Tourism Management, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp.

453-464, 1997
Pergamon © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
11261-5177/97 $17.(~0+ 0.{10
Pll: S 0 2 6 1 - 5 ! 77197)00054-X

Imagery of D e n m a r k among visitors

to Danish fine arts exhibitions in
Scotland
V Andersen, R Prentice and S Guerin
Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Queen Margaret College, Edinburgh, UK

Central to destination marketing is the image which potential tourists hold of a destination
and its competitors. This paper considers the imagery of D e n m a r k held by visitors to fine
arts exhibitions in Scotland. It is argued that images of D e n m a r k held by these visitors may
deter visitation for cultural tourism and that, when visiting for other reasons, tourists may
not seek out cultural tourism experiences, as these do not form part of the opportunity set
traditionally promoted by D e n m a r k to its visitors. The paper argues that destination promo-
tion should consider market segmentation on the basis of experiences to be derived and not
to assume implicitly that existing images are those solely appropriate for tourism promotion.
© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
Keywords: image, fine arts, cultural tourism, d e s t i n a t i o n selection, D e n m a r k

Introduction Cultural tourism

Respondent: What is your research about? Inter-
viewer: Denmark's image in Britain.
Respondent: What makes you think it has an
image? (Djursaa, p. 11)'
Over the last two decades cultural tourism has
moved from a special interest, niche market into the
mainstream of tourism supply and demand.
Countries such as the UK, Italy, France and the
Netherlands have traditionally focused on their
heritage and culture as core attractions to inter-
national visitors and are generally perceived as
foremost cultural tourism destinations. Other
countries may possess equally interesting resources,
but long-established images may be incompatible
with cultural tourism, and thus prevent the
widespread consideration of these destinations by
potential tourists. This study of visitors to exhibi-
tions of Danish art in Edinburgh in 1994 and 1995 is
indicative of the challenge this dissonance presents
to those seeking to market tourism, as it demon-
strates that, even after experiencing Danish culture,
visitors possess stronger images of Denmark as a
destination for rural holidays than for cultural
activities.
City and cultural tourism have received much atten-
tion in recent years as opportunities for develop-
ment have been recognized and exploited. 2
Comment has varied. Cultural tourism is on the one
hand regarded as a sustainable avenue for tourism
growth, with the cultural industries substituting for
traditional manufacturing industries in citiesfl~' and
with the potential to satisfy a demand increasing by
some 15% per y e a r / Policy-makers have responded
with financial support to develop the resources,
perhaps now outstripping d e m a n d / On the other
hand, there have been growing concerns regarding
the potential damage to resources caused by over-
development, feigning and the commodification of
culture, " '~ and the avoidance of these problems has
impelled policy initiatives in the most threatened
cities such as Florence and Venice. '2,'~
On a European level, cultural tourism has been
identified as one of the principal unifying means in
the pursuit of a European identity and as a key area
of tourism development. '4 The European Cultural
Capital event, whose original objectives were purely
cultural (largely, the democratization of culture),
has also been exploited to increase tourism,
especially by Glasgow, whose bid for the title in

453
Imagery of Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al
1990 was also motivated by a desire to improve the
image of the city, in order to attract more tourists
and inward investment. The immediate results were
positive, with an 81% increase in tourist visits during
the year, and a 15% rise in favourable opinions
about the city.4
Cultural tourism in the Danish context
Copenhagen was the Cultural Capital in 1996, but
whilst half of the 1996 Copenhagen brochure was
devoted to the programme, and the City of Culture
logo was applied to package tour products and flight
promotions, cultural tourism was not specifically
identified as one of the ten objectives. Instead, it
was to be developed as part of other projccts,
allowing visitors the same access to the cultural
resources of Denmark as residents. '~
Cultural tourism has, however, more generally
been identified as a means to diversify the tourism
product in Denmark, to spread demand geograph-
ically and to extend the season. In 1993 The
Ministry of Culture and the newly established
Ministry of Tourism set up a joint fund with a
budget of Dkr 40 million to fund product develop-
ment. The most tangible outcomes have been the
'Golden Days' Festivals (budget Dkr 4 million), held
in Copenhagen in September 1995 and April 1996.
These multi-arts festivals celebrated the Golden Age
in Danish cultural life, from 1815-1850. Another
successful project was the collaborative marketing
project initiated by 20 Jutland art museums which
resulted in a brochure featuring themed itineraries
(budget Dkr 5 million) for the Swedish, Dutch and
German markets.
Germany, which is Denmark's main foreign
market, produced a 137% increase in growth in the
5 y e a r period to 1992, when it peaked with
2.3 million Germans spending 24 million bednights
and comprising over 70% of total foreign bednights
in Denmark. '~ Much of this growth stemmed from
an increase in the rental of private holiday cottages
(75% of German bednights), largely concentrated
along the coasts of the peninsula of Jutland and in
the summer months.'" Following the successful
launch of the Jutland art brochure, Germany and
Holland were selected as the targets for a pilot
cultural tourism marketing campaign (Kulturrejser i
Danmark, budget Dkr 5.5 million). Whilst the latest
surveys j7 demonstrate an increase in art museum
visits by German tourists, anecdotal evidence
suggests that they were undertaken by general
holidaymakers who had been made aware of the
cultural resources available, rather than by specific
cultural tourists.
The UK has not been selected as a target for
Danish cultural tourism promotion. With ca 400000
bednights per year, Britain remains a small, if
important market for Denmark, with > 80% of
bednights spent in hotels. TM The stated aim of the
454
1995 British campaign was to create an awareness of
Denmark, which remains low despite 50years of
tourism promotion. The campaign sought also to
improve the visibility and accessibility of the product
to the consumers, the travel industry and the press.
The 1995 Denmark catalogue for the British market
was designed as an image catalogue, targeting high
income couples and singles, experienced travellers,
aged 38--54 (so-called DINKS and empty nesters)
for city breaks, as well as families and special
interest groups (cycling, fishing, golf). Even though
the plan did mention that the anticipated media
coverage for Copenhagen '96 was likely to raise the
profile of Denmark, it neither isolated cultural
tourism as a special interest market, nor focused
specifically on cultural attractions in the 1996
catalogue.'"
Destination image
In marketing literature, product image has been
seen as incorporating the influence of past promo-
tion, reputation and peer evaluation of competing
alternatives. Here image connotes the expectations
of the potential user. 2'' In tourism literature, image
has also been seen as set of expectations about a
place or activity that exists, either voluntarily or
through suggestions, before actual experience, z'
Crompton 2-~ called image the sum of beliefs, ideas
and impressions that a person has of a destination.
Gartner 2~ described tourism image as a function of
brand and the tourists' and sellers' perceptions of
the attributes of activities or attractions available
within the destination area.
Gunn 24 separated image into organic image, which
evolves through assimilation of material from
newspapers, periodicals, books, history and
geography lessons etc., and induced image, which
derives from a conscious effort to develop, promote
and advertise. These concepts were expanded by
Gartner 2~ into a hierarchy of sources of information
and degree of destination control, linked with
penetration levels and credibility. He identified the
categories of overt and covert induced information as
well as autonomous and organic sources. The overt
sources include traditional advertising which enjoys
low credibility but a high market penetration and
total control of the message contents. Then follows
information requested from travel companies, which
generally enjoys a higher credibility but where
control has been delegated to the travel trade. The
covert induced sources include endorsements by
famous personalities, and finally travel writers, who
enjoy the highest credibility but whose opinions
cannot be controlled. Autonomous sources are
independently produced reports and popular
culture, typically news items and movies, which
attract widespread attention, and over which the
destination has little, if no control. Massive coverage
of events or popular films may be powerful enough

