxis that was equated
with the Tantric (i.e. non-Brahmanical) schools and a third one that was a combination of
the two. It is the third form of praxis, miśra “mixed”, which eventually led to modern
Hinduism...and possibly to modern-day Yoga.
We now observe this similar distinction paralleled in the Yogic tradition. The
development of Yoga was the result of a syncretism between two competing forms of
religious praxis – the “Indo-Aryan” Vedic/Brahmanical religion (evident in the 3
traditional Vedas, Upaniṣads and the Bhagavād Gītā) and the
“indigenous/autochthonous” non-Vedic/Tantric traditions (observed in the Atharvaveda,
7
Translation by Anand Aadhar (http://www.srimadbhagavatam.org)
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Haṭha and Kuṇḍalinī texts). The third “mixed” form of worship alluded to in the above
passage from the Bhaghavāt Purāṇa is perhaps exemplified in the Sāṅkhya philosophy of
the Yoga Sūtra where one sees the hybridization of the two antithetical praxes codified
into one coherent system outlined in the “8 Limbs” of the Classical “Rāja” Yoga. I have
here tentatively summarized the division of the various texts into the three categories of
1) Vedic 2) Tantric and 3) Mixed.
VEDIC TANTRIC MIXED
Ṛgveda (Books 1-9); Ṛgveda (Book 10); Purāṇas

Yajurveda and Sāmaveda Atharvaveda
Brāhmaṇas; Āraṇyakas Śākta, Nātha, Kashmir Mahābhārata; Rāmāyaṇa
Śaivite Literature
Upaniṣads Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā Yoga Sūtra
Bhagavād Gītā Gherandha Saṁhitā;
Gorakṣa Samhitā
Space limitation prevents a discussion of the entire Hindu corpus of Indian
literature that pertains to the Yoga tradition. However, the present work focuses on the
following texts as evidence to support its central hypothesis - Ṛgveda, Atharvaveda,
Upaniṣads, Bhagavād Gītā, Yoga Sūtra and Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā.
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General Characteristics of Orthodox and Heterodox Yoga Systems -

Before delving into a deeper discussion of the divergent systems of Yoga evident
throughout the Hindu literary tradition, it will be helpful to outline some of the major
distinctions between the two in the following table.
(Author’s own categorization)
Orthodox “Vedic” Elements Heterodox “Tantric” Elements

of Yoga of Yoga
Traditions/Schools of • Vedic • Tantric
Philosophy • Vedāntic • Jain
• Brahmanical • Buddhist
• Ājīvika
• Śākta/Goddess
• Kashmir Śaivism
• Haṭha/Kuṇḍalīni Yoga
• Nāth
• Bhakti
• Ayurveda
Emphasis • Citta-sādhana - • Kāya-sādhana
Psycho-spiritual/non-corporeal Corporeal
• Enstacy • Ecstacy
• Transcendence/ Liberation • Transformation/Alchemy
• Mokṣā • Siddhiḥ
• Brahman/Ātman • Awakening of Kuṇḍalinī
• Dissolving māya, samsāra, avidyā • Creating Sukṣma śarīra
• Preservation of ṛta/dharma • Matriarchal/Matrolineal
• Patriarchal/Patrolineal • Fertility rituals
• Begetting male sons
Praxis • Abstinence/Celibacy – • Sexuality

brahmacarya • Meat/Alcohol/Entheogenic
• Austerity - tapas consumption done in non-ritualistic
• Sacrifice/ Ritual settings
– yajña • Bhakti Yoga
• Meditation – dhāraṇā, dhyāna,
svādhyāya, pratyāhāra
• Soma taken as part of
ceremony/ritual
• Mantra
• Karma/Jñāna Yoga
Practitioners • Ṛṣi/ Vipra • Muni
• Brahmin • Vrātya
• Yati
Mytho-poetic Features • Cosmic/Celestial • Chthonian
Animal Symbol • Cow • Snake
• Eagle
Vedic/Hindu Deities • Varuṇa • Śiva
• Mitra • Rudra/Śarva
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• Indra • Murungaṉ
• Soma • Goddess
• Āryaman
• Agni
• Brahma
• Viṣṇu
Overview –
The work begins by exploring the emergence of a possible nascent concept of
Yoga in the pre-Vedic Indus Valley culture(s). Since no actual texts exist from the Indus
Valley remains nor is there a definitive translation of the script, archeological evidence
will be used. The archeological artifacts suggest that a possible proto-Tantric concept of
āsana may have existed in the Indus Valley. However, contrary to what many scholars
have attempted to do, no definitive conclusions can be made - only inferences. The next
section explores the influence onto Yoga by the Indo-Aryan migrations from Western
Central Asia via the Hindukush. It is during this period of migration over the course of a
millennium into the Indian sub-continent that the Indo-Aryan language and religion
adopted many innovations in its vocabulary and mytho-poetic features unique to the
subsequent Vedic culture – such as sacrifice, ingestion of Soma in ritual, the names of
some of the major Vedic dieites and the oral composition of the earliest books of the
Ṛgveda. It is in this period of Indo-Aryan migration, which developed more fully in the
later Vedic and Upaniṣadic texts, that the possible pre-cursor of dhyāna, dhāraṇā and
pratyāhāra of Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra has its origin. Additionally, it is during the Vedic
period that encounters with the “indigenous/autochthonous” religions led to the clash of
ideologies between the Vedic and non-Vedic traditions, remnants of which are reflected
in the mytho-poetic tradition and language of the Vedas.
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The bulk of the paper explores in more detail the elements of the two different
Vedic orthodox and non-Vedic/Tantric heterodox aspects of Yoga, dedicating a section to
each of them supported by appropriate textual evidence. This is followed by an
examination of the eventual synthesis of the two systems culminating in the Sāṅkhya text
of the Yoga Sūtra, where elements of both Vedic orthodoxy and the Tantric heterodoxy
integrate into the system of Classical Yoga. Lastly, a brief linguistic discussion
hypothesizes that much of the vocabulary that one finds in the “Vedic orthodox”
components of Yoga have Indo-Aryan or Indo-European etymologies, while those from
the Tantric Yogic practices derive from non-Indo-Aryan (i.e. Dravidian and Muṇḍa)
sources and are largely absent from the earliest strata of Vedic Sanskrit. Due to space
limitation, this paper does not include the exploration of Yoga in the non-Brahmanical
religions of ancient India, i.e. Jainism and Buddhism.
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Timeline of the Texts
This table is taken from the author’s work The Sacred Language of Yoga.8
2000- 1000 B.C.E.9 Vedic Period - First scant references to yoga found. Certain
references to breath control, basic philosophy, and spirituality.
1000 B.C.E. Pre-Classical Yoga- The earliest Brāhmaṇas and Upaniṣads are
orally composed with many more early references to yoga,
philosophy, and spirituality.
500 B.C.E. Epic Period- Works like the Mahābhārata, Bhagavād Gītā and
later Upaniṣads are composed. Yoga as its own distinct
philosophy and practice begins to take shape and form. Krishna
reveals to Arjuna the three paths of yoga in detail - jñāna,
bhakti, and karma yoga. However still no mention of yoga as a
physical practice.
200 C.E. Classical Period- Patañjali writes the Yoga Sūtra (including the
eight limbs). Now one finds the backbone of most modern
forms of yoga, including current yoga philosophy known as rāja
yoga.
500 C.E.- 1900 C.E. Post-Classical Yoga- Many styles of yoga emerge based on
various elements of the Yoga Sūtra and the eight limbs. Several
schools of haṭha yoga begin to form and the basic poses get
established. The Haṭha Yoga Pradiīpikā is written around 1400
CE and the Gheranda Saṁhitā around the late 1600s.
1900-CE to present Modern Yoga- Various masters come to the United States and
other western countries and begin teaching yoga to a new
audience. Haṭha yoga is greatly influenced by the gymnastics
of the British empire and hybrid vinyasa styles of yoga are born
out of British occupation of India.
8
Kumar, J. (2008). The Sacred Language of Yoga.
9
Certain scholars cite other dates for the beginning of the Vedic Period going as far back as 4,000 BCE and
as late as 1,500 BCE. The dates that I provide here are according to my personal research on the matter and
are open to debate. Please also note that the Devanagari script was not used to write Sanskrit until around
200 BCE. Prior to this date all the major texts of Indian literature were orally composed, memorized, and
transmitted from generation to generation for nearly 2,000 years.
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Section One - Yoga in Pre-Vedic India
Despite the lack of any literary evidence and a definitive translation of the Indus
Valley language(s), scholars have speculated on the origins of Yoga dating back to pre-
Vedic history. Based on linguistic and mythological reconstruction, as well as
archeological evidence, there are two speculative origins of Yoga that scholars have
proposed – 1) Indus Valley, Shamanic and autochthonous Indians 2) Central Asian/Indo-
Aryan. Some notable scholars that adhere to each hypothesis are
1. Dhyansky, Eliade, Marshall

2. Allen, Filliozat
Indus Valley Origin of Yoga –

Mircea Eliade was one of the first Western scholars to explore the religious and
cultural origins of Yoga in his book Yoga, Immortality and Freedom. While his work
was pioneering for the time, his conclusion that Yoga originated in the Indus Valley
was based entirely on his assumption that the figurines and seals of the Indus Valley
represented individuals “unquestionably” in Yogic postures. In his book’s final
chapter “Yoga and Aboriginal India”, he admits the intimate relationship between
shamanism and Yoga. Furthermore, he concludes that the shamanistic elements of
Yoga and the origins of both Yoga and Hinduism have their common source in the
Indus Valley culture. He states,
“These facts can hardly be belittled, and their bearing is

immense. Between the protohistorical civilization of the
Indus and modern Hinduism there is no solution of
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continuity. The Great Goddess and the generic God (Śiva),
the cult of vegetation (the papal tree, so characteristic of
Hinduism) and phallism, the holy men in the āsana
position, perhaps practicing ekāgrata—then as now, they
are in the very foreground.”10
He further states,
“…Yoga constitutes a characteristic dimension of the
Indian mind, to such a point that wherever Indian religion
and culture have made their way, we also find a more or
less pure form of Yoga. In India, Yoga was adopted and
valorized by all religious movements, whether Hinduist or
‘heretical’.”11
Even though he adheres to an exclusive “Indus Valley” origin for Yoga, Eliade
takes a different approach toward Hinduism. He believes that Hinduism, unlike Yoga,
was the direct result of a long and arduous synthesis between the religious traditions of
the Indo-European migrants and of the indigenous “aboriginals”. Eliade states,
“Hinduism, as it has existed from the end of the

