CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 58 (2009) 185–188

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Shaped tube electrochemical drilling of good quality holes

S. Ali a, S. Hinduja (1)b,*, J. Atkinson b, M. Pandya a
a
ELE Advanced Technologies Ltd, Colne, UK
b
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M60 1QD, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper is concerned with the shaped tube electrochemical drilling (STED) of small diameter cooling
ECM
holes in turbine blades. Following an initial identification of the common defects occurring in STED, a
Deep hole drilling
partial factorial design of experiments (DOE) was carried out to identify the more important process
STEM
parameters that affect hole quality. For these process parameters, a full factorial design of experiments
was conducted to study their effects not only on hole diameter but also on hole taper. Guidelines and
equations for determining appropriate operating conditions to drill a good quality hole are presented for
one drill diameter.
ß 2009 CIRP.

1. Introduction
Turbine blades and nozzle guide vanes usually have several
small diameter cooling channel holes, with diameters as small as
0.8 mm and aspect ratios as large as 250. Because of these large
aspect ratios, processes such as laser beam machining, electron
beam machining and conventional drilling are unsuitable for
producing these holes. The most suitable process is shaped tube
electrolytic machining (STEM) as there are no residual stresses in
the workpiece and no cutting forces acting on the slender tool.
The earliest reference to STEM is due to Jackson and Olson [1]
who used an acid electrolyte to dissolve the removed anodic metal
rather than it forming sludge. Bellows [2] drew on experiences at
the General Electric Company to disseminate knowledge of the
STEM process by citing practical examples, metal removal rates
and achievable tolerances. In addition to comparing the capabil-
ities of STEM, electrojet, electrostream and capillary drilling
processes, Jorg [3] provided an overview of the practical difficulties
in shaped tube electrochemical drilling (STED). Cox [4] improved
our understanding of STEM by carrying out experimental
investigations which led him to conclude that (i) the nitric acid
electrolyte strength should be maintained between 12–15% (v/v)
which is in agreement with the results of Jackson and Olson, and
(ii) the surface finish of the drilled hole is affected by the duration
of the forward and reverse voltage pulses. Janssen demonstrated
that STED could also be used for turbulated and micro holes [5].
More recently, Sharma et al. [6], and Bilgi et al. [7] studied the
STEM process using pulsed electrochemical machining, the early
analysis of which was investigated by Kozak et al. [8], Rajurkar
et al. [9] and Yu et al. [10]. Because these researchers did not use
reverse polarity, a clean tool surface could not be assured as
undissolved metal by-products may have adhered to the tool
surface. However, with reverse voltage, the tool must be
periodically redressed.
* Corresponding author.
In order to drill good quality holes, Sharma et al. [6] tried to
determine the optimum values of the process parameters
experimentally but they limited their investigations to only two
process parameters i.e. voltage and feedrate. In addition, they
defined hole quality in terms of overcut variation. In a subsequent
work, Bilgi et al. [7] included pulse on-time, duty cycle and the
length of un-insulated tool. However, they employed a non-
standard tool and a pulsed DC voltage. The main objectives of this
work are: identify the different types of defects in STED; determine
the effects of the process parameters on hole quality (diameter and
taper); and determine the values of the process parameters for a
given hole quality.
2. Types of defects
From the authors’ industrial experience, the more important
defects have been identified as follows:
(i) Drill wander. Occasionally the drill deviates from the desired
path and in extreme circumstances even breaks out into the
blade surface or adjacent hole. Cox [4] suggests that the drill
derives its stiffness from the electrolyte pressure and hence, at
low pressures, it is prone to wander (see Fig. 1(a)).
(ii) Threading. Sometimes the hole may exhibit a repetitive pattern
of diameter variation which is reminiscent of a threaded hole
(see Fig. 1(b)). It is seen to occur at high electrolyte pressures.
(iii) Hole inaccuracy. The two main types of inaccuracies are hole
taper and deviations from the required hole size. Fig. 1(c) shows a
convergent hole. Another type of defect is longitudinal striations
which are associated with hydrodynamic flow patterns.
(iv) Drill bending. There are two possible causes for its occurrence.
In the first case, due to a combination of high feedrates and low
voltages, short circuits can occur, leading to drill bending
which can be corrected by replacing or straightening the drill.
In the second case, the use of reverse voltage causes the drill to
wear. If this wear is excessive, the overcut is progressively
reduced leading to drill clamping and bending of the drill.

