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Required Reading
Recommended Reading
Joel B. Green, “Death of Jesus” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels.
L. Morris, The Cross in the New Testament (Exeter 1967).
Perhaps originated with the Carthaginians, but practiced by the Persians, Indians,
Assyrians and others, and later among the Greeks and Romans. Some evidence suggests
crucifixion was used as a mode of execution by Jews before the time of Herod the Great
(Josephus, J.W. 1.4.6 §§97–98; Ant. 13.14.2 §§379–383; 11QTemple 64:6–13).
o More generally among the Romans, crucifixion was a penalty reserved for
those of lower status—namely, dangerous criminals, slaves and the populace of foreign
provinces. Among these peoples crucifixion served as a means of asserting Roman
authority and maintaining law and order. Thus, in the province of Judea, it proved to be a
generally effective weapon against resistance to Roman occupation. Don’t mess with us.
“Crucifixion was a powerful symbol throughout the Roman world. It was not just
a means of liquidating undesirables; it did so with the maximum degradation and
humiliation…..It told an implicit story, of the uselessness of rebel recalcitrance
and the ruthlessness of imperial power. It said, in particular: this is what happens
to rebel leaders. Crucifixion was a symbolic act with a clear and frightening
meaning.”
1
Tom Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, p.543.
I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have
their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others
stretch out their arms on the gibbet.
The act itself damaged no vital organs, nor did it result in excessive bleeding. Hence,
death came slowly, sometimes after several days, through shock or a painful process
of asphyxiation as the muscles used in breathing suffered increasing fatigue
(Joel B. Green, “Death of Jesus” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels)
Naked and affixed to a stake, cross or tree, the victim was subjected to savage ridicule
by frequent passers-by.
When they were going to be taken (by the Romans), they were forced to defend
themselves, and after they had fought they thought it too late to make any
supplications for mercy: so they were first whipped and then tormented with all sorts
of tortures, before they died and were then crucified before the wall of the city. Titus
felt pity for them, but as their number — given as up to five hundred a day — were
too great for him to risk either letting them go or putting them under guard, he
allowed his soldiers to have their way, especially as he hoped that the gruesome sight
of the countless crosses might move the besieged to surrender: “So the soldiers, out of
rage and hatred they bore the prisoners, nailed those they caught, in different postures,
to the crosses, by way of jest, and their number was so great that there was not enough
room for the crosses and not enough crosses for the bodies.”
2
Already by the time of the first century A.D., the victim of crucifixion was
understood in terms of Deuteronomy 21:22–23—specifically, “anyone who is hung
on a tree is under the curse of God.” In its own context, this passage refers to the
public display of the corpse of an executed criminal. But the NT gives evidence that
this meaning was expanded considerably within the early church to include persons
who had been crucified. This is seen in the verbal allusions to Deuteronomy 21:22–23
(e.g., Acts 5:30; 13:29; 1 Pet 2:24) and Paul’s explicit citation of Deuteronomy 21:23
in Galatians 3:13. Apart from and prior to Christianity, evidence from the Qumran
literature (4QpNah 3–4.1.7–8; 11QTemple 64:6–13) as well as from the writings of
the first-century Alexandrian Jew Philo (Spec. Leg. 3.152; Post C. 61; Somn. 2.213)
attests that victims of crucifixion could be understood this way within Judaism. Thus,
the cross could not be interpreted positively as a symbol of the Jewish resistance.
“No mere human, in his or her right mind or otherwise, would ever have dreamed up
God’s scheme for redemption – through a crucified Messiah. It is too preposterous, too
humiliating, for a God.” Gordon Fee
“Christianity is the only major religion to have as its central event the humiliation of its
God” Bruce Shelley
“Let the very name of the cross be far away not only from the body of a Roman citizen,
but even from his thoughts” (Cicero, Pro Rabiro).
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The shadow of death across the ministry of Jesus.
The days will come when the bridegroom is taken away from them, and then they will
fast on that day (Mark 2:20)
They appeared in glory and were speaking of his departure (exodos), which he was
about to accomplish at Jerusalem (Luke 9:31)
4
3. Explicit predictions (Mk 8:31-33 et par; Mk 9:30-32 et par; Mk 10: 32-34 et
par).
Then he began to teach them that the Son of Man must undergo great suffering, and
be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the scribes, and be killed, and after
three days rise again (Mark 8:31)
For you always have the poor with you, and you can show kindness to them whenever
you wish; but you will not always have me. 8 She has done what she could; she has
anointed my body beforehand for its burial. (Mark 14:7-8)
"As you know, the Passover is two days away--and the Son of Man will be handed over
to be crucified."
. The 'King of the Jews' charge (Mt 27:11; Mk 15:2; Lk 23:3; Jn 18:33).
. The problem: there is no evidence for any armed rebellion on Jesus' part (Mt
26:55; Mk 14:48; Lk 22:52) or subsequent arrests of His followers.
5
4. General hostility, fear and jealousy (Jn 7:10-13).
• What further justifications for Jesus' execution can be found within this
grid?