Middle Ages, represents the synthesis of these two
traditions, but with a marked predominance of the
aboriginal factors; the contribution of the Indo-Europeans
underwent a radical Asianization. Hinduism represents the
religious victory of the soil. Although the magical
conception of the world is more accentuated among the
Indo-Europeans, we may hesitate to make them the source
of the magical tendency present in the Yoga complex and
to give the entire credit for the mystic tendency to the
aborigines…In so far as Yoga represents a reaction against
ritualism and scholastic speculation, it adheres to the
aboriginal tradition and stands against the Indo-European
religious heritage…As we have pointed out, the absence of
the Yoga complex from the other Indo-European groups
confirms the supposition that this technique is a creation of
the Asian continent, of the Indian soil. If we are right in
10
Eliade, M. (1958). Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (Vol. LVI). (W. R. Trask, Trans.) New York:
Bollingen Series, 356.
11
Ibid, 359.
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connecting the origins of yogic asceticism with the
protohistorical religion of the Indus, we may justifiably
conclude that in it we have an archaic form of mystical
experience that disappeared everywhere else ”12
While Eliade is correct in his conclusion that Hinduism is the result of the
“synthesis of these two traditions” (i.e. the Indo-European and Indus Valley religions), he
outright rejects the possibility for a similar position to have occurred for Yoga. One
argument upon which he bases his conclusion is the noted “absence of the Yoga complex
from the other Indo-European groups.” While the absence of Yogic elements in Indo-
European religion is not yet conclusive, strong linguistic and mythological evidence does
suggest that elements of proto-Yoga were evident in Indo-Aryan religion. More on this
topic is discussed in a later section.
Indo-European/Indo-Aryan Origins of Yoga –

Although certainly not a view taken by the majority of scholars, Filliozat and
Allen take a contrarian stance to Eliade and advance a strictly “Indo-European” origin on
Yoga. Filliozat’s “scientific hypothesis” of Yoga repudiates any “pre-Aryan” influences
and argues that Yoga could conceivably have been an invention of the “Aryan
community”13 who were deliberately searching for psycho-spiritual and mystical
techniques through the ritualistic use of entheogenic substances, i.e. Soma/Haoma.14
12
Ibid, 360-361.
13
Although scholars previously used the terms “Indo-Aryan” and “Aryan” to denote an ethnic and racial
identification of the early Indo-European inhabitants of ancient India, it should be noted that today they are
strictly used in a linguistic sense. Both of these terms in this paper do not refer to a racial or ethnic
category, but a cultural and linguistic category that early Vedic people employed to define their specific
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Allen takes a much more specific perspective and claims that a shared component
of Yoga is found in the ancient Indian and Greek epics of the Mahābhārata and The
Odyssey, each pointing back to an “Indo-European prehistory” of Yoga. He follows
Dumézil’s approach by stating that many of the similar themes found in Arjuna’s and
Odysseus’ journey are reflections of a common Indo-European narrative of a proto-Yogic
hero. Allen believes that in the case of the Mahābhārata “Indo-European narrative
material [were] being transmitted orally throughout the Indo-Iranian period, bypassing
the Vedas proper, and only relatively recently reaching the form in which we now read
it.”15 Allen summarizes his beliefs by saying,
“…while others have wised to go further back still,

either vaguely to Indo-European or Asiatic shamanism or
more precisely to Mohenjodaro, to the pre-Āryan (that is,
pre-Indo-European) Indus Valley civilization (McEvilley
1981). A complex institution like yoga may draw on
multiple roots, and I do not wish to oversimplify. However,
I argue that some significant and fairly precisely
identifiable features of yoga go back to the culture of those
who told the proto-narrative—who, though, I do not argue
the point here, may well have been proto-Indo-European
speakers.”16
While Allen prescribes to the “Indo-European/Indo-Aryan” origins of Yoga, he does not
automatically reject any models of Yoga that conjecture influences from the Indus Valley
or from other sources.
customs and religion. Further discussion on this matter will follow in reference to the distinction between
“Aryan” and “non-Aryan”, those who were outside the purview of Vedic ritual and custom.
14
Filliozat, J. (1946). Les origines d'une technique mystique indienne. Revue Philosophique , 136, 220.
15
Allen, N. (1998). The Indo-European Prehistory of "Yoga". International Journal of Hindu Studies , 2
(1), 2.
16
Ibid, 3
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The Composite Hypothesis –
A third approach is to take a composite model – one that hypothesizes both
indigenous (Indus Valley; autochthonous religions) and Indo-Aryan (Central Asian; Indo-
European) elements within Yoga, of which a clear demarcation between the two is
evident in the later Yogic literature. It is this “composite” model that is the thesis of this
paper. While certain aspects of Yoga are clearly indigenous to India, manifest in the
Indus Valley artifacts, there is also evidence in the Tantric and Haṭha Yoga literary
traditions. Likewise, aspects of Yoga seen in the Vedic and Brahmanical literature
suggest possible Indo-Aryan origins. Furthermore linguistic evidence may support this
hypothesis of an “Indo-Aryan/non-Indo-Aryan” dichotomy within the Yoga tradition.
Section Two - Evidence of the Heterodox Yoga
Except for a few archeological remains, scant written evidence prevents a
complete picture of the religious practices and traditions of the Indus Valley
civilization(s). On the matter of the possible Indus-Valley (c. 3000 – 1700 BCE) origin of
Yoga, Indologists have based their claims on a handful of pictographic seals that depict
people (possibly both men and women) in what appear to be various positions resembling
yoga āsana. Many scholars have used the evidence of the Indus Valley seals to advance a
number of theories proposing that elements traditionally the domain of Patañjali’s
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“Classical Yoga” (āsana, dhārana, dhyāna, pratyāhāra) trace their origin to the
indigenous practices of the Indus Valley.
Here are some of the hypotheses that have been advanced over the past few
decades. We shall explore the validity of each of these, accompanied by their
corresponding counter-arguments. The most famous of these archeological artifacts are
pictured along with each argument.
Figures 1-2
Hypothesis 1 - The figures in the seal represent a “proto-Śiva/Rudra” in a seated
posture (āsana) in meditation dhyāna. (Marhsall; M. G. Bhagat17; Joseph Campbell18)
This is based on the following features on the seal.
17
Bhagat, M. G. (1976). Ancient Indian Asceticism. Delhi: South Asia Books, 99.
18
Campbell, J. (1962). The Masks of God: Oriental Mythology (1st ed.). New York: The Viking Press, 170.
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1. The “tripartite headdress”. The counter-arguments -
a. McEvilley points out, “Śiva himself is not presented horned in Indian
iconography. He is connected with the bull, but so are many other figures,
for example, the Buddha, who is often called the ‘bull of the Sākhyas’.”19
b. Additionally, Bhattacarya states that the tripartite headdress is not
exclusive to Śiva as it is also a common feature for the Devī in Her battle
against the Buffalo Demon.20
2. The figure is “three or four-faced” and is similar to other representations of Śiva,

most notably the “three-faced” statue of Śiva in the Elaphantine Caves on the
island just off Mumbai. The counter-arguments -
a. One can counter that this is inconclusive, as other Indian deities, such as
Brahmā, are also depicted with three or four faces.
b. Jaina iconography of the tīrthaṅkara, the four-faced motif that preaches in
each of the four directions, could exclude this as being a proto-Śiva motif,
and make it proto-Jain.21
3. The figure is surrounded by various animals, and therefore is Paśupati “Lord of

Beasts”, one of the epithets of Śiva. The counter-arguments -
a. Again, Jain iconography depicts beasts surrounding Yogic figures.22
b. Keay is even more suspect of this being a “proto-Śiva/Rudra” deity
saying,
“Rudra, a Vedic deity later identified with Shiva, is indeed

referred to as paśupati because of his association with
cattle; but asceticism and meditation were not Rudra's
specialties, nor is he usually credited with an empathy for
animals other than kine. More plausibly, it has been
suggested that the Harappan figure's heavily horned
headgear bespeaks a bull cult, to which numerous other
representations of bulls lend substance.”23
19
20
Bhattarcarya, N. N. (1996). History of Śākta Religion (2nd ed.). Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers, 82.
21
Jain, & Fischer. (1997). Jain Iconography, pt. 1: The Tīrthaṅkara. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers,
12.
22
Ibid, 12.
23
Keay, J. (2001). India: A History. Grove Press, 14.
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4. The figure bears an erect phallus and suggests connotations to Śiva’s liṅgam. The
counter-arguments -
a. Sullivan indicates that Śiva only begins to be associated with the phallus
around the last century B.C.E.24
b. The feature in question may not be a phallus but the tassel of a waistband
worn NOT by a male, but by a female! Sullivan takes a radical departure
from traditional interpretation of the Indus Valley seals by suggesting that
rather than depicting a “proto-Śiva”, they could represent a possible
goddess-based religion.
Figure 3 -
Hypothesis 2 – The bust is a male “king-priest” depicted in a meditative pose.