0007-8506/$ – see front matter ß 2009 CIRP.

doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2009.03.070
186 S. Ali et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 58 (2009) 185–188

Fig. 1. Common defects in STED.

Fig. 2. Tip-end views of new and worn drills.
(v) Bulrushing. This defect appears as a sudden local increase in
the hole diameter (Fig. 1(d)). The reason for its occurrence is
not fully known but it is believed to be linked with high
pressures and low feedrates.

3. Experimental set-up

The experimental set-up consisted of a lab-scale ECM machine,

the tool feed axis of which was numerically controlled. The
machine was equipped with sensors to record the voltage and
current, and electrolyte flow, pressure and temperature at the inlet
of the tool. Commercial STEM drills were used and these were
titanium tubes. Experiments were carried out with three drill sizes
(0.84, 1.73 and 2.62 mm) but only the results obtained with the
1.73 mm drill are reported herein as they are more typical of the
holes produced. These drills had a bore diameter of 1.17 mm and
were insulated along their entire working length, the thickness of Fig. 3. Current and flow signals for tests 5 and 8.

the insulation being 0.076 mm. The electrolyte was nitric acid
(HNO3) diluted to 20% by weight in water. The applied voltage was
obtained from a pulsating power supply with the polarity being
reversed for a very small fraction of the cycle time.
The experiments were conducted in two stages: preliminary
tests to determine the more important parameters; and two-level
full factorial tests.
In stage 1, the workpiece was an Inconel block of height
100 mm into which through holes were drilled. The results
indicated that a block height of 35 mm would be sufficient for the
experiments in stage 2.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Stage 1
Since it is a shop-floor belief that metal-ion concentration (Me,
g/l) is an important parameter, it was not considered in the first
stage but directly in the second. The main reason for doing this was
to keep the number of experiments to a more manageable level in
the first stage. The other input variables were feedrate (f, mm/
min), forward voltage (Vf, volts), reverse voltage (Vr, volts), forward
voltage time (tf, s), reverse voltage time (tr, s) and pressure (p, bar).
The output parameters were the hole diameter at entry (Dent, mm)
and taper, which is given by Dexit  Dent. Table 1 shows the values
of the input and output variables.
This STEM drill was expected to produce a nominal hole of
diameter 2.05 mm with a tolerance of 0.1 mm, thus most of the
results shown are acceptable.
In test 1, the combination of low feedrate, high forward voltage
and low reverse voltage resulted in the maximum hole size. On the
other hand, the combination of high feedrate, low forward and high
reverse voltages resulted in the smallest hole diameter (test 8).
Unlike the other tests, 7 and 8 resulted in a converging taper, the
taper in test 8 being considerably greater. This is understandable
since the high value of reverse voltage would have caused the tool
to wear at a faster rate. The right half of Fig. 2 shows a worn tool,
the chamfer on the end face of which has become concave. This
concavity would have reduced the intensity of the electric field
near the cylindrical surface of the hole. Progressive tool wear,
combined with low voltage, would have caused the overcut to keep
diminishing resulting in a converging taper. A diminishing overcut
would have an adverse effect on the flowrate. Consequently, the
electrolyte in front of the tool would get heated up and even
possibly boil. Fig. 3 shows that the flowrate in test 8 decreased
rapidly from its initial value of 320 ml/min to below 20.
Measurements of flowrate below this value were outside the
range of the flowmeter used. The output values shown in Table 1
are the averages of three runs but in the case of test 8, only one run
was successful and the other two resulted in drill bending,
indicating that the radial gap had reduced even further.
In tests 1–6, holes were produced with diverging tapers. Even in
these cases, there was a reduction in the flow rate after the initial
rapid fall e.g. test 5 (Fig. 3). A consequence of this would be a rise in
electrolyte temperature and conductivity, accompanied by a
steady increase in current (test 5, Fig. 3), resulting in a
continuously increasing overcut.

Table 1
Values of the variables in stage 1 (hole depth = 100 mm).

f Vf Vr tf tr p Dent Taper

1 1.5 14 1.5 10 0.2 2.5 2.10 +0.03

2 1.5 14 3.5 5 1 1.5 2.05 +0.08
3 1.5 10 1.5 5 0.2 1.5 2.01 +0.09
4 1.5 10 3.5 10 1 2.5 1.96 +0.03
5 2.5 14 1.5 10 1 1.5 1.94 +0.19
6 2.5 14 3.5 5 0.2 2.5 1.96 +0.04
7 2.5 10 1.5 5 1 2.5 1.87 0.05
8 2.5 10 3.5 10 0.2 1.5 1.80 0.10
 S. Ali et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 58 (2009) 185–188 187