to overturn long held images. Finally, organic infor-
mation, which may be formed by actual visitation or
provided by word of mouth from visitors, whether
solicited or not, enjoys the highest credibility, as it
stems from people who share common social class
or family life cycle characteristics.
Early studies in destination image 2" 2,, demon-
strated that it was not important whether in fact an
image was 'a true representation of what any given
region has to offer the tourist, what is important is
the image exists in the mind of the vacationer'?"
They also demonstrated that perceptions held by
potential visitors about an area may have significant
influences upon the viability of that area as a tourist
recreation region, ~-7 being able to detract from or
contribute to a successful development. More
recently, GoodaW' developed a destination selection
process. Only destinations which the decision-
making person or agency is aware of will be
included in the perceived opportunity set, and desti-
nations will gradually be eliminated according to
their relative strength for the types of activities
deemed important to the decision maker.
Studies of destination image have also examined
populations in connection with a visit, either before
and/or after, to measure the image modification
process. ='.32 These are studies of consumers who
have purchased the product, and who will have
formed certain expectations, whether through auton-
omous or induced agents, in anticipation of the
experience. However, Selby and Morgan 33 identified
the limitation of samples to purchasers as a
weakness. They possess an image of the destination
sufficiently strong and congenial to have survived
the elimination process described by Goodall. Selby
and Morgan not only surveyed visitors, but also
visitors to competing destinations. In other words,
they also included the potential market, who held
negative images and expectations which act as deter-
rents. Other authors have recently studied residents'
own images of the area as a holiday destination? 4.~
Image amongst exhibition-goers
A survey of exhibition-goers takes Selby and
Morgan's -'~ perspective a step further. Exhibitions of
one country's cultural artefacts in another are a
common form of cultural exchange. The population
attending exhibitions is neither consciously pre- nor
post-visit to the destination, although it may be
assumed that the country being exhibited may have
affected some visitors' choice to attend the exhibi-
tion. A survey of such exhibition-goers enables,
further, a comparison to be made of the relative
pertinence of national image and the particular
artefacts being exhibited in visitors' perceptions of a
country.
Two Danish cultural exhibitions formed the
empirical focus of the present study. These exhibi-
tions were the Flora Danica porcelain exhibition in
Image~ 01"Denmark among v&itors: V Andersen et al
1994 and the Two Centuries of Art and Craft in
Denmark in 1995, both held in Edinburgh during the
Festival period. Whilst the subjects of the exhibition
have national associations (stronger in the art
exhibition than the Flora Danica exhibition) it is
argued that the populations surveyed are not
unrepresentative of the potential cultural tourism
market for European destinations, z" It is generally
accepted that, because of their social class profile,
cultural exhibition-goers are frequent travellers.
Equally, almost half of the sample in the Danish Art
exhibition were actually cultural tourists to the city
of Edinburgh. The focus of the survey was not the
tourists' current trip, but the country of origin of the
exhibition, Denmark. In other words, the sample
may or may not have visited or intended to visit
Denmark, or have any interest at all in Denmark.
Selby and Morgan's perspective is thereby extended.
Denmark's image in Great Britain has been the
subject of a number of studies, the most extensive of
which was undertaken by Djursaa' and more
recently by Niss? 7 It is interesting to examine the
extent to which a culturally oriented audience might
hold stronger cultural images of Denmark than the
samples of the general population, school pupils,
business school students and businessmen surveyed
by Djursaa and Niss. Further, in view of the promo-
tion of Denmark, it is also of interest to see whether
the images held conform to the image projected by
the overt induced agents of consumer products
and/or tourism organizations which have never
focused on a cultural image, or whether they have
been formed by autonomous image formation
agents. Also of interest is whether images of a
civilized, modern, cultured, democratic and
stubbornly independent nation, are swamped by the
image of a rural idyl so often projected by
promoters of agricultural products and reinforced by
the Tourist Board. This agricultural image, if it
exists, may actually prevent the inclusion of
Denmark into the perceived opportunity sets of
cultural tourists. In view of the significance attached
by past studies to the modification of image
achieved by actual visitation, a further dimension of
interest is whether visitors to Denmark hold
stronger images of Denmark as a destination for
cultural tourism than non-visitors is of interest, in
other words, whether image has been modified by
visitation.
The exhibition surveys
The first survey was carried out at an exhibition of
antique Royal Copenhagen porcelain, the decora-
tion of which is based on the illustrations produced
for the botanical work 'Flora Danica' in the eight-
eenth century. The venue was within the Botanical
Gardens in Edinburgh and the exhibition ran
throughout the August Festival period and into
October 1994. Other than the country's latinized
455
Imagery of Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al