In his examination of the famous Mohenjo-Daro “male bust” figure, Ramprasad
Chanda was the first person to assert that the figure appears to have his gaze turned
downward toward his nose and concludes that this represents a form of Yogic meditation.
He states, “It was this trait of the stone head from Mohenjo-daro that lead me to identify
it as the image of a yogi, and to conclude that Yoga was practiced and images in yogic
24
Sullivan, H. P. (1964-5). An Re-examination of the Religion of the Indus Civiization. History of
Religions , 4, 120-121.
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postures were worshipped in the Chalcolithic period in the Indus Valley.”25 He
establishes this conclusion based on much later textual evidence within the Yogic
literature that cites the importance of this “eyebrow-gazing”, known in Yoga terminology
as bhrumadya-dṛṣṭi. I have personally located three such passages (two from both the
Bhagavad Gītā and one from the Haṭhayoga Pradīpika) that discuss this practice.
1. sparśān kṛtvā bahir bāhyāṁś cakṣuścaivāntare bhruvoḥ “Having expelled outside

contacts and the gaze between the two eyebrows…” (B.G. 5, 27)
2. samaṁ kāyaśirogrīvaṁ dhārayann acalaṁ sthiraḥ saṁprekṣya nāsikāgraṁ svaṁ
diśaścānavalokyan “Holding the body, head and neck upright, motionless and
steady, gazing at the tip of one’s own nose and not looking in any direction.”
(B.G. 6, 13)
3. yāvadṛṣṭir bhruvor madhye tāvatkālabhayam “as long as the gaze is in the middle
of the eyebrows, so then where is the fear of time (i.e. death)?” (HYP 3, 40)
While textual evidence of the above examples could support the assertion of this
figure performing a specific form of “Yogic gazing”, other explanations have been
suggested denying the assumption of this being a figure in meditation.
1. MacKay points out that other very similar figures have also been found in the
ancient Sumerian cities of Kish and Ur. Archeological evidence from both Sumer
and the Indus Valley has suggested an abundant trade relationship between the
two areas. Thus, it is also possible that this bust could be of Sumerian origin.26
2. Sullivan additionally astutely observes that “since the shell-inlay from both eyes
is missing” it is inconclusive to say where the figure is gazing.27
25
Ramprasad, C. (1932). Sind Five Thousand Years Ago. Modern Review , LII, 158.
26
MacKay, E. (1948). Early Indus Civilizations. Luzac, 53.
27
Sullivan, H. P. (1964-5). An Re-examination of the Religion of the Indus Civiization. History of
Religions , 4.
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Diffusionist Model –
There actually is another approach that will briefly be discussed in this overview
– the “diffusionist” approach of Yoga that advocates the importation of Yoga into India
via cultural and commercial exchange of the Indus Valley and Indo-Aryan cultures with
Greece, Mesopotamia and the Near East. Proponents of this hypothesis state that
characteristics of Yoga may suggest a cross-cultural model where the elements of Yoga
are evident in cultures throughout the world. Thomas McEvilley’s monumental work The
Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies (2001)
provides ample discussion on the matter. Just as the figure of the “male bust” above may
have suggested Sumerian influence, there are two archeological artifacts from the Indus
Valley seals that also point to a “cross-cultural” or diffusionist explanation.
1. The Gundestrup Cauldron
The figure on the left is an image from the Gudestrup Cauldron, which is
juxtaposed along side with the previous Indus Valley seal. One can immediately
recognize the remarkably similar configuration and details in both artifacts. While the
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Indus Valley seal comes from South Asia, the Gundestrup Cauldron was discovered in
1891 in a peat bog in Denmark. Even though it was located in Northern Europe,
metallurgical evidence concludes that it was likely forged in Thrace (Greek peninsula)
but bears Celtic motifs and iconography. Even though it dates from the 1st century B.C.E.,
almost 2,000 years later than the Indus Valley seal, some scholars have conjectured a
pan-Eurasian concept of proto-Yoga, probably in some “shamanistic” form that linked
the two cultures.28
2. Serpent Imagery in Yoga
Another pervasive element in certain forms of Yoga, most notably in the Tantric
traditions of Kuṇḍalīni Yoga, is the snake-imagery. The snake is depicted in iconography
throughout the world (not just India) as a symbol of healing, mysticism and regeneration.
Most notable is the intimate “trans-cultural” connection with the snake as a “chthonian”
(i.e. earth-based) motif in many indigenous cultures. This was perhaps the exact situation
in the earliest cultures of the Indian sub-continent prior to the arrival of the Indo-Aryan
people and their culture that ultimately led to Vedic religion. The following figure on the
left is from the Indus Valley29 along side a Sumerian image depicting a possible priest
flanked by two intercoiled serpents.
28
Taylor, T. (1992). The Gundestrup Cauldron . Scientific American .
29
http://media.photobucket.com/image/indus%20valley%20yoga%20seals/kachina2012/Symbols/11258AS
YMMETRYJosephCampbellINDUSVa.jpg
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With regard to these figures, another remarkable piece of information comes from
the Jain tradition. Although, space limitation prevents the significance of Jainism and
Yoga, it is noteworthy to mention that the predecessor of the Jain Mahāvīra, the
tīrthaṅkara Pārśva, was flanked on either side by two protective serpents during his final
transition into kevala. Some have interpreted the Indus Valley seal of the figure in the
middle of two giant serpents to suggest a possible proto-Jain hypothesis – that the
religion of the Indus Valley was proto-Jainism. Both the Gundestrup Cauldron and the
universal imagery of the snake motif in Indus Valley and other cultures could account for
elements of Indian Yoga being the result of diffusion. Although not a widely held
hypothesis, it does bear mentioning.
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Yogic Posture in Indus Valley Seals as proto-Tantic –
We now turn to the importance of the Indus Valley seals as a crucial point to the
central hypothesis of this paper – that the Indus Valley seals possibly represent a specific
form of Tantric (i.e. non-Indo-Aryan) Yoga. To date, there have been six different seals
discovered in the Indus Valley excavations that depict a figure in some form of a seated
position. While there are subtle variations in each of the seals, the one common motif
throughout all of them is the unique and nearly identical seated posture of the figure.
Earlier scholarship paid little attention scrutinizing the details of this seated position and
of discovering a possible equivalent within the repertoire of Yoga āsana. Recent interest
in attempting to identify the posture of the figure in the seal has brought a new
understanding into the development of Yoga in ancient India. There is now a general
consensus that the figure in each of the six seals is performing a Yogic posture known as
mūlabandhāsana – root-lock seated posture. Ordinarily, this would not have meant much
to early 20th century scholars who had little or no encounter with contemporary haṭha
Yoga. Below is a picture of Shree Krishnamacarya30, one of India’s most recognized
Yogins of the 20th century performing mūlabandhāsana31 accompanied once again by a
figure from the Indus Valley seals.
30
http://aysnyc.org/random%20image/krishnamacharya.jpg
31
Once more the connection to Jainism arises. After the Indus Valley seals, the possible next mention of
mūlabandhāsana comes from two of Jain’s most ancient texts, the Ākārāṅgasūtra and the Kalpasūtra.
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Figures 6 – 7
McEvilley stresses the significance of identifying the specific Yogic posture of
the seated figure in the seal by stating, “The question is an important one, for on it rests
the hypothesized connection of yoga with the Indus Valley.”32 What then is the exact
significance of this figure performing mūlabandhāsana to our discussion? It is the
position of the heels themselves – bringing the soles of the feet together, sitting on the
heels and then allowing them to come under the perineum, the location of the
mūladhāracakra. It is the mūladhāracakra that, according to the later Tantric literature of
the Haṭha and Kuṇḍalinī Yoga texts, stimulates the awakening of the vital life force of the
Kuṇḍalinī serpent33. This, in turn, endows the Yogin with siddhiḥ, the supernatural
powers of the body.
32
33
Note again the serpent motif connection between the Indus Valley seals and Tantric Kuṇḍalinī tradition.
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Possible Inferences from the Indus Valley Yogic Seals –
Based on all of the archeological evidence mentioned above, it is now possible to
infer the following points about the possible connection of the Indus Valley seals to
Yoga.
1. There was indeed some form of a seated posture, possibly

mūlabandhāsana, performed in some function (ritualistic or not) in the
Indus Valley culture.
2. The importance of certain animals in the religion – especially the
serpent.
3. The possible role of women and/or of the Goddess in Indus Valley
religious life.
These important features of the Indus Valley religion can now be seen to
share three identical characteristics with Tantric Yoga –
1. The importance of the physical posture mūlabandhāsana as a vehicle

for mastering the body and becoming a siddha.
a. This is a key component and one of the most important āsana in the
Haṭha Yoga tradition.
b. This is evident in the following two verses from the Haṭha Yoga
Pradīpikā –
pārṣṇibhāgena saṁpīḍya yonim ākuñcayedgudam | apānam
ūrdhvam ākṛṣya mūlabandho bhidhīyate ||
“Press the perineum with the heel. Contract the anus. Draw
upwards the apāna breath. This is called mūlabandha. (Haṭha
Yoga Pradīpikā, III 61)
tena kuṇḍalinī suptā saṁtaptā saṁprabudhyate |

daṇḍāhatā bhujaṅgīva niśvarasya ṛjutām vrajet ||
“Due to this heat [caused by mūlabandha], the sleeping kuṇḍaliniī
is awakened, hissing and straightening like a snake struck with a
rod.” (Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā III, 68)
2. The serpent repesents the vital power that resides in the

mūladhāracakra.
a. This is the foundation of both Haṭha and Kuṇḍalinī Yoga.
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b. This is again evident in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā, Gheranda
Saṁhitā and Gorakṣa Saṁhitā –
saśaila vana dhātrīṇām yathādhāro ‘hināyakaḥ |

sarveṣām yogatantrāṇām tathādhāro hi kuṇḍalī ||
“As the Lord of Serpents supports the earth with its mountains and
forests, so the Kuṇḍalī supports all Tantra Yoga practices.”
(Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā, III,1)
3. The important religious role of women and the Goddess abounds in the
Śākta, Kashmir Śaivist and Bhakti traditions throughout India
a. Although this is a feature evident in numerous Hindu texts, it is not
very predominant in the Vedic/Brahmanical literature.
b. Textual evidence of the power of the feminine Śakti in Haṭha Yoga
kandordhvam kuṇḍalī śaktiḥ suptā mokṣāya yoginām |