. Profanation of the Sabbath (Mk 2:23-28 et par; 3:1-6 et par; Lk 13:10-17; 14:1-
6):
. See Num 15:32-36.
6
Jesus’ interpretation of his death
For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give
his life as a ransom for many.
The term ransom or redemption means a price paid to free someone. The
preposition for usually carries the sense “instead of” or “in place of”, thus implying a
substiutionary atonement or sacrifice for God’s people. The most likely background is
the suffering Servant of Isaiah 53:10-12
10 Yet it was the LORD's will to crush him and cause him to suffer, and
though the LORD makes his life a guilt offering, he will see his offspring and prolong
his days, and the will of the LORD will prosper in his hand.
11 After the suffering of his soul, he will see the light of life and be satisfied;
by his knowledge my righteous servant will justify many, and he will bear their
iniquities.
12 Therefore I will give him a portion among the great, and he will divide the
spoils with the strong, because he poured out his life unto death, and was numbered
with the transgressors. For he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the
transgressors.
The ‘cup’ image was used in the OT for God pouring out his
judgement (Jeremiah 25:15-38; Ezekiel 23:31-34. The destructive
‘baptism’ image probably has the idea of destructive waters behind it
(e.g. Psalm 124:3-5). In other words, Jesus absorbs God’s wrath
against us and takes our destruction in his place.
Here, Jesus portrays himself as the new Passover Lamb (cf. 1 Cor 5:7),
inaugurating a new covenant, which brings forgiveness of sins and
personal knowledge of God (Jer 31:31) Once again Jesus dies for the
‘many’ (Isaiah 53:12). The table imagery also suggests that Jesus’
death inaugurates the future messianic banquet in the Kingdom.
7
• Luke's Gospel on Jesus' understanding of His death:
Jesus’ death
. surpasses the best the OT has to offer (covenant; exodus; righteous
sufferer of the Psalms; Moses/Elijah);
. turns away wrath (is propitiatory: the cup image);
. is on behalf of others (‘for others’);
. fulfils the Isaianic Servant role.
Bibliography:
For starters, read G.N. Stanton (1989), or G.R. Osborne (1992), or C.L. Blomberg, Jesus
and the Gospels (Leicester 1997), pp.351-362. Follow this up with G.E. Ladd (1975) or
M.J. Harris (1983). The magisterial work on this topic is now N.T. Wright, The Resurrection
of the Son of God.
1. R.E. Brown, The Virginal Conception & Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (London 1974).
2. W.L. Craig, 'The Empty Tomb of Jesus', in R.T. France and D. Wenham (eds.), Gospel
Perspectives 2: Studies of History and Tradition in the Four Gospels (Sheffield 1981).
3. D. Fuller, Easter Faith and History (London 1968).
4. G.E. Ladd, I Believe in the Resurrection of Jesus (London 1975).
5. M.J. Harris, Raised Immortal: The Relation Between Resurrection and Immortality in the
New Testament Teaching (London 1983), pp.5-97.
6. G.R. Osborne, The Resurrection Narratives: A Redactional Study (Grand Rapids 1984).
, 'Resurrection', in J.B. Green (et. al., eds.), Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (Downers
Grove 1992), pp.673-688.
7. G.N. Stanton, The Gospels and Jesus (Oxford 1989), pp.267-270.
8
• Resurrection belief was a late development in the OT:
. The belief in Sheol.
. Important OT texts:
. Hos 13:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Job 19:25-27; Is 25:8, 26:19.
9
• Several intertestamental texts expand upon the resurrection hope:
1 Enoch 62:13-16.
A B
Empty tomb
? Resurrection appearances
of Jesus
• What links A to B?
10
. The resurrection is an historical inference:
. No one witnessed the actual resurrection event itself.
• Historians must determine the explanation that best fits the evidence:
1. They may adopt an historical agnosticism:
That Jesus' followers (and later Paul) had resurrection experiences is, in my
judgement, a fact. What the reality was that gave rise to the experiences I
do not know.
E.P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus (London 1993), p.280.
1. Its abruptness:
. No resurrection appearances (but Mark knows of them: Mk 14:28).
. See either the RSV or NIV for the longer ending (vv.9-20: maintext).
. Universally, these endings have been seen as the product of later Christians filling
out the ending of Mark from other traditions regarding the resurrection.
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1. Neither ending belongs to the earliest and most reliable manuscripts of
Mark.
2. In fact the author had proceeded further than v.8: but at a very early date all
that he wrote was lost (ie. it became detached from the end of the papyrus)
and was not retrieved.
. Some scholars suggest that we can hypothetically reconstruct the lost ending of
Mark from the resurrection accounts of Matthew and Luke: very speculative!
(i) The vindication of Christ (Acts 2:36, Rome 1:4; Phil 2:9-11)
(i) The Resurrection was neither a sequel to nor a reversal of the cross
(ii) The Resurrection reveals what the cross was – God’s act for humankind
(i) This event marked the turning of the ages – the Resurrection is an eschatological
event
(ii) This is the definitive breakthrough the eternal order into the world of suffering and
death
(iii) Jesus lives, and will soon pour out the eschatological Spirit.
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