name and Copenhagen in the title, there were vcry
few 'made-in' Denmark prompts. The interpretation
was limited to explanatory texts about the porcelain
and its uses. The second survey was of visitors to the
exhibition 'Two Centuries of Art and Craft in
Denmark', held in a central Edinburgh venue, again
throughout the Festival and until the end of
September 1995. This provided far more references
to the country of origin, starting with the name in
the exhibition title, and the poster featuring a
characteristic summer coastal view. The Danish flag
was prominent on banners outside the venue, and
the interpretation panels contained numerous refer-
ences to Danish people and way of life. The works
themselves provided a variety of clues, with the early
landscapes and portraits illustrating the country and
the people, and the contemporary crafts reflecting
Denmark's image for modern design.
Quantitative and qualitative data were gathered
from a sample of 400 and 380 visitors to the Flora
Danica and Danish Art exhibitions respectively,
using face-to-face interviews. Respondents were
selected on a next-to-pass basis on their exit from
the exhibition, and the interviews were conducted
using a mixture of structured and open-ended
questions. A content analysis of the open-ended
data was undertaken to produce a number of
categories for the analysis of the free associations.
The samples profiled
Reference to Table 1 shows the samples differed in
some ways in their socio-demographic profiles.
Visitors to the Flora Danica exhibition were gener-
ally older and more likely to be female than those
the Danish Art exhibition. For example, half of all
visitors interviewed at the Flora Danica exhibition
were > 60, compared to 28% of visitors interviewed
at the Danish Art exhibition. Although females
predominated at both exhibitions, females formed
some 77% of all visitors surveyed at the Flora
Danica exhibition, compared with 61% of visitors
surveyed at the Danish Art exhibition. The visitors
at the Flora Danica exhibition were also dispropor-
tionately residents, compared with those at the
Danish Art exhibition; the proportions being 67 and
48%, respectively, from Lothians and Fife.
Other characteristics were more common across
the samples, as shown in Table 1. For example,
visitors from single person households and couples
with no children at home were predominant at both
exhibitions. At the Flora Danica exhibition they
formed 83% of all visitors; at the Danish Art exhibi-
tion, 73%. Similarly, visitors from professional,
managerial or technical households (1991 Census
classifications) predominated at both exhibitions;
comprising 84% of all visitors at the Flora Danica
exhibition and 78% at the Danish Art exhibition. At
both exhibitions, most visitors had visited another
exhibition in the previous month, and most had in
456
fact visited other Festival exhibitions. At Flora
Danica, 75% had visited another exhibition in the
previous month, and, likewise, 78% at the Danish
art exhibition. The corresponding proportions for
other Festival exhibitions were 61 and 58%.
Festival brochures were the most commonly cited
source of information, cited by almost 29% of the
sample at the Danish Art exhibition, and 24% at the
Flora Danica. However, at the Flora Danica exhibi-
tion newspaper reviews were more than three times
more frequently cited as sources of first information
than at the Danish Art exhibition, with 25 and 7%
citing newspaper reviews. Personal recommendation
was also given by 22% of those at the Flora Danica
exhibition, compared with 13% at the Danish Art
exhibition. Twelve percent of visitors surveyed at the
Danish Art exhibition had no prior source of infor-
mation, as they had noticed the exhibition on
passing and their visit was thus impulse based. The
reasons given by visitors for visiting the exhibitions
also differed. These differences extended beyond
those attributable to differing contents. More
visitors at the Danish Art exhibition had visited out
of an interest in Denmark, compared with those
visiting the Flora Danica exhibition (33% compared
to 10%). This possibly reflects the differing promo-
tions of the exhibitions already noted. At the Flora
Danica exhibition many more visitors had additional
reasons to those listed on the survey form, than at
the Danish Art exhibition (50% compared to 26%).
Were the exhibition-goers 'consuming'
Denmark?
Despite the differences between the samples, both
represent specialist segments of socially distinctive
active 'consumers' of exhibition products. These are
not extensively general consumers of Danish cultural
exports, for despite the higher frequency of visitors
at the Danish art exhibition citing an interest in
Denmark as a reason for having visited, at both
exhibitions such visitors were in a minority (Table 1).
Instead the visitors often demonstrated an interest
in the generic content of the displays; namely porce-
lain and plants in the case of the Flora Danica
exhibition (45 and 34% of visitors citing such an
interest, respectively), and paintings and crafts (41
and 27%, of visitors, respectively) at the Danish Art
exhibition. The exhibitions, in consequence, were
being consumed by 'specialist' segments, socially and
in terms of expressed interests. For many, awareness
of Danish culture through the exhibition is likely to
be secondary to the porcelain or paintings displayed.
The affects of an expressed prior interest in
Denmark on motivations are shown in Table 2. In
this table abstractions from full two sample Z~
tabulations calculated on absolute frequencies have
been assembled as proportions of previous visitors
to Denmark and non-visitors citing the different
 Imagery o f Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al