bandhanāya ca mūḍhānām yastām vetti sa yogavit ||
“The Kuṇḍalī Śakti, sleeping above the kanda, liberates yogis and
binds the ignorant. He who knows Her, is a knower of Yoga.”
(Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā, III,107).
None of the unique Indus Valley/Tantric Yogic traits (āsana, siddhiḥ, serpent
imagery and the Goddess) is a predominant focal point in the Vedic orthopraxis and early
Indo-Aryan religion. It is possible then to propose that the Indus Valley elements of Yoga
were predominantly, if not exclusively, proto-Tantric in nature. They share no (or very
little) common characteristics with the Vedic religion – in fact, all of these religious
elements found in the Indus Valley seals would be labeled as heterodox by the Vedic
sacerdotal orthopraxis. Contrary to what some scholars have therefore suggested, the
emphasis of the “proto-Yoga” in the Indus Valley was not on the “Vedic” psycho-
spiritual practice of meditation (dhyāna). The Indus Valley archeological evidence
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indicates the contrary - a physio-energetic corporeal practice of 1) āsana in order to
awaken the 2) serpent 3) feminine Kuṇḍalnī energy for becoming a siddha.
Section Three – Evidence of the Orthodox Yoga
We now turn to another perspective on the origins of Yoga, specifically the
possible Indo-Aryan influences on both Hinduism and Yoga. Again, there are no textual
records available to us prior to the Ṛgveda from which we have tangible evidence to
postulate any definitive Indo-Aryan influence on Yoga. Additionally, while archeological
artifacts from areas of the possible Indo-Aryan “homeland” do exist, none is indicative of
“Yogic” practices as compared to those discovered in the Indus Valley seals. However,
two significant tools enable us to reconstruct the likelihood of Yogic elements having
existed in Indo-Aryan culture prior to their arrival into the Indian sub-continent circa the
second millennium B.C.E. Linguistic reconstruction as well as comparative mythology
offer a glimpse into the culture and religion that suggest the possibility of psycho-
spiritual roots of Yoga having existed in Western Central Asia, the likely geographic
origin of the Indo-Aryan people.
Before going into a linguistic and mythological exploration, the following two
maps provide a visual aid to establish the Indo-Aryan homeland and the path of their
migrations from Western Central Asia via the Hindukush to their eventual arrival into the
Indus Valley and Eastern Punjab.
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The Indologists, Michael Witzel and Arlo Parpola, have done extensive linguistic
and mythological research to reconstruct the likely starting point of the Indo-Aryans as
the area known as the Bactria-Margiana Archeological Complex (BMAC). Witzel states,
“…Ṛgvedic religion neither was static nor without

history. It has a prehistory that dates back all the way to IE
formations (and beyond). It also includes some of the local
(Indus) beliefs as well as several layers of those picked up
‘along the way’--- from a hypothetical IIr. Steppe
homeland (wherever exactly situated), via the general area
of the Bactria-Margiana Archeological Complex (BMAC)
and the Afghan mountains to the Greater Punjab.”34
Features of the Indo-Aryan Religion and Its Influence on “Vedic Orthopraxy” and Yoga-
The first is the important notion of “Aryan” versus “non-Aryan” as a pre-
Vedic/Indo-European distinction that became the foundation of Vedic orthopraxis. The
primary essence of the Vedic religion was the preservation of the cosmic order. This was
conducted through yajña, mantra and dhī. Anyone who adhered to the religion of the
Vedic people was named Ārya while anyone who was not was termed mleccha, anārya,
dāsa. One of the earliest linguistic and mytho-poetic reconstructions for this discussion
on Yoga is the later Vedic notion of “Aryan” versus “non-Aryan” – not as an ethnic or
racial category, but one based on religious practice and conformity. Kuiper defines the
Ṛgvedic term Ārya as “in general those who maintained the world order by means of
34
Witzel, M. (2006). Central Asian Roots and Acculturation in South Asia: Linguistic and Archeological
Evidence from Central Asia, the HinduKush and Northwestern South Asia for Early Indo-Aryan Language
and Religion. In T. Osada (Ed.), Indus Civilization (pp. 61-185). New Delhi: Monohar Publishers, 107.
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sacrifice and gifts…”35 The Sanskrit word ārya/arya has unambiguous Indo-Aryan and
Indo-European origins36. It derives from the archaic PIE root *er- (becoming *ṛ- in the
zero-grade form) and whose meaning is “to fix, attach, join, be in order, be joined (to a
group), aligned to (Cosmic Order)”. The word Ārya, thus, had a semantic concept of
“fitting in” and was the basis of determining whom and what was “fit” to be part of the
Vedic people. All those who and whose corresponding religious practices were not be-
“fitting” enough to be worthy of the Vedic religion were shunned, despised and deemed
to be heterodox “non-Aryans”.
Additionally, the Vedic concept of Cosmic Order, known as ṛta (the perfect
passive participle of the verbal root *ṛ-), was of paramount importance to the pre-Vedic
people. Even though the etymology of the word ṛta is Indo-European, the concept of ṛta
was likely inherited into the Indo-Aryan culture from the Central Asian religions during
that time when the Indo-Aryan tribes were in that area. As Witzel points out, “…the
underlying rule of the active force of truth (Ved. Ṛta/Avestan Aša
‘Wahrheitsverwirklichung’) was developed in the Northern Steppes, close to the Uralic
and Ket people…The strong stress on social aspects (‘agreement, guest friendship, share,
35
Kuiper, F. B. (1991). Aryans in the Rigveda. Selected Writings on Indian Linguistics and Philology, 6.
36
PIE root *or-/*ar-/*ṛ- “to fit together, correspond, unite, go smoothly”. It becomes the basis for a
plurality of words and concepts to denote Cosmic Order, Number, Law, Harmony in many IE cultures.
Sanskrit ṛtá (Cosmic Order; cakrám ṛtásya) – possibly connected to Skt. ārya; Avestan airya. Avestan
asha, arata (Cosmic Order). Hittite ara “according to Law”; DAra (Anatolian God of Cosmic Law) ; ar-ma
“moon/month/measurement of time”. Latin ars/ar-tis “art”; ritus“rite” (cf. Skt. ṛta); ōr-dō “order”.
Greek (h)ar-monia “harmony”; ar-ithmos “arithmetic”; ar-sion “fair, just”; ar-tios “fitting”; ar-istos
“best, highest”.
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lot’ and a common ancestor) points to the necessities of a tribal, semi-pastoral society.”37
Why this is of such significance to the discussion on Yoga is the semantic
correlation between the Vedic Sanskrit verbal root √ṛ- with the root √yuj-, both of which
share a semantic notion of “to connect, unite, bind, yoke”. As we know the Sanskrit word
yoga/yukta is the nominal form of the verb *yuj-. In a similar morphological fashion, ṛta
is the corresponding noun from the verb √ṛ-. Due to this semantic link, attributes of the
Vedic Ṛta eventually transferred over to become the “Vedic” form of Yoga, as both were
regarded as supreme aspects of universal, cosmic and social “law and order”. Thus going
back into ancient pre-Vedic times during their interactions with the BMAC culture and
religion, a very archaic concept of a proto-Yoga was already taking shape.
Textual Evidence from the Ṛgveda-
We now can use specific examples from the Ṛgveda to support the important
semantic and conceptual connection between Vedic Ṛta and Yoga by using Witzel’s
chronological classification of the Ṛgveda Books.38 Based on voluminous linguistic,
mythological and cultural data he has remarkably concluded that the various books of the
Ṛgveda can be chronologically structured into three strata.
1. Early RV – Books 4, 5, 6 (maybe Book 2)

2. Middle RV – Books 3, 7, parts of 8.1-66 and 1.51-191
3. Late RV – parts of 8.67-103; 1.1-50; 8.49-59 and Book 10
37
38
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While the verb √yuj- and the nominal forms yuga/yuktá/yúj/yújya- are highly
productive in Vedic Sanskrit, lexical frequency of the actual noun yóga and its
corresponding adjective yogyá is relatively rare in the Ṛgveda. In fact, these words only
occur a total of 22x and are categorized here according to Witzel’s grid.
1. Early RV – Books 4, 5, 6 (maybe Book 2)
a. 2.8.1b; 4.24.4a; 5.37.5a; 5.43.5c; (4x)
2. Middle RV – Books 3, 7, parts of 8.1-66 and 1.51-191
a. 3.6.6a; 3.27.11b; 7.54.3c; 7.67.8a; 7.86.8c; 7.70.4b; 8.58.3c (7x)
3. Late RV – parts of 8.67-103; 1.1-50; 8.49-59 and Book 10
a. 1.5.3a; 1.18.7c; 1.34.9c; 10.114.9a; 10.30.11c; 10.35.9b;
10.39.12c; 10.89.10d; 1.30.7a; 10.166.5a; 10.53.11c (11x)
One can now begin to see the gradual increase in lexical frequency of this word in
the earliest Vedic literature. In one of the middle books of the Ṛgveda, although still
nascent, one also begins to see the eventual development of the Vedic ṛtam  yogam.
We see the two words next to each other in verse RV 3, 27, 11.
agnim yanturam apturam

ṛtasya yoge vanuṣaḥ
viprā vājaiḥ samindhate
“Agni, the swift and active One, the Vipras, at the proper
time (yoge) of sacrificial rite (ṛtasya). Eagerly kindle with
their food.”
This ties in neatly to our discussion of Vedic orthopraxis. In the Vedic (and going back to
the Indo-Aryan) times, there was an extremely important emphasis on the ṛtasya yoge,
the proper time and execution of when the ritual had to be done. In order for the
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exactitude of the Vedic ritual to be performed, a very strict and orthodoxical system had
to emerge so as to ensure the proper functioning of the Vedic ṛta/yoga. All the various
indigenous religions and practices that the Vedic people encountered during their
migrations, who were unwilling to adhere to this rigid system, were dubbed “un-Aryan”.
The semantic and religious connection between ṛta and yoga can be summarized in the
following diagram.
to bind, 
fasten, fit, 
join, unite 
*yuj‐  *er‐/*ṛ‐ 
yukta  yoga  ṛta  arya/ārya 
A second point is corollary to the previous one that cites linguistic and textual
evidence of the connection between different deities with the two competing orthodox
and heterodox forms of Yoga. An argument can be made that the “Vedic” god of the
proto-Yogic concept of Ṛta is the Indo-Aryan deity Varuṇa while Śiva/Rudra/Śarva are
the god(s) of the Tantric/Haṭha forms of Yoga. If we refer to the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā
we see this reflected in the very first verse.
Śrī ādināthāya namo’stu tasmai yenopadiṣṭhā haṭhayogavidyā

