SOLAR ENERGY

By: Seva Novgorodtsev

Teacher: Frank Koop
Physics, 1st period
02/20/2008
 People have always used the energy of the sun. As far back as 5,000 years ago, people

"worshipped" the sun. Ra, the sun-god, who was considered the first king of Egypt. The influence of the

sun also appears in other religions.

We know today, that the sun is simply our nearest star. Without it, life would not exist on our

planet. We use the sun's energy every day in many different ways.

When we hang laundry outside to dry in the sun, we are using the sun's heat to do work -

drying our clothes.

Plants use the sun's light to make food. Animals eat plants for food. And decaying plants

hundreds of millions of years ago produced the coal, oil and natural gas that we use today. So, fossil

fuels is actually sunlight stored millions and millions of years ago.

Let's look at ways in which we can use the sun's energy.

Solar Hot Water

In the 1890s solar water heaters were being used all over the United States i. They proved to be

a big improvement over wood and coal-burning stoves. Artificial gas made from coal was available too

to heat water, but it cost 10 times the price we pay for natural gas today. And electricity was even

more expensive and it wasn’t available for many people!

 Many homes used solar water heaters. In 1897, 30 percent of the homes in Pasadena, just east

of Los Angeles, were equipped with solar water heaters ii. As mechanical improvements were made,

solar systems were used in Arizona, Florida and many other sunny parts of the United States.

In 1920 solar water heaters became less popular because the large deposits of oil and natural

gas were discovered in the United States and replaced solar water heaters.

Today, solar water heaters are making a comeback. There are more than half a million of them

in California alone!iii They heat water for use inside homes and businesses. They also heat swimming

pools.

Panels on the roof of a building contain water pipes. When the sun hits the panels and the

pipes, the sunlight warms them. That warmed water can then be used in a swimming pool.

Photovoltaic

Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. A photovoltaic cell, commonly

called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar energy directly into electrical power. A

photovoltaic cell is a nonmechanical device usually made from silicon alloys iv.

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various

amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons

strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed. Only the
absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed

by the material, electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. Special treatment of the material

surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so

the electrons naturally migrate to the surface.

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each

carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge

between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive

terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity

flows. v

The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic system. Individual cells can

vary in size from about 1 centimeter (1/2 inch) to about 10 centimeter (4 inches) across. However, one

cell only produces 1 or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for most applications. To increase power

output, cells are electrically connected into a packaged weather-tight module. Modules can be further

connected to form an array. The term array refers to the entire generating plant, whether it is made

up of one or several thousand modules. The number of modules connected together in an array

depends on the amount of power output needed.

The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate conditions (e.g.,

clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a photovoltaic array

and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic modules are about 10 percent
efficient in converting sunlight. Further research is being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20

percent.

The photovoltaic cell was discovered in 1954 by Bell Telephone researchers examining the

vi
sensitivity of a properly prepared silicon wafer to sunlight. Beginning in the late 1950s, photovoltaic

cells were used to power U.S. space satellites. The success of PV in space generated commercial

applications for this technology. The simplest photovoltaic systems power many of the small

calculators and wrist watches used everyday. More complicated systems provide electricity to pump

water, power communications equipment, and even provide electricity to our homes.

Some advantages of photovoltaic systems are:

1. Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical generator systems

are unnecessary.

2. PV arrays can be installed quickly and in any size required or allowed.

3. The environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for system cooling and generating

no by-products.

Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC) which is generally used for small

loads (electronic equipment). When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial applications or

sold to electric utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to alternating current (AC) using

inverters, solid state devices that convert DC power to AC.

 Historically, PV has been used at remote sites to provide electricity. In the future PV arrays may

be located at sites that are also connected to the electric grid enhancing the reliability of the

distribution system.

Solar Thermal Power Plants

Solar energy can also be used to make electricity.

Some solar power plants use a highly curved mirror called a parabolic trough to focus the

sunlight on a pipe running down a central point above the curve of the mirror. The mirror focuses the

sunlight to strike the pipe, and it gets so hot that it can boil water into steam. That steam can then be

used to turn a turbine to make electricity.

In California's Mojave desert, there are huge rows of solar mirrors arranged in what's called

"solar thermal power plants" that use this idea to make electricity for more than 350,000 homes. The

problem with solar energy is that it works only when the sun is shining. So, on cloudy days and at night,

the power plants can't create energy. Some solar plants, are a "hybrid" technology. During the daytime

they use the sun. At night and on cloudy days they burn natural gas to boil the water so they can

continue to make electricity.

Another form of solar power plants to make electricity is called a Central Tower Power Plant.

Sunlight is reflected off mirrors circling the tall tower. The mirrors are called heliostats and

move and turn to face the sun all day long.

 The light is reflected back to the top of the tower in the center of the circle where a fluid is

turned very hot by the sun's rays. That fluid can be used to boil water to make steam to turn a turbine

and a generator.

This experimental power plant is called Solar II. It was re-built in California's desert using newer

technologies than when it was first built in the early 1980s. Solar II will use the sunlight to change heat

into mechanical energy in the turbine.

The power plant will make enough electricity to power about 10,000 homes. Scientists say

larger central tower power plants can make electricity for 100,000 to 200,000 homes.

Solar Energy And The Environment

Solar energy is free, and its supplies are unlimited. Using solar energy produces no air or water

pollution but does have some indirect impacts on the environment. For example, manufacturing the

photovoltaic cells used to convert sunlight into electricity, consumes silicon and produces some waste

products. In addition, large solar thermal farms can also harm desert ecosystems if not properly

managed.

Solar energy has been recognized as a feasible alternative. It has been suggested that efficient

collection of the solar energy incident on 14% of the western desert areas of the United States would
provide enough electricity to satisfy current demands. vii Two main solar processes could be used.

Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. Another method would use special

coatings that absorb sunlight readily and emit infrared radiation slowly, making it possible to heat

fluids to 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit (540 degrees Celsius) by solar radiation. The heat in turn can be

converted to electricity. Some of this heat would be stored to allow operation at night and during

periods of heavy cloud cover. The projected efficiency of such a plant would be about 30%, but this

fairly low efficiency must be balanced against the facts that energy from the sun costs nothing and that

the waste heat from such a plant places virtually no additional burden on the environment

Solar Energy Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

1. Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.

2. In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get electricity to

a remote place.

3. Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery chargers

Disadvantages

1. Doesn't work at night.

2. Very expensive to build solar power stations.

Solar cells cost a great deal compared to the amount of electricity they'll produce in their

lifetime.
 3. Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate. In the United Kingdom, solar power

isn't much use except for low-power applications, as you need a very large area of solar

panels to get a decent amount of power. However, for these applications it's definitely

worthwhile.

The earth receives huge amounts of energy every day from the sun, but the problem has been

harnessing this energy so that it is available at the appropriate time and in the appropriate form. For

example, solar energy is received only during the daylight hours, but more heat and electricity for

lighting are needed at night. Despite technological advances in photovoltaic cells, solar energy has not

become a more significantly more financially competitive source of energy viii. Although several solar

thermal power plants are now in operation in California, they are not yet able to compete with

conventional power plants on an economic basis.

Sources

1. www.energyquest.ca.gov

2. www.eia.doe.gov

3. Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2007

i
Information from www.energyquest.ca.gov
ii
Information from www.energyquest.ca.gov
iii
Information from www.energyquest.ca.gov
iv
Information from www.eia.doe.gov
v
two previous paragraphs were cited from www.eia.doe.gov
vi
Information from www.eia.doe.gov
vii
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2007
viii
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2007