Table 1 Visitors and their visits profiled at both exhibitions (percentages of all visitors surveyed)

Flora Danica Danish Art

Age group
15-20 1.3 2.7
21- 30 3.8 13.3
31-40 7.8 18.1
41-50 16.7 20.5
51-60 20.5 17.6
61- 70 33.3 18.6
Over 70 16.7 9.3
n = 396 n = 376
Gender
Male 23.5 39.3
Female 76.5 60.7
n = 395 n = 376
Skilled non-manual 9.5 5.9
Skilled manual 2.3 1.9
Partly and unskilled 1.0 1.1
Student 2.8 10.0
Unemployed 0.8 1.1
Otherwise not employed - 2.2
n = 390 n = 370
Household type
Single 31.9 33.9
Single parent 0.3 1.6
Couple with no children at home 51.3 39.2
Couple with children aged < 7 at home 4.1 2.7
Couple with children of school age but no children 7.4 10.9
> 7 years at home
Couple with no children - 1.3
Couple with children aged over school age at home - 1.1
Widow - 0.8
Divorced - 0.3
Other 5.1 8.3
n = 392 n = 375
Area o f residence
Lothian/Fife 66.8 48.4
Other Scottish day trip 10.4 17.0
Other Scottish overnight 4.3 4.5
England and Wales 11.1 17.8
Other Eu ro pe 2.3 4.8
Other 5.1 7.4
Those who have visited the venue before NA 76.3
n = 380
When last visited an exhibition
In the past week 46.6 49.7
In the past month 28.5 28.6
In the past year 21.9 20.9
Previously 3.0 0.8
Never 0.0 0.0
n = 397 n = 378
Have visited other Edinburgh Festival exhibitions this year 61.1 58.0
n = 397 n = 378
H o w first heard about the exhibition
Newspaper advert 10.5 19.4
Newspaper review 24.7 7.0
Poster in town 4.5 6.2
Direct mail shot 0.6 1.6
Recommendation 21.6 12.6
Festival brochures 24.1 28.8
Tourist Information Centre 0.6 2.7
Work 1.9
At venue 1.6
Danish acquaintance 0.3
Noticed on passing 12.6
Gallery guide 1.3
Art club 0.3
Leaflet 2.2
"The List' magazine 1.1
Invited to opening 0.3
Venue's ln tern et home page 0.3
Reasons for visiting
Interest in D e n m a r k 10.0 32.9
Interest in plants 34.1 -
Interest in crafts - 27.4
Interest in paintings - 40.8
Interest in porcelain 44.6 -
To accompany so meo ne else - 5.8
Other 50.0 25.5
n = 400 (for each reason)* n = 380 (for each reason)

*More than one reason could be cited. 457

Imagery of Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al

motivations, a n d where these frequencies are statis-
tically significant at least 0.05, the significance level
is also given. W h e r e a s w h e t h e r or not r e s p o n d e n t s
had visited D e n m a r k has no affect on their p r o p e n -
sity to cite content-specific reasons for visiting such
as an interest in porcelain or paintings, it has a
highly significant affect in their propensity to cite an
interest in D e n m a r k as a reason for visiting. It
would seem, therefore, that interest in D e n m a r k
a m o n g the visitors surveyed is substantially associ-
ated with having visited the country, a n d not from
o t h e r m e a n s such as reading, television or other
D a n i s h exhibitions. In o t h e r words, image may be
c o n s e q u e n t of visiting, the particular p e r t i n e n c e of
experience derived image thereby b e i n g implied.
Some c a u t i o n n e e d s to be exercised, however, in
terms of the directness of this effect. Some 62% of
those visitors at the Flora D a n i c a exhibition who
had visited D e n m a r k , said that their visit(s) to the
c o u n t r y had not i n f l u e n c e d their decision to attend.
A t the Danish A r t exhibition the direction of this
affect was reversed, with 61% of those who had
visited D e n m a r k acknowledging some affect on their
decision to visit the exhibition. Although, those
visitors to the exhibition who had visited D e n m a r k
were also recently m o r e travelled than other visitors,
few other visitors had not b e e n out of Britain in the
previous 5 years. As such, some c a u t i o n is implied in
attributing an expressed interest in D e n m a r k by
those who had visited it as a c o n s e q u e n c e of wider
travel.
At the outset of this section the q u e s t i o n raised
was w h e t h e r or not the visitors to the two exhibi-
tions were ' c o n s u m i n g ' D e n m a r k as a place through
its associations implicit in the displays. In terms of
reasons for having visited, the answer is largely no,
o t h e r than for previous visitors to D e n m a r k .
Images of Denmark--qualitative analysis
Qualitative q u e s t i o n i n g was used to elicit respon-
d e n t s ' images of D e n m a r k at the Two C e n t u r i e s Art
Exhibition; this q u e s t i o n i n g was then s u p p l e m e n t e d
by closed e n d i n g scaling. T h e most frequently cited
images evoked by the o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n i n g are
p r e s e n t e d in Tables 3 a n d Table 4 a n d Table 6.
Knowledge of specific people a n d buildings was
generally low, implying vagueness in the collective

Table 2 The effects of a prior interest in Denmark on the motivations for visiting the exhibitions (percentages and two
sample X2 significance levels)

Flora Danica Flora Danica Significance Danish Art Danish Art Significance
visited not visited level visited not visited level
Denmark Denmark Denmark Denmark