Table 2
Main effects of the input variables on hole diameter.

f Vf Vr tf tr p

0.14 +0.10 0.04 0.02 0.01 +0.02

The main purpose of the stage 1 experiments was to prioritise

the parameters in terms of their effect on the hole quality. The
effect of the feedrate was determined by calculating the average
values of entry hole diameters (Dent) at feedrates of 1.5 and
2.5 mm/min. The average diameter values at these feedrates were
2.03 and 1.89 mm respectively, i.e. the hole diameter decreased by
0.14 mm when the feedrate was increased from 1.5 to 2.5 mm/min.
The effects of the other parameters were similarly determined and
the results are summarised in Table 2 from which it is clear that the
more important parameters are forward and reverse voltages and
feedrate. In practice, the reverse voltage is limited to a maximum of
2 V as higher values only tend to accelerate tool wear. Had the
value of reverse voltage in stage 1 been limited to 2 V, its effect on
the hole diameter would have been negligible, i.e. 0.01 rather
than 0.04 mm. Hence the parameters that were considered in
stage 2 were f, Vf, p and Me.

4.2. Stage 2

The results obtained from the second stage are shown in

Table 3. As before, only the results obtained from a 1.73 mm drill
Fig. 4. Main effects of process parameters on (a) Dent and (b) taper.
are shown. Note that the taper values shown in Table 3 relate to a
length of 35 mm and not 100.
In all but two of the tests, conical holes were produced. All the
holes, except four, were within tolerance. The unacceptable holes The effects of feedrate, forward voltage, metal-ion concentra-
were produced in tests 6, 8, 14 and 16 due to bulrushing. For these, tion and pressure on the entry hole diameter as well as the hole
the values shown in column 7 indicate diameter growth, i.e. the taper are shown in Fig. 4. It is obvious from Fig. 4(a) that, for the
diameters increased to 2.75, 2.41, 2.69 and 2.46 mm respectively. range considered, metal-ion concentration has only a marginal
As before, each test was conducted twice and Table 3 shows the effect on hole size. The associated curve has a positive slope which
average values of the output; bulrushing was repeatable for the is to be expected because the increased metal ions in the
four above-mentioned tests. Cox [4] held that bulrushing occurs as electrolyte would effectively increase its conductivity.
a result of vibration transmitted to the drill from the electrolyte In the case of the entrance hole diameter, as expected, the
pump. No such vibrations were observed in our case and this was two dominant variables are feedrate and applied voltage. But in
further confirmed by the smooth pressure and flow curves. In all the case of hole taper (Fig. 4(b)), all the variables are dominant
bulrushing cases, except test 8, there was no appreciable drop in except feedrate. Consider the effect of pressure on the hole
the flowrate (DQ). In all the non-bulrushing tests, flowrate did taper. With a 2-bar pressure, the average flowrate dropped from
fall because, with progressive hole depth, the resistance to flow 309 to 253 ml/min, whereas with a 4-bar pressure, the average
increases. But with bulrushing, the sudden local increase in drop was from 401 to 326 ml/min (excluding the bulrush cases).
diameter has a much diminished effect on flowrate. Although it Hence, in the latter case, the bigger drop would have resulted in
was difficult to pin-point the conditions which triggered the onset a reduced heat transport and hence a bigger change in hole
of bulrushing, it is certain that bulrushing occurred at high diameter.
pressures and low feedrates, accompanied by a very slight decrease Similarly, the voltage also increases the hole taper. Increasing
in flowrate. the applied voltage results in a proportionate increase in the
current, which for the same flowrate, would result in a higher
heating effect at greater depths.
Table 3 Increasing the metal-ion concentration has a negative effect on
Values of the variables in stage 2 (hole depth = 35 mm). hole taper. For example, in test 2, with a concentration of 1 g/l, the
Me Vf f p Dent Taper DQ current increased from 5.8 A at the start of the drilling process to
6.2 A at exit. However, with a concentration of 1.5 g/l (test 10), the
1 1 12 2.5 2 2.01 0 51
2 1 12 2.5 4 1.96 0.08 51
current changed from 5.5 to 5.6 A. The smaller change in the latter
3 1 18 2.5 2 2.08 0.03 59 case means that there is a smaller increase in the process heat,