“Salutations to Ādhināth (epithet of Śiva), who taught the science of Haṭha
Yoga.” (HYP 1,1,a)
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Most scholars concur that the Vedic god Rudra (and his epithet Śarva “The
Archer”) is the pre-cursor to the post-Vedic Śiva.39 The word śiva “propitious, amenable,
kind” is applied to Rudra in the late Rgveda 10.92.9 –
stomaṃ vo adya rudrāya śikvase kṣayadvīrāya

namasādidiṣṭana |
yebhiḥ śivaḥ svavānevayāvabhirdivaḥsiṣakti svayaśā
nikāmabhiḥ ||
“With humble adoration show this day your song of praise
to mighty Rudra, Ruler of the brave: With whom, the
Eager Ones, going their ordered course, he comes from
heaven Self-bright, auspicious, strong to guard.”
One also sees the connection of Rudra with the Munis in another late RV hymn to
the Keśins, which is also found in the Atharvaveda Paippalada (but not in the Śaunaka
version). In both the AVP 5.38.7cd and in RV 10.136.7cd there is the half-verse munir
viṣasya pātreṇa yad rudrenāpibat saha “…when the Muni drank of the poison with the
cup together with Rudra.” Likewise in the hymn to Rudra/Śarva in Atharvaveda 11.2 one
sees Rudra being referred to as a Keśin. “We go forward to meet him of dark horses,
black, swarthy, killing, fearful, making to fall the chariot of the Keśin; homage be to
him.” Both these examples indicate the connection of Rudra with the “ecstatic”
mannerisms of the ascetic-like Muni, who was very likely a heterodox practitioner of the
form of Yoga that later became adopted by some of the Tantric schools.
Other likely candidates of heterodox “Tantric” practitioners of Yoga in the
Ṛgveda and the Atharvaveda are the Vrātyas (AV Book 15) and the Yatis of the Ṛgveda.
As Witzel also suggests, both of these words were likely loanwords into Indo-Aryan from
39
Srinivasan takes a contrary stance and asserts that a Vedic Rudra-Śiva has roots in early Vedic religion.
Srinivasan, D. M. (1983). Vedic Rudra-Śiva. Journal of the American Oriental Society , 103 (3).
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the BMAC religion and language, supporting the hypothesis of their “non-Indo-
Aryan/Vedic” character. Similarly, linguistic reconstruction provides evidence that Rudra
and his epithet, Śarva, were loan words from the BMAC culture into early Indo-Aryan
prior to the Indo-Aryan migrations into India. Conversely, Varuṇa and Mitra, as deities of
Ṛta, have their origins in Indo-Iranian mythology prior to contact with the BMAC
culture.
Witzel sets out linguistic evidence to suggest that the names of the gods Śarva and
Indra are not Indo-European or Indo-Iranian, but entered into the Indo-Aryan language,
and subsequently into Vedic religion, during the period of contact with the BMAC
religion and language of Western Central Asia. Witzel states,
“Importantly, in addition to and beyond the items of

material culture listed above, the religious sphere, too, is
strongly involved in the C. Asian loans into O. Iranian and
OIA. The most prominent words are those of certain rituals,
deities, and priests: *anc’u ‘Somaplant’, *yātu ‘black
magic’, *atharwan ‘priest’ (however see EWA I 60), *ṛši
‘seer’, *uc’ig ‘sacrificing priest’, *magha ‘gift, offering,
sacrifice’, *c’arwa ‘name of Rudra’, *indra,
*g(h)andharw/b(h)a ‘demi-god or demon’.”40
Witzel further states,
“If these points are evaluated against a discussion of the

names of deities, it becomes obvious that a major change in
ritual and religion took place among the speakers of Indo-
Iranian in C. Asia. A prominent feature of IIr. religion is
the emergence, probably in the Ural area (Witzel forthc. B),
of a group of ‘gods of law and order’ (asura, Āditya, with
40
and Religion. In T. Osada (Ed.), Indus Civilization . New Delhi: Monohar Publishers, 95.
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IIr. names!) that regulate the ‘truthful’ behavior of people,
from a single person to a tribe. Other important deities
seem to be based on a substrate designation. They include
*c’arwa ‘name of Rudra’, *indra, *g(h)andharw/b(h)a
‘demi-god or demon’.”41
Using Witzel’s linguistic evidence, we arrive at the following tentative conclusions.
1. The Vedic word atharva < *atharwan and Śarva < *c’arwa (epithet for
Rudra) are loan words from a Central Asian substrate or adstrate language
into the old Indo-Aryan religious vocabulary that was not part of the original
Indo-European religion.
2. This correlates with the fact that in the Ṛgveda, Rudra only has four entire
hymns dedicated to him (RV 1.43, 1.114, 2.33, and 7.46) – all middle and late
Ṛgvedic. As one would expect, in the Atharvaveda and in later Vedic (RV
Book 10), there are more references to Rudra that suggest his greater
predominance and function as the deity of hunting and his label as the “Wild
One”. In the words of the prominent Hinduism scholar, Axel Michaels,
“The alien god Rudra is indeed wild and dangerous…The

danger of Rudra is mainly that he is the god of the Other
and is not integrated into the society of the Indo-Aryan
tribes. The more this society collapsed in the second
(‘Vedic’) epoch, the more peaceful Rudra/Śiva became – a
process that begins with the Śvetāśvatara-Upaniṣad, in
which Rudra is called ‘Śiva’ (literally: friendly, dear) for
the first time.”42
41
Ibid, 97.
42
Micahael, A. (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. (B. Harshav, Trans.) Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 216-7.
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3. If we return to the hypothesis that the Atharvaveda and RV Book 10 are
reflections of the heterodox proto- “Tantric” Yoga tradition, this would affirm
Rudra (Śarva/Śiva) as the supreme lord of “Tantric” Yoga.
If we now take Rudra (Śarva/Śiva) as the primary deity of the heterodox “Tantric”
Yoga tradition, this would now begin to validate Mitra-Varuṇa as the deities of an
orthodox proto-“Vedic” Yoga that is reflected in the RV as Ṛta. Varuṇa (and surprisingly
not Indra) was the primeval supreme deity of the early Indo-Aryans, prior to their contact
with the BMAC religion. Only later, when the Indo-Aryans (and ancient Iranians)
adopted the ritualistic use of Soma/Haoma as part of the new Vedic religion in the
BMAC, does Indra eventually eclipse Varuṇa, the God of Vedic Ṛta/Yoga. Fórizs states,
“...it was not Varuṇa who found its way later than the other gods to the Vedic ‘pantheon’,
but somebody else, namely Indra.”43 He later outlines a correlation of different Vedic
gods with different books of the RV and concludes that Varuṇa is the primary deity of
Book 6 (one of the oldest RV books), while Indra is the primary god of Book 3 (a middle
RV book). This again corresponds to Witzel’s hypothesis that both Indra and
Rudra/Śarva were adopted into the Vedic pantheon during the Indo-Aryan incursion into
the BMAC region. Varuṇa was the original Vedic godhead in his role as overseer of Ṛta,
the pre-cursor to the eventual orthodox Vedic notion of Yoga.
Interestingly, while Indra became completely integrated into the new Vedic
religion as the eventual supreme head of the pantheon, the other BMAC deities,
Rudra/Śarva, did not. They eventually, in the role of Śiva, became identified with the
43
Fórizs, L. Dīrghatamas, An Application of the Generalization of Witzel's Grid. 12th World Sanskrit
Conference, 6.
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indigenous heterodox deity of “Tantric” Yoga. This is exemplified in the famous “Keśin
Hymn” alluded to earlier in RV Book 10 where Rudra is the “friend” of the heterodox
Tantric-like “long-haired Munis”. Eventually as the two competing orthodox and
heterodox systems of Hinduism and Yoga began to reconcile does Rudra, and later as
Śiva, slowly become assimilated and accepted into the orthodox Vedic fold.
Dharma as “Vedic Yoga”-
As pointed out in the table in the introduction, one important feature of the
“Vedic” orthodox form of Yoga that distinguishes it from the heterodox “Tantric”
tradition of Yoga praxis is dharma, which in turn enables mokṣā. Both of these concepts
have their roots in the Vedic notion of ṛta, but reach a culmination in the Bhagavād Gītā.
While copious work and discussion on the three forms of Yoga of the Gītā (jñāna, bhakti
and karma) have been abundantly voiced, we explore an interesting connection of the
Vedic concept of ṛta with the Gītā’s perspective on “yoga as dharma”.
The doctrine of dharma is the pivotal thematic axis of the Gītā. In the great epic
of the Mahābhārata 69.59, Kṛṣṇa states that, “The word dharma comes from the root
dhṛ, that is, to hold or uphold, and all human beings are held together by dharma. That by
which the holding together (of all human beings) takes place is dharma.” Dharma is,
thus, that which “upholds and maintains” righteousness and the Cosmic Order. According
to P. M. Thomas, “Dharma was never independent of the final goal, mukti. It possibly has
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the meaning “to sustain” from which itself it is clear that the social ideal that is enshrined
in the concept of dharma holds the society together and sustains it by moral law ensuing
from it.”44 The concept of dharma can be seen to be a philosophical extension of the
Vedic concept ṛta “cosmic order”, and by doing so is the vehicle of the orthodox “Vedic”
praxis of Yoga in the Gītā. Both dharma and its predecessor, ṛta, are the backbone of the
Vedic and post-Vedic social structure without which the entire fabric of society crumbles.
Regarding the origin of dharma, Desai believes that the concept of dharma
retained the original ancient Vedic function of ṛta as the governing order in nature, in
individuals, and in society. He states, “The tasks of keeping the self from falling apart in
the everyday world, and preserving that world intact, were the bases of dharma.”45 The
Vedic notion of ṛta was a means to unite the individual with the cosmos, in a form of
Vedic Yoga, through observance of cosmic order via proper sacrifice and ritual
observance. When one did not follow the dictates of ṛta the Vedic worshiper was
susceptible to evil, sin, illness and disease. However, in the Vedic literature one does
begin to find that the term dharma gradually being used to become synonymous with ṛta
to define the law that upholds the cosmos. Both the Vedic gods of ṛta/yoga, Mitra-
Varuṇa, become identified with dharma as witnessed in the following two verses in early
Ṛgvedic.
44
Thomas, P. M. (1987). 20th Century Indian Interpretations of BHAGAVADGITA: Tilak, Gandhi and
Aurobindo . Bangalore, India: The Chrisitan Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 24.
45
Desai, P. N. (1989). Health and Medicine in the Hindu Tradition. New York, NY: The Crossrad
Publishing Company, 20.
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dharmaṇā mitrāvaruṇā vipaścitā vratā rakṣethe asurasya
māyayā |
ṛtena viśvam bhuvanaṃ vi rājathaḥ sūryam ā dhattho divi
citryaṃ ratham ||
“Wise, with your Law and through the Asura's magic
power you guard the ordinances, Mitra-Varuṇa. You by
eternal Order govern all the world. You set the Sun in
heaven as a chariot.” (RV 5.63.7a)
ghṛtavatī bhuvanānāmabhiśriyorvī pṛthvī madhudughe
supeśasā |
dyāvāpṛthivī varuṇasya dharmaṇā viṣkabhite
ajarebhūriretasā ||
“Filled full of fatness, compassing all things that be, wide,
spacious, dropping honey, beautiful in their form, the
Heaven and the Earth by Varuṇa's decree, unwasting, rich
in germs, stand parted each from each.” (RV 6.70.1c)
In many ways, the earlier Vedic notion of dharma is the society’s moral and
ethical compass that defines and posits the individual within the greater scheme of the
cosmic process. This notion continues in the Gītā stating that through following one’s
svadharma does the individual remain in balance and, in turn, ensures the proper cosmic
balance. Thus we have the nucleus of a Vedic (possibly pre-Vedic) philosophical
equation.
DHARMA = ṚTA = YOGA
In this sense dharma equates both with ṛta and yoga in the Vedic orthopraxis. It is the
responsibility of both the individual and the society, through proper observance of yajña,
to uphold each of them. Similarly, in the Gītā the societal and cosmic consequences of
abandoning one’s svadharma are amply declared, i.e. the society would crumble and go
into a state of social chaos if this dharma/yoga were not followed. The following ślokas
of the Gītā illustrate this point.
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1. BG 1, 40 –
kulakṣaye praṇaśyanti
kuladharmāḥ sanātanāḥ
dharma naṣṭe kulaṃ kṛtsnam
adharmo ‘bhibhavatyuta
In the destruction of the family