Reason for visiting exhibition

Interest in Denmark 19.2 4.5 0.00001 61.4 15.2 0.00001
Interest in paintings - - - 37.2 42.9 NS
Interest in crafts - - - 25.5 28.6 NS
To accompany someone else - - - 4.8 6.5 NS
Interest in plants 34.9 33.6 NS - - -
Interest in porcelain 42.5 45.7 NS - -
n = 146 n = 247 n = 145 n = 231
Those who have visited other 30.1 13.0 0.00003 56.9 25.1 0.00001
exhibitions with a
Danish theme
n = 146 n = 247 n = 144 n = 231
Those who visited the FD exhibition - - 25.2 12.1 0.00112
last year
n = 143 n = 231
Whether been outside UK in 0.00669 0.00001
last 5 years
No 6.5 10.9 2.1 9.6
Once 7.2 11.4 4.9 14.9
2-5 visits 31.2 41.0 39.9 44.7
More than 5 visits 55.1 36.7 53. l 30.7
n = 138 n = 229 n = 143 n = 228
If visited Denmark, whether
visit to Denmark has influenced
decision to attend this exhibition
Yes, strongly 12.9 - 36.6
Yes, somewhat 25.2 - 24.8
No 61.9 - 38.6
n = 147 n = 145

NS, Not significant at 0.05.

458
 lmage~ of Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al

Table 3 Top ten images of famous Danish buildings Knowledge of famous people was somewhat
higher, with fewer respondents (30%) unable to cite
Frequency any famous Danes. Of these, 80% were non-visitors
1. Kronborg Castle (EIsinore Castle) 115 (27.5%) to Denmark. However, 23% of non-visitors were
2. Tivoli Gardens 40 (9.6%) able to provide two or more references, demon-
3. Frederiksborg Castle 40 (9.6%) strating a greater awareness of people than places
4. Little Mermaid 35 (8.4%) amongst non-visitors. A total of 505 names were
5. Amalienborg Royal Palace 29 (6.9%) mentioned, although 16 of these were not Danes,
6. Louisianna Modern Art Museum 23 (5.5%) and a further 14 were either generic (e.g. Vikings)
7. Legoland 18 (4.3%) or fictional (e.g. Hamlet).
8. Rosenborg Castle 10 (2.4%) The most frequently mentioned Danes were
9. The Round Tower 8 (1.9%) writers (208 mentions) with H. C. Andersen
10. Skagen Museum 8 (1.9%)
commanding first place with 165 mentions (Table 4).
Note: total of 418 buildings/images mentioned and as These references were arguably evoked by autono-
these are only the top ten images mentioned the percent- mous sources of information, stemming from long-
ages on this table do not equal 100%. term familiarity with the author of fairy-tales. In
comparison, Djursaa's ~ list was much shorter, and
whilst it too was dominated by H. C. Andersen
images held of Denmark. For example, 41% of the (Table 5), the ten most cited names included five
sample could not name any buildings at all. Danish football players, Hamlet, Vikings, a scientist
Knowledge was much higher amongst previous
and a live entertainer. This is arguably a reflection
visitors to D e n m a r k than non-visitors, again
of the difference between the two sample groups.
implying the pertinence of experience derived
Djursaa's sample was skewed towards young and
image. Whilst 60% of previous visitors to Denmark
male business students, whereas the sample of
could provide two or more references, only 11% of
exhibition-goers was not. The exhibition-goers were
non-visitors could do so. However, of the total of
also more knowledgeable of D e n m a r k in that they
418 references to buildings, 95 were not buildings at
nominated more, and a wider range of people per
all, but rather the Little Mermaid (a statue), the
respondent on average.
Tivoli (a pleasure garden) and Legoland (a theme
In addition to knowledge of buildings and people,
park) (Table 3). Castles and palaces totalled 65% of
respondents were invited to identify any other
all the references to actual buildings, followed by
associations which were evoked by Denmark,
museums and galleries (17%) and other public and
outwith the fine arts theme of the exhibition. A total
historic buildings (13%). The prevalence of the
of 727 associations were provided (Table 6), with
non-buildings and of Kronborg Castle may well
only 49 (13%) respondents unable to find any
reflect the promoted image of D e n m a r k as apparent
associations. Of these 49 respondents, 73% were
over successive years, that is, the overt induced
non-visitors to Denmark, once again emphasizing
image.
the importance of organic experience-derived
images. Fifty-five per cent of non-visitors and 65%
Table4 Top ten images of famous Danish people from of previous D e n m a r k visitors were able to provide
visitors to Danish Art exhibition
Table5 Top ten images of famous Danish People,
Name Category Frequency Djursaa's 1988 Cranfield study
1. Hans Christian Writer 165 (32.7%) Frequency
Andersen
2. Carl Nielsen Composer 64 (12.7%) I. Hans Christian Andersen 193 (45.5%)
3. Georg Jensen Artist/craftsman 30 (5.9%) 2. Jesper Olsen* 49 (11.6%)
4. Karen Blixen Writer 25 (5.0%) 3. Jan M01by* 34 (8.0%)
5. SOren Kierkegaard Philosopher 23 (4.6%) 4. Michael Laudrup* 22 (5.2%)
6. Arne Jacobsen Designer 22 (4.4%) 5. Hamlet 17 (4.0%)
7. Niels Bohr Scientist 17 (3.4%) 6. Vikings 17 (4.0%)
8. Kroyer Artist 12 (2.4%) 7. Allan Simonsen* 14 (3.3%)
9. Hamlet Fiction 11 (2.2%) 8. Niels Bohr 9 (2.1%)
10. Peter Hoeg Writer 11 (2.2%) 9. Victor Borge 8 (1.9%)
10. Preben Elkjter* 8 (1.9%)
Note: total of 505 people/images mentioned: no names,
30%; one name, 34%; two or more names, 35%. The top Note: Total of 424 people/images mentioned from a total
ten images comprise 75% of all those mentioned. A of 708 respondents: no names, 48%; one name, 37%, two
further 76 names were mentioned, including a further five names, 15%. The top ten images comprised 88% of all
writers, one composer, five architects/designers, one those mentioned. An additional 28 names were
philosopher, one scientist, four footballers, four royals, mentioned.
eight artists and four performing artists. *Football players, totalling 30% of all those mentioned.