4 1 18 2.5 4 2.06 0.03 69 resulting in reduced heating of the electrolyte and hence a reduced
5 1 12 1.5 2 2.06 0.03 68 taper.
6 1 12 1.5 4 2.11 0.64a 9
The interacting effects of the different variables on the hole
7 1 18 1.5 2 2.08 0.05 46
8 1 18 1.5 4 2.13 0.28a 54 diameter and taper are shown in Fig. 5, the degree of interaction
9 1.5 12 2.5 2 1.98 0.03 58 between any two variables being indicated by the angle included
10 1.5 12 2.5 4 1.98 0 93 between the corresponding curves. Hence, the strongest interac-
11 1.5 18 2.5 2 2.06 0.03 62 tion in Fig. 5(b) is between the applied voltage and feedrate
12 1.5 18 2.5 4 2.06 0.03 86
(curves in row 2, column 3 i.e. cell (2, 3)) as the corresponding
13 1.5 12 1.5 2 2.11 0.03 55
14 1.5 12 1.5 4 2.08 0.61a 13 curves intersect and include an angle of approximately 908. These
15 1.5 18 1.5 2 2.10 0.05 45 curves show the effect of varying the feedrate whilst keeping the
16 1.5 18 1.5 4 2.21 0.25a 9 voltage constant. The curves in cell (3, 2) contain the same
a
Bulrushing occurred; value indicates growth in diameter. information as those in cell (2, 3) except that in the former, the
188 S. Ali et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 58 (2009) 185–188
Fig. 5. Effects of the interactions between process parameters on (a) Dent and (b)
taper.
curves were obtained at constant feedrates. Referring to the
curves in cell (1, 3), the interaction between metal-ion concen-
tration and feedrate is weak because the curves include a
relatively small angle. The selection of values for the machining
parameters is done in two steps. In the first step, the curves shown
in Fig. 5(a) and (b) are used as guidelines to deduce a set of values
for the process parameters to achieve a required hole quality.
Referring again to the curves in cell (2, 3), Fig. 5(b), the 12 V curve
corresponds to smaller values of taper than the 18 V curve. Hence,
to minimise hole taper, one should operate at 12 V and at the
minimum feedrate i.e. 1.5 mm/min. If all the curves in Fig. 5(b) are
analysed, the guidelines for minimising hole taper are: use low
values of feedrate, voltage and pressure and a high value of metal-
ion concentration.
Similarly, study of the curves in Fig. 5(a) reveals guidelines for
obtaining a hole of a particular size. Thus in cell (2, 3), if a hole
diameter of 2.05 mm is required, either a mid-range voltage and
a high feedrate, or a mid-range feedrate and low voltage should
be selected. The high feedrate, in the first combination, would
result in a higher production rate but is in conflict with the
requirements for producing a small taper. Hence the second
combination is to be recommended. Of course, these values
should be used in conjunction with low pressure and high metal-
ion concentration.
Another advantage of using a full factorial design of experi-
ments technique is that the results can be used to develop a process
model in the form of equations relating hole quality in terms of the
process parameters. Thus, for the 1.73 mm drill:
Dent ¼ 2:191 þ 0:048M e  0:022V f  0:005 f þ 0:001 p þ 0:006M e
 V f  0:075M e  f þ 0:013M e  p þ 0:007V f  f
þ 0:004V f  p  0:031 f  p
taper ¼ 0:033  0:268M e þ 0:006V f  0:028 f þ 0:106 p
þ 0:012M e  V f þ 0:090Me  f  0:055Me  p  0:006V f
 f  0:002V f  p
In the second step, these equations are used to check if the user-
selected values will indeed result in the required values of Dent and
taper. If, for example, Vf = 16 V, f = 1.6 mm/min, p = 2 bar and
Me = 1.5 g/l, then Dent and the taper (over a length of 35 mm) are
predicted to be 2.10 and 0.02 mm respectively.
Alternatively, step 1 can be bypassed and the values of the
process parameters obtained from the equations by trial and error.
5. Conclusions
(i) The more important parameters that influence hole size and
hole taper in STED are feedrate, forward voltage, electrolyte
pressure and metal-ion concentration.
(ii) Taper holes are explainable in terms of electrolyte flow rate
and tool wear. In a few tests, bulrushing was evident at high
pressure and low feedrate.
(iii) A full factorial approach has given greater insight into the
process, yielded guidelines for selecting process conditions and
led to the development of a process model which establishes the
values of the process parameters for a desired hole quality.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the funding received
from Knowledge Transfer Partnership (No. 1131) EPSRC/DTI and
I*PROMS, an EU FP6 Network of Excellence.
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