The Eternal Dharmas of the family perish
When the Dharma perishes,
Adharma overpowers the entire family
2. BG 1, 44 –
utsannakuladharmāṇāṃ
manuṣyāṇāṃ janārdana
narake ‘niyataṃ vāso
bhavatītyanuśuśruma
The obliterated family-dharmas

Of those men, O Kṛṣṇa,
They dwell in torment indefinitely
Thus, we have heard.
Vedic Origins of Citta Sādhana –
While the goal of the Tantric lineage of Yoga is the alchemical transformation of
the body to experience the various siddhi powers, this was not the goal of the orthodox
Vedic lineage of Yoga, whose emphasis was on controlling the mind. As the famous line
of the Yoga Sūtra states yogaścitta vṛtti nirodhaḥ “Yoga is the dissolution/restraining of
the turnings of the mind”. It is the objective of controlling and mastering the mind (not
the body) that also distinguishes Vedic Yoga from the non-Vedic/Tantric Yoga. This
notion of citta sādhana abounds in the Yogic literature that aligns to the Vedic
orthopraxis of Hinduism.
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Again, we can trace the evolution of citta sādhana back to the Ṛgveda in the
Vedic Sanskrit word manoyúj “yoked by thought”. It is this very word that is the
semantic origin of the much later Yogic notions of dhyāna, dhāraṇa, svadhyāha and
pratyāhāra of the Classical Yoga system of Patañjali. The word manoyúj occurs 7x in the
Ṛgveda.
1. RV 1.14.6 - ghṛtapṛṣṭhā manoyujo ye tvā vahanti vahnayaḥ | ā devān somapītaye ||

The swift steeds who carry you, thought-yoked and dropping holy oil,
Bring the Gods to the Soma draught.
2. RV 1.51.10- takṣad yat ta uśanā sahasā saho vi rodasī majmanā bādhate śavaḥ |
ā tvā vātasya nṛmaṇo manoyuja ā pūryamāṇamavahannabhi śravaḥ |
“The might which Uśanā hath formed for thee with might rends in its
greatness and with strength both worlds apart. O Hero-souled, the steeds
of Vāta, yoked by thought, have carried thee to fame while thou art filled
with power.”
3. RV 4.48.4 - vahantu tvā manoyujo yuktāso navatir nava |
vāyav ā candreṇa rathena yāhi sutasya pītaye ||
“May nine-and-ninety harnessed steeds who yoke them at thy will bring
you. O Vāyu, by a chariot come to the drinking of the juice.”
4. RV 5.75.6 - ā vāṃ narā manoyujo 'śvāsaḥ pruṣitapsavaḥ |

vayo vahantu pītaye saha sumnebhir aśvinā mādhvī mama śrutaṃ havam||
“Hither, O Heroes, let your steeds, of dappled hue, yoked at the thought,
Your flying steeds, O Aśvins, bring you hitherward, with bliss, to drink.
Lovers of sweetness, hear my call.”
5. RV 8.5.2 - nṛvad dasrā manoyujā rathena pṛthupājasā | sacethe aśvinoṣasam ||
“Like Heroes on your will-yoked chariot far shining, Wonder-Workers!
You attend, O Aśvins, on the Dawn.”
6. RV 8.13.26 - indra tvamavitedasītthā stuvato adrivaḥ |

ṛtādiyarmi te dhiyaṃ manoyujam ||
“O Indra, Caster of the Stone, you help him who praises you. From
sacrifice I send to you a mind-yoked hymn.”
7. RV 9.100.3 - tvaṃ dhiyaṃ manoyujaṃ sṛjā vṛṣṭiṃ na tanyatuḥ |

tvaṃ vasūni pārthivā divyā ca soma puṣyasi ||
“Set free the thought, which the mind has yoked, even as thunder frees
the rain. All treasures of the earth and heaven, O Soma, you multiply.”
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There are a number of extremely relevant points that can be gleaned from these
verses, of which the most salient is that none of the instances of the word manoyúj occurs
in RV Book 10. As RV Book 10 (along with the Atharvaveda) is generally the realm of
the predominantly heterodox traditions of Tantric Yoga, positing this word and concept
in the traditional Vedic orthodox camp of Yoga aligns with the working hypothesis of
this study. This is logical, as the concept of manoyúj is an extremely archaic Indo-Aryan
and Indo-European notion. Not only does it have indisputable Indo-European etymology
(PIE *menHo-yuǵ), it also extols the original Indo-Aryan religious emphasis on the
primacy of “psycho-spiritual” thought (Vedic dhī/dhyāna). The primacy of
“mind/thought” as the realm of Vedic Yoga, as opposed to corporeal emphasis in Tantric
Yoga, remains constant throughout the subsequent literature of the Vedic orthodox texts-
specifically, the Upaniṣads and the Gītā. The contrast becomes apparent by the following
verse from the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā.
yadā tu nāḍī śuddhiḥ syāt tathā cihnāni bāhyataḥ

kāyasya kṛśatā kāntistadā jāyate niścitam
“External signs appear when the nāḍis are pure.
The body will definitely become lean and
bright.” (2, 19)
Another revelatory insight of these Ṛgvedic verses on manoyúj is the reoccurring
motif of “thought” (manas, dhī) being semantically and stylistically connected to “horse-
training” and “chariot” metaphors. Not only do the majority of the above verses from the
Ṛgveda indicate this fact, but this now becomes a prevalent motif in the Upaniṣads and
the Gītā (i.e. the two later orthodox texts on “Vedic” Yoga), but not once does it occur in
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the Yoga Sūtra or the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā. Below are further examples taken from the
Kaṭhopaniṣad and the Gītā.
1. Mind-Yoking Metaphor (Kaṭhopaniṣad 3. 3-6,)

ātmānaṃ rathinaṃ viddhi śarīraṃ rathameva tu
buddhim tu sārathiṃ viddhi manaḥ pragrahameva ca (3)
“Know the Self as a rider in a chariot, and the body, as the chariot.
Know the intellect as the charioteer and the mind as the reins.”
indriyāṇi hayān āhur viṣayāṁs teṣu gocarān
ātmendriyamanoyuktaṃ bhoktety āhur manīṣiṇaḥ (4)
The senses, they say, are the horses, sense objects are the paths around them.
He who is yoked to the Self, senses and mind, the wise say is the one who
enjoys.
yas tv avijñānavān bhavaty ayuktena manasā sadā
tasyendriyāṇy avaśyāni duṣṭāśvā iva sāratheḥ (5)
When a man lacks understanding with his mind never yoked,
His senses do not obey him, as bad horses, a charioteer.
yas tu vijñānavān bhavati yuktena manasā sadā
tasyendriyāṇi vaśyāni sadaśvā iva sāratheḥ (6)
But when a man has understanding with his mind always yoked
His senses obey him, as good horses, a charioteer.
2. Mind-Yoking Metaphor Gītā –
ayatiḥ śraddhayopeto
yogāccalitamānasaḥ
aprāpya yogasaṃsiddhiṃ
kāṃ gatiṃ kṛṣṇa gacchati
The one who is uncontrolled (in mind) even though he has arrived at faith
Whose mind has gone astray from Yoga
Who does not attain perfection in Yoga
Which way, O Kṛṣṇa, does this one go? (6, 37)
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bāhyasparśeṣvasaktātmā
vindatyātmani yat sukham
sa brahmayogayuktātmā
sukham akṣayam aśnute
He whose Self is unattached to external contacts