459
Imagery of Denmark among visitors."V Andersen et al

two or more associations. A content analysis hygienic, expensive, socially aware, modern, organ-
produced a number of clear categories: food and ized, artistic, somewhat uncrowded and somewhat
drink; physical attributes of the country and the informal. Hygiene was the most frequently rated 1
people; economic activity; and society. The associa- (the maximum score) with 68% of the Flora Danica
tions were clearly dominated by overt-induced infor- exhibition visitors rating Denmark in this way, and
mation sources of both tourism and non-tourism 62% of the Danish Art exhibition visitors. Expense
agencies, but a number of sub-categories emerged" and social awareness also attracted high ratings from
which reflect autonomous sources, especially the both samples. Of the visitors at the Flora Danica
publicity received in connection with Denmark's exhibition, the median scores for both attributes
resistance to the Maastricht Treaty. were 1, and the corresponding median scores among
The overall mental map which can be drawn from visitors to the Danish Art exhibition were both 2. In
the knowledge base and free associations of the contrast, the visitors largely neither saw Denmark as
exhibition goers is not very dissimilar to that drawn boring nor exciting, or as musical nor unmusical.
by Niss 3" in her study of the use of country-of-origin There was some perception of Denmark as wealthy,
labels in marketing, although some interesting new with a median score of 2 for both samples.
components could be added, notably the image of The summary images recorded in Table 7 do,
Denmark as a clean, unpolluted country with however, conceal several important differences,
healthy people. It also corresponds to a large extent notably between visitors who had visited Denmark
to the image of the country projected by the tourist and those who had not (Table 8). Visitors who had
board and in the marketing of the agricultural visited Denmark were more likely than others to
products for which Denmark is famous in Britain. characterize Denmark as socially aware, hygienic,
exciting and informal. Across both samples, other
Images of Denmark~uantitative analysis images did not vary by whether visitors had been to
Imagery was also measured using five point bipolar Denmark or not (although some other effects were
scales common to both surveys. Eleven dimensions found for each sample only). The absence of an
of image were measured (Table 7). In summary, the
visitors to both exhibitions perceived Denmark as Table7 Imagery of Denmark (median scores on five
point ordinal scales)
Table 6 Top ten free associations with Denmark Artistic (1) unartistic (5)
Specific image Category Frequency Flora Danica
Danish Art
1. Dairy products Food and drink 2 60 (8.3%) Socially aware (1) unaware (5)
2. Food general Food and drink 35 (4.8%) Flora Danica
3. Design Economic activity3 35 (4.8%) Danish Art
4. Flat Country-physicaP 32 (4.4%) Boring (1) exciting (5)
5. Friendly, kind Country-people ~ 29 (4.0%) Flora Danica
6. Bacon Food and drink 28 (3.9%) Danish Art
7. Lager/beer Food and drink 23 (3.2%) Crowded (1) uncrowded (5)
8. Socially aware Society" 21 (3.0%) Flora Danica
9. Clean Country-physical 20 (2.8%) Danish Art
10. Lego/legoland Country-physical 19 (2.6%) Expensive (1) cheap (5)
Flora Danica
Note: total of 727 free associations mentioned and as Danish Art
these are only the top ten images mentioned the percent- Hygienic (1) unhygienic (5)
ages on this table do not equal 100%. Flora Danica
2Total food and drink references = 179. Danish Art
~Total of 114 references to economic activity other than Informal (1)formal (5)
agriculture, including 89 related to cultural industries and Flora Danica
architecture, and 16 related to seafaring, fishing and Danish Art
shipbuilding. Modern (1) oM fashioned (5)
"Total of 177 references to physical attributes includes 41 Flora Danica
references to clean, fresh, rural and unspoilt nature of Danish Art
country, 40 references to the sea, beaches, islands, ferries Musical (1) unmusical (5)
and lakes, 32 to flatness, 44 references to specific places Flora Danica
and eight to the cold. Danish Art
~Total of 98 references to the characteristics of the people Organized (1) disorganized (5)
also includes healthy (15), relaxed (13) and good-looking Flora Danica
(10), happy (8), civilized (7) and environmentally aware Danish Art
(6). Wealthy (1)poor (5)
"Total of 79 references to Danish society also includes Flora Danica
free-thinking, forward-looking and liberal (total 22), Danish Art
political independence and social democracy (total 17).