Who finds happiness in the Self
Whose Self is united with Brahman in Yoga
Attains imperishable happiness. (5, 21)
yuñjann evaṃ sadā ‘tmānaṃ

yogī niyatamānasaḥ
śāntiṃ nirvānaparamāṃ
matsaṃsthām adhigaccati
“Thus, always uniting oneself

The Yogi of controlled mind
Goes to the supreme nirvāna
Abiding together with Me.” (6,15)
What then could be a possible explanation for these “horse/chariot” metaphors
existing predominantly in the Yogic literature that adheres to the orthodox schools of
Yoga and not in the texts of the Tantric schools? Perhaps, once again archeology may
provide a rational explanation. A recent article from the journal Scientific American46
theorizes that the first known evidence of the domestication of horses (Equus Caballus)
first occurred 5,000 years ago with the Botai people of Kazakhstan in Central Asia. If we
refer back to the earlier map of the Indo-Aryan migrations and the BMAC culture, this
area coincides both geographically and chronologically with the earliest stratum of the
composition of the Ṛgvedic hymns. This fact now accounts for the prolific usage in
vocabulary and metaphors that pertain to horses, yoking and chariots in the early Ṛgveda.
46
http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/60-second-science/post.cfm?id=first-domesticated-horses-in-
centra-2009-03-05
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Conversely, archeological evidence has yet been unable to demonstrate that horses (at
least NOT of the species Equus Caballus) were in Ancient India at this same period of
history. While some fossils of smaller species of horses (not Equus Caballus) have been
discovered in the Indus Valley region and in the Indian sub-continent, they cannot
conclusively argue for the presence of horses in pre-Vedic India. Likewise, the first
archeological evidence of a chariot-burial also goes back to about 2,000 B.C.E. in Central
Asia (again Kazakhstan) to the Andronovo culture. The archeological evidence indicates
that chariot-riding and horse-training were predominant features in both the Indo-Aryan
religion and language. The “horse-yoking” motif was a metaphor for controlling/yoking
the mind (manoyúj) in meditation and in Yoga, which became a unique characteristic of
the “Indo-Aryan/Vedic” texts of Yoga – but not of the Tantric literature. This, again, is
probably a reflection of horse-training and chariot-riding being unknown to the
indigenous cultures of ancient India.
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Section Four – Evidence of the Composite “Mixed” Yoga
The Vedic orthodox and Tantric heterodox traditions, witnessed in both
Hinduism and in Yoga praxis, achieve their own “yoga” and unite in the Sāṁkhya
philosophy of Patañjali’s Classical Yoga of the Yoga Sūtra. The Sāṁkhya school is
considered to be one of the six orthodox Vedāṅgas of Hinduism. The legendary
philosopher-sage Kapila was said to have founded the system. The oldest text on
Sāṁkhya, the Sāṁkhya Kārikā, is authored by Īśvārakṛṣṇa circa 200 C.E. The basic
essence of Sāṁkhya is its dualistic paradigm, unlike the monotheistic advaita “non-dual”
traditions of Vedānta. Puruṣa (the masculine force of the Unmanifest Consciousness)
exists alongside with Prakṛti (the feminine force of the Manifest phenomenological
reality). Although the Sāṁkhya system of Indian philosophy is astika and recognizes the
Vedas as authority, Bagchi states that Sāṁkhya describes itself as a Tantric system.47
Likewise, it also adheres to the concept of mokṣā (liberation), which other Vedic
orthodox systems embrace. It is this apparent fusion of the two dichotomous orthodox
and heterodox philosophical traditions that is also witnessed in the syncretism of the
Vedic and Tantric Yogas. Perhaps it is Sāṁkhya philosophy’s very dualistic nature itself
that allows for the two orthodox and heterodox systems of Yoga to co-exist as a coherent
system in Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra. There is one verse in particular within the Yoga Sūtra
where the two veins of orthodox and heterodox traditions of Yoga appear to exist side by
side.
47
Bagchi, P. (1989). Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras. Kolkata, India: Ramakrishna Mission
Institute of Culture, 6.
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abhyāsa-vairāgyābhyāṁ tan-nirodhaḥ (I, 12)
“This restraining (of citta-vṛtii) [occurs] through practice
and dispassion.”
The term abhyāsa can translate as “continuous endeavor, practice exercise”. In
this sense it has connotations to the Sanskrit word haṭha “force, exertion, exercise” and
adheres to the Tantric Yoga school that emphasizes kāya-sādhana. Conversely, the word
vairāgya can mean “dispassion, detachment” and requires more “psycho-spiritual”
discipline than physical. In this sense vairāgya aligns to the citta-sādhana techniques of
the Vedic/Upaniṣadic schools of asceticism and restraint. Interestingly, by using the
Sanskrit dvandva compound noun abhyāsa-vairāgyābhyāṁ, Patañjali grammatically and
conceptually simultaneously unites the orthodox Vedic and heterodox Tantric praxes.
Furthermore, it is in the 8-limbs of the Yoga Sūtra where the real “yoga” of the
Vedic and Tantric traditions “unite”. I propose that Patañjali’s codification of the 8-limbs
of the Yoga Sūtra is, in actuality, the complete and culminating syncretism of the Vedic
orthodox and the Tantric heterodox schools of Yoga.
The Eight Limbs – “Yoga” of the Orthodox and Heterodox
1. yama – external disciplines.

a. ahimsā – non-harming.
b. satya – truthfulness.
c. asteya – non-stealing.
d. brahmacarya – sexual moderation or conscious sexuality.
e. aparigrahā – non-acquisition.
2. niyama – internal disciplines.

a. śauca – purity
b. santoṣa – contentment.
c. tapas – austerity, self-discipline.
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d. svādhyāya – self-study.
e. īśvara praṇidhāna – surrender to the Higher Being.
Taken together the yamas/niyamas are the moral/ethical codes by which all
people live. They cannot be seen as either falling into the Vedic or Tantric traditions, as
they transcend both and span the universal human need for a fulfilled life. At the same
time, it is not to say that one could not be stretched to put each of the five sub-categories
of the yamas/niyamas into either the Vedic orthodox or the Tantric heterodox systems. In
fact, one could certainly make a valid case by saying that the teachings of dharma in the
Gītā could encompass all 10 of the categories. Similarly, someone reading the Tantric
texts of the Kashmir Śaivism, the Śākta, or Kuṇḍalinī traditions could point to passages
that ring true for each concept. This, however, is not the case with the next 5 aṅga of the
Yoga Sūtra.
3. āsana – sitting posture

4. prāṇāyāma – breath control.
It is these two branches that most likely refer to the Tantric elements of the Haṭha
Yoga Pradīpikā, as the following verses indicate.
Haṭhasya prathamāṅgatvādāsanam pūrvam ucyate |

Kuryāttadāsanam sthairyam ārogyam cāṅgalāghavam ||
“Asanas are described first because it is said they are the
first step of Haṭha (Yoga). They give steadiness, health
andlightness of body.” (1, 17)
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athāsane dṛḍhe yogī vaśī hitam itāśanaḥ |
gurū padiṣṭham ārgeṇa prāṇāyāmānsm abhyaset ||
“After mastering āsana, the yogin – possessing self-control
and eating a suitable, moderate diet – should practice
prāṇāyāma as taught by his guru.” (2,1)
It should come as no surprise that Patañjali was here likely alluding to the Tantric
practices outlined in the Haṭha Yoga texts. Just as the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā advises that
āsana should be mastered first before doing prāṇāyāma, Patañjali likewise places āsana
before prāṇāyāma. This was perhaps done intentionally, as a way of acknowledging the
important sequential nature of the two in the Tantric Haṭha tradition.
5. pratyāhāra – withdrawal of senses.

6. dhāraṇā – focused concentration.
7. dhyāna – thought/meditation.
The next three branches were discussed previously in the section on Vedic Yoga
and the ancient concept of manoyúj of the Ṛgveda. Just as āsana and prāṇāyāma are the
domain of the Tantric texts, similarly these three components are integral characteristics
of the orthodox Vedic traditions found in the Ṛgveda, Upaniṣads and Bhagavād Gītā.
8. samādhi – synthesis.
Finally, the aṣṭāṅga of Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra culminates with samādhi, whose
literal translation is synthesis. Not only does it refer to the synthesis of puruṣa/prakṛti but
again is the ultimate Samādhi (Synthesis) of the two competing orthodox and heterodox
traditions, literally being “placed together completely” (i.e. sam + ā + dhi).
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Section Five – Linguistic Evidence
Finally, a very brief examination into the actual vocabulary of the terms used by
the Vedic orthodox and Tantric heterodox schools of Yoga reveal a very interesting
situation. Although space limitation precludes a detailed analysis, a very cursory
examination of the etymologies of the philosophical vocabulary used in the two traditions
reveals the following results. The majority of the fundamental key concepts within the
orthodox Vedic Yogic system (almost exclusively) has not only Indo-Aryan, but Indo-
European etymologies and cognates. The following list details this.
Indo-Aryan etymology/cognates -
Yoga < PIE * yuǵ- “to unite, join”
Yajña < PIE * yaǵ- “to revere”
Dhī/ Dhyāna < PIE * dheH- “to put, place”
Mokṣā < PIE * meukw- “to release”
Dharma/Dhāraṇa < PIE * dhṛ- “to hold, be firm”
Ṛta < PIE * Heṛ- “to fasten, bind, fit”
Tapas < PIE * tep “to be hot, heat”
Māyā < PIE * meH- “to measure”
Karma < PIE * kṛ- “to do, make”
Jñāna < PIE * ǵnoH- “to know”
Bhakti < PIE * bhaǵ- “to divide, portion”
Conversely, many words from the philosophical vocabulary of the Tantric Yoga
texts are non-Indo-Aryan in root structure – as they contain a high frequency of retroflex
and voiceless aspirates (both phonological features NOT original to Indo-Aryan).
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Non-Indo-Aryan etymology -
siddhiḥ
sādhana
haṭha
kuṇḍalīni
liṅġam
Śiva
Śarva
Atharva
Rudra
Ādinātha
nāḍī
Although a much closer linguistic examination is required, it appears that many
(if not all of these words above) are of Dravidian, Muṇḍa, or of a BMAC language that
entered into Indo-Aryan eventually leading to the Sanskrit language.
Evidence of Yoga in Ancient Greek Texts –
As an addendum - in addition to textual evidence of Yoga in Indian literature, the
ancient Greek texts also provide an interesting, but often neglected, perspective into the
Yoga system being practiced in ancient India. When Alexander the Great entered into
India in 327 B.C.E., he brought with him a group of historians and academics to
document the various cultures and traditions that he encountered on his military
campaigns. As Lanmann discusses, “Onesikritos, the companion of Alexander the Great,
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is the first notable foreigner to give us an account of the Yogins of India.”48 The Greek
historian, Strabo, writes of Onesikritos’ encounter with the Indian yogins in the year 326
B.C.E in Geography (xv.63). He recounts that the essence of the discussion was that
Yoga “is the best doctrine, which rids the spirit not only of grief but also of joy; and
again, that that dwelling-place is the best, for which the scantiest equipment or outfit is
needed.”49
Two other accounts of ancient Greeks encountering Indian yogins occur that shed
more insight on the situation of Yoga in the few centuries prior to the current era. The
first is Aelian’s report documented in Varia Historia (iv.20) that describes these men as
toùs sophistàs tōn Hindōn literally translated as “the wise men of the Hindus”. A more
intriguing account is that of Diogenes Laertius in Varia Historia (ix.35) toīs
gumnosophistaīs phasí tines summīksai auton én Hindíai “with these (naked) conversing
gymnastic-practicing wise men they spoke on such things in India”. By far the most
revealing word is the Greek compound noun toīs gumnosophistaīs which derives from
the two words gumnos + sophistai. It is the word gumnos that we now discuss in more
detail. The word originally means “without clothes, naked” but later came to mean
“gymnast”, for throughout much of the ancient world men doing any form of exercise did
it naked. We now have an intriguing question – were these gumnosophistai described by
the ancient Greek historians just “naked” or were they also doing “gymnastic-like
exercises”? If only the former, this would align with the “Indo-Aryan/Vedic” ascetic
48
Lanman, C. R. (1918). The Hindu Yoga System. The Harvard Theological Review , 11 (4), 357.
49
Ibid, 358.
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features of Yoga. However, if it were the latter this would give evidence to the
“indigenous/autochtonous” Tantric style of Yoga that emphasized haṭha practices and
āsana. Further investigation into the ancient Greek historical accounts might reveal more
information on this matter.
Conclusion –
We now arrive to the “Samādhi” – the grand Synthesis – of all the major points of
this research that I have now arranged into an organized system.
Orthodox “Vedic” Heterodox “Tantric” Elements Composite

Elements of Yoga of Yoga Yoga
Traditions/Schools • Vedic • Tantric •Sāṁkhya
of Philosophy • Vedāntic • Jain
• Brahmanical • Buddhist
• Ājīvika
• Śākta/Goddess
• Kashmir Śaivism
• Haṭha/Kuṇḍalīni Yoga
• Nāth
• Bhakti
• Ayurveda
Major Texts • Ṛgveda (Books 1-9) • Ṛgveda (Book 10) • Purāṇas
• Yajurveda •Atharvaveda •Mahābhārata
• Sāmaveda • Śākta • Rāmāyaṇa
• Brāhmaṇas • Nātha • Yoga Sūtra
• Āraṇyaka • Kashmir Śaivite
• Upaniṣads • Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā
• Bhagavād Gītā • Gherandha Saṁhitā
• Gorakṣa Samhitā
Emphasis • Citta-sādhana - • Kāya-sādhana
Psycho-spiritual/non- Corporeal
corporeal • Ecstacy
• Enstacy • Transformation/Alchemy
• Transcendence/ • Siddhiḥ
Liberation • Awakening of Kuṇḍalinī
• Mokṣā • Creating Sukṣma śarīra
• Brahman/Ātman • Matriarchal/Matrolineal
• Dissolving māya, • Fertility rituals
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samsāra, avidyā
• Preservation of
ṛta/dharma
•Patriarchal/Patrolineal
• Begetting male sons
Praxis • Abstinence/Celibacy – • Sexuality • Bhakti Yoga

brahmacarya •Meat/Alcohol/Entheogenic
• Austerity - tapas consumption done in non-
• Sacrifice/ Ritual ritualistic settings
– yajña
• Meditation – dhāraṇā,
dhyāna, pratyāhāra,
manoyúj
• Soma taken as part of
ceremony/ritual
• Mantra
• Karma/Jñāna Yoga
Practitioners • Ṛṣi/ Vipra • Muni
• Brahmin • Vrātya
• Yati
Mytho-poetic • Cosmic/Celestial • Chthonian
Features
Animal Symbol • Cow • Snake
• Eagle
Vedic/Hindu • Varuṇa • Śiva
Deities • Mitra • Rudra/Śarva
• Indra • Murungaṉ
• Soma • Goddess
• Āryaman
• Agni
• Brahma
• Viṣṇu
Terms Indo-Aryan etymology Non-Indo-Aryan etymology
Yoga Siddhiḥ
Yajña Sādhana
Dhī Haṭha
Mokṣā Kuṇḍalīni
Dharma Liṅġam
Dhyāna Śiva
Dhāraṇa Śarva
Ṛta Atharva
Tapas Rudra
Māyā Ādinātha
Karma Nāḍī
Jñāna
Bhakti
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As this work has hopefully been successful to demonstrate, the term Yoga is not
one specific concept but rather an amalgam of various philosophies and traditions both
indigenous and perhaps also external to the Indian sub-continent. To use a metaphor from
Indian philosophy itself, Yoga is like a great ocean. A multitude of rivers, whose points
of origin are vastly separated geographically, philosophically and chronologically - but
which ultimately flow into the same ocean. Similarly there exists a confluence of cultural,
linguistic, mythopoetic, religious and philosophical streams of thought and consciousness
that throughout the course of time have merged into the vast ocean that is called Yoga.
Despite their various points of origin, all the various schools of Yoga share common
goals – to experience a sense of liberation from the human existence and a re-union with
the Divine.
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Sanjay Kumar

Linguistic, Archeological, Mythological and Textual Evidence

unanimous agreement that it exclusively originated in India. While some advance an

autochthonous origin, others suggest a possible Central Asian or Indo-European

cultural manifestations throughout human history? If Yoga is truly an external

do.”2 It is in this conceptual vein by which this paper adheres.

define it as an evolutionary process that originated from an ancient “proto-Yoga” and

at Yoga from an “evolutionary/chronological” model, a better approach is to explore the

Yoga from an outdated, evolutionary approach, I examine it from a “stratiographic

and religious traditions of ancient India. McEvilley states,

“…yoga is a reflection of the stratification of different

itself, is a syncretism of many divergent and sometimes antithetical systems of thought

Vedāntic, Brahmanical, Tantric, Śaivaite, Bhakti, Śākta/Goddess, etc. The question

arises – is a similar stratification reflected within Yoga?

Indian sub-continent, it incorporated (perhaps slowly and reluctantly) the religious

heterodoxical religions might have included various forms of proto-Tantrism, proto-

autochthonous practitioners of the indigenous religions, ultimately adapted and enfolded

mélange of Vedic orthopraxis and the “non-Vedic” heteropraxis resulted in what we

today know as Hinduism.

a fundamental and contentious schism between the Indo-Aryan practitioners of Vedic

pointing to both Indo-Aryan and sub-stratum non-Indo-Aryan languages eventually

two fundamental levels –

1. Linguistic syncretism of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Muṇḍa and other possible

indigenous languages that led to the development of Vedic Sanskrit.

2. Religious/cultural syncretism from different magico-religious traditions (Indo-

European, Eurasiatic, Shamanism, Śākta, Tantric, Śaivism) spanning vast

Śrī bhaghavān uvāca

“The Supreme Lord said, ‘There is indeed no end to the

Vedic orthopraxis exemplified in the sacerdotal Brahmanical tradition of the three

Hinduism...and possibly to modern-day Yoga.

religious praxis – the “Indo-Aryan” Vedic/Brahmanical religion (evident in the 3

traditional Vedas, Upaniṣads and the Bhagavād Gītā) and the

“indigenous/autochthonous” non-Vedic/Tantric traditions (observed in the Atharvaveda,

1) Vedic 2) Tantric and 3) Mixed.

VEDIC TANTRIC MIXED

Ṛgveda (Books 1-9); Ṛgveda (Book 10); Purāṇas

Space limitation prevents a discussion of the entire Hindu corpus of Indian

following texts as evidence to support its central hypothesis - Ṛgveda, Atharvaveda,

Upaniṣads, Bhagavād Gītā, Yoga Sūtra and Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā.

General Characteristics of Orthodox and Heterodox Yoga Systems -

distinctions between the two in the following table.

(Author’s own categorization)

Orthodox “Vedic” Elements Heterodox “Tantric” Elements

Praxis • Abstinence/Celibacy – • Sexuality

The work begins by exploring the emergence of a possible nascent concept of

in the mytho-poetic tradition and language of the Vedas.

Vedic orthodox and non-Vedic/Tantric heterodox aspects of Yoga, dedicating a section to

each of them supported by appropriate textual evidence. This is followed by an

components of Yoga have Indo-Aryan or Indo-European etymologies, while those from

religions of ancient India, i.e. Jainism and Buddhism.

Vedic history. Based on linguistic and mythological reconstruction, as well as

proposed – 1) Indus Valley, Shamanic and autochthonous Indians 2) Central Asian/Indo-

Aryan. Some notable scholars that adhere to each hypothesis are

1. Dhyansky, Eliade, Marshall

Indus Valley Origin of Yoga –

represented individuals “unquestionably” in Yogic postures. In his book’s final

shamanism and Yoga. Furthermore, he concludes that the shamanistic elements of

Indus Valley culture. He states,

“These facts can hardly be belittled, and their bearing is

the Indo-European migrants and of the indigenous “aboriginals”. Eliade states,

“Hinduism, as it has existed from the end of the

topic is discussed in a later section.

Indo-European/Indo-Aryan Origins of Yoga –