460

Table 8 Effects of having visited Denmark on the images
held of the country (two sample Z2 significance levels)
Flora Danica D a n i s h Art
Artistic--unartistic NS NS
Socially aware--unaware 0,00555 0.00023
Boring--exciting 0,00031 0.02331
Crowded--uncrowded 0.00001 NS
Expensive--cheap NS 0.00171
Hygienic--unhygienic 0.00001 0.01923
Informal--formal 0.00255 0.00002
Modern--old fashioned 0.00823 NS
Musical--unmusical NS NS
Organized--disorganized NS NS
Wealthy--poor NS NS
NS, not significant at (I.05.
affect by having visited the country on perception of
artistry and musicality is unsurprising in terms of the
tourism 'product' which Denmark presents to the
British market in its brochures. In terms of changed
images, visiting Denmark should seem to produce
other benefits of a more social kind of insight into a
people?"
A degree of inter-correlation of images can be
seen in Table 9, although individually the relation-
ships are weak. The strongest associations shown by
the correlation coefficients include images of
Denmark as musical and as artistic (0.4386 for Flora
Danica visitors; 0.3004 for Danish Art visitors); as
modern and socially aware (0.3757 and 0.4823,
respectively); as hygienic and organized (0.3700 and
0.3530); and as wealthy and organized (0.3045 and
0.3244). In other words, the more strongly a visitor
rated one of the items of one of these pairs, the
more strongly he or she was likely to rate the other
item. Whether or not a visitor had been to Denmark
had no consistent effect on the strength of these
associations. However, in that non-visitors to
Denmark were more likely than visitors to associate
modernity and social awareness (with coefficients of
0.4057 for non-visitors and 0.3173 for visitors to
Flora Danica, and 0.5023 and 0.4106 respectively
among those to the Danish Art exhibition), this may
imply that by visiting Denmark other associations of
modernity are learned.
Specific holiday images of Denmark were also
investigated. Both samples saw Denmark as
predominantly a place for bicycle and farmhouse
holidays (Table 10) and the Danish Art sample
further described Denmark as a destination for
visiting museums and galleries. Contrary to the
pertinence of organic experience-derived image so
far noted, holidaying images showed little consistent
variation across the exhibitions by whether or not
respondents had visited Denmark. The only
consistent effect identified was for a less frequent
image, that of beach holidays. Visitors were more
likely than non visitors to hold the image (16% of
Image~ of Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al
visitors compared to 5% of non-visitors at Flora
Danica, and 22% compared to 14% at the Danish
Art exhibition). At the Danish Art exhibition visitors
were also more likely than non-visitors to hold
shopping as an image of holidaying in Denmark
(21% of visitors compared to 7% of those who had
not visited the country), and less likely to give
bicycle holidays as part of this image (38%
compared to 52%). However, despite these differ-
ences, the general conclusion has to be that having
visited Denmark has little effect on its holiday
image.
Of those visitors who had visited Denmark, most
had been for holidays or pleasure (Table 11). This is
reflected in the high frequencies recorded for having
visited some of the famous attractions of Denmark.
For example, approximately eight out of ten visitors
to the country at both exhibitions had visited the
Tivoli Gardens and the Little Mermaid. The gener-
ally lower frequencies indicated for cultural attrac-
tions in Table 11 reflect the generally lower
frequency these were given in the reported imagery
of Denmark (Table 7). However, at the Danish Art
exhibition, familiarity with artists or exhibits was
generally higher among past visitors to Denmark
(Table 12), implying that the artistic and musical
aspects of the country are not consolidated into a
general image among its past visitors but are instead
specific. In all cases shown in Table 12, the direction
of the effect was positive; past visitors to Denmark
being more likely to have been familiar with the
artists or exhibits.
Propensity to visit Denmark and to 'consume'
For tourism investment in exhibitions the possible
'conversion' of potential tourists to the destination
being promoted is of interest, despite these state-
ments being hypothetical. Further reference to Table
12 gives some insight into this, although fewer
questions were asked on this aspect at the Flora
Danica exhibition than at the Danish Art exhibition.
At the Flora Danica exhibition the stated likelihood
of visitors to visit Denmark as a consequence of the
exhibition was generally higher than that at the
Danish Art exhibition, and was undifferentiated by
whether or not the exhibition visitor had previously
visited Denmark. In contrast, at the Danish Art
exhibition the effect of having previously visited
Denmark was quite marked on the expressed
propensity to revisit consequent of the exhibition,
with 32% of previous visitors to Denmark saying
definitely that the exhibition had inspired them to
revisit, but only 13% of non-visitors likewise that
they had been inspired to visit. The affect of having
previously visited Denmark was consistent at the
Danish Art exhibition, from familiarity, through
contribution to personal knowledge, and to inspira-
tion to visit other Danish exhibitions. In other
words, if a conversion rate enhancement exists from
461
Imagery of Denmark among visitors." V Andersen et al

exhibitions of this kind it is most likely to be found
a m o n g previous visitors to the country presented,
reawakening interest rather than generating equal
interest a m o n g those who had not previously visited
the country.
Conclusions
This study d e m o n s t r a t e s the persistent nature of
images projected by overt-induced image formation
agents, extending even beyond the actual visitation
to a destination, and beyond exposure to the
cultural product. Despite a d e m o n s t r a t e d interest in
cultural visits, as evidenced by their presence at the
exhibitions at which the surveys took place, respon-
dents still rated D e n m a r k as frequently as a destina-
tion for bicycle holidays and f a r m h o u s e holidays as
for visits to m u s e u m s and galleries, Even amongst
visitors to the country, the level of m u s e u m visits
was relatively low, not exceeding 28% for any of the
C o p e n h a g e n m u s e u m s and galleries listed. It may
thus be conjectured that when cultural attractions
are not included in the image projected by overt-
induced agents, notably tourism organizations, they
will not be expected by the visitor, and they will not
be sought out during the visit. T h e visitors are satis-
fied when they experience what they expected; a
clean, fiat, rural idyll, dotted with the occasional

Table 9 Relationship between images held of Denmark by exhibition visitors (non-parametric correlation coefficients)
Artistic Socially Boring Congested Expensive Hygienic Informal Modern Musical Organized
aware

(a) Flora Danica visitors

Aware 0.2463
Sig 0.001
Boring - 0.1520 NS
Sig 0.002
Congested - 0.1628 -0.1904 NS
Sig 0.001 Sig.001
Expensive NS 0.1294 NS -0,1123
Sig.010 Sig. 0.025
Hygienic 0.1897 0.2607 NS -0.2029 0.2105
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001
Informal 0.1253 0.2047 -0.1652 NS NS NS
Sig. 0.012 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001
Modern 0.2756 0.3757 NS -0.1600 [I.1689 0.3181 0.1316
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.009
Musical 0.4386 0.1804 NS NS NS NS NS 0.1341
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.007
Organized 0.2126 0.3318 NS - 0.1982 0.2567 0.3700 NS 0.3488 NS
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.007
Wealthy 0.1947 0.2257 NS -0.1270 0.3181 0.2277 NS 0.1875 0.1803 0.3045
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.0ll Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001
(b) Danish A r t visitors
Aware 0.2939
Sig. 0.001
Boring -0.3161 -0.1384
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.007
Crowded -0.1490 -0.1620 NS
Sig. 0.004 Sig. 0.002
Expensive 0.1455 0.1722 NS NS
Sig. 0.005 Sig. 0.001
Hygienic 0.2722 0.2905 -0.1545 --0.1928 0.2769
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.003 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001
Informal 0.1832 0.1907 - 0.2246 -0.1154 NS 0.1981
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.00l Sig. 0.00l Sig. 0.026 Sig. 0.001
Modern 0.3876 0.4823 -0.1499 NS 0.2302 0.2935 0.2397
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.00l Sig. 0.004 Sig. 0.00l Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001
Musical 0.3004 0.2039 -0.1746 NS NS 0.1108 NS 0.1932
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.032 Sig. 0.001
Organized 0.2518 0.2815 NS --0.1759 0.3757 0.3530 NS [).2500 0.1475
Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.(t01 Sig. 0.004
Wealthy 0.1329 0.2330 NS NS 0.2792 0.2586 NS 0.2485 NS 0.3244
Sig. 0.010 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001 Sig. 0.001

NS, not significant at 0.05.

462
 Imagery of Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al

fairy-tale castle and populated by friendly, healthy As mentioned earlier, attempts are being made to
and good-looking people riding bicycles. In these modify Denmark's image by the national tourism
instances the experience leads to the reinforcement agency, though this campaign is currently restricted
of the pre-image. Cultural tourists are not a homog- to the Netherlands and Germany. The organizers of
enous group with exclusively cultural motivations, cultural exports such as the exhibitions surveyed do
and when selecting D e n m a r k as a destination, the not fit neatly into Gartner's -~ hierarchy, as their
motivation to undertake cultural visits must have motivations extend beyond pure image projection to
been subordinate to other motivations. However, the pursuit of international cultural relations.
potential tourists for whom a cultural motivation is However, in this context they too may be regarded
currently predominant will not even include as induced image formation agents, as the product
D e n m a r k in their perceived opportunity set, presented is carefully selected, financed and
precluding selection altogether. controlled by the export agency. The exhibitions
surveyed re-kindled interest in D e n m a r k as a desti-
Table 10 Images of holidays in Denmark nation amongst former visitors by creating a new
Flora Danish awareness of the cultural resources of the country
Danica Art and thus the potential for a culturally motivated
visit. Gartner suggested that image promoters must
Selected: (percentages) select the right mix of image formation agents to
Bicycle holidays 48.0 46.4 maximize their scarce resources, and there is
Farmhouse holidays 45.3 44.8 evidence here to support the proposition that
Holidays with children 35.5 32.8
tourism marketing organizations may consider more
Historic buildings 32.5 31.2
Museums and galleries 31.5 43.2 focused collaboration with cultural organizations to
Theatres and ballet 13.5 11.5 stimulate awareness and initiate the image modifica-
Food 12.8 16.3 tion process. The impact of these organizations on
Shopping 10.0 12.5 image formation deserves further investigation. A
Hiking 9.8 11.5 further generic implication is that the implicit
Beach holidays 9.0 16.8 acceptance of widely held images of a destination
Nightlife 6.3 7.2 may not be appropriate to tourism diversification
Classical music 4.3 4.3 into new markets. New images may need to be
Sport 3.8 7.5 promoted and this needs to be undertaken on the
Pop music and jazz 2.5 4,3
bases of the experience different market segments
N= 1179 1125
among potential tourists may demand.
Table 11 Frequencies of holiday details for visitors who had visited Denmark (percentages)
Flora Danica visited D e n m a r k Danish Art visited D e n m a r k

Type of visit to Denmark

Holidays/pleasure 78.0 69.0
Business 28.3 22.8
Visiting friends/relatives 15.2 22.8
Education/exchange 6.9 11.7
n = 145 n = 145
Whether visited any o f the Those who had visited the site (%) Those who had visited the site (%)
following attractions
The Little Mermaid 88.4 76.9
Tivoli Gardens 80.8 78.3
Elsinore Castle 51.4 49.7
The Viking Ship Museum 41.8 44.8
Birthplace of H.C. Andersen 40.4 25.9
Rosenborg Palace 39.0 35.7
The Old Town' in Arhus 36.3 37.1
Royal Copenhagen 34.2 27.3
Carlsberg Brewery 26.0 25.9
Legoland 25.3 22.4
The National Museum 19.9 28.0
State Museum of Art 15.8 24.5
The Royal Theatre 14.4 16.1
Louisiana 11.6 25. 9
Museum of Decorative Arts 11.0 12.6
n = 146 n = 143

Percentages are given in italics for attractions of relevance to the exhibition.

463
lmage~ of Denmark among visitors: V Andersen et al
Table 12 T h e effect of having visited D e n m a r k on famili-
arity with and expressed propensity to visit D e n m a r k
(significance levels oftwo sample Z 2 coefficients; Danish
A r t Exhibition only)
Significance levels
Familiar with any of the artists 0.00001
before the exhibition
Familiar with any of the exhibits 0.00013
before the exhibition
If this visit c o n t r i b u t e d 0.00810
to their knowledge of
Danish culture
If exhibition has inspired 0.00434
t h e m to look out for o t h e r
D a n i s h exhibitions
If the exhibition has 0.00009
inspired t h e m to visit D e n m a r k
in the next 2 years
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Received February 1997
Accepted May 1997