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2
Characterization of Band-Limited
Channels
For our purposes, a band-limited channel such as a telephone
channel will be characterized as a linear filter having an
equivalent low-pass frequency-response characteristic C( f ),
and its equivalent low-pass impulse response c(t).
Then, if a signal of the form
[
s (t ) = Re v(t )e j 2πf ct ]
is transmitted over a band-pass telephone channel, the
equivalent low-pass received signal is
∞
rl (t ) = ∫ v(τ )c(t − τ )dτ + z (t )
−∞
= v(t ) ∗ c(t ) + z (t )
where z(t) denotes the additive noise.
3
Characterization of Band-Limited
Channels
Alternatively, the signal term can be represented in the
frequency domain as V( f )C( f ), where V( f ) = F[v(t)].
If the channel is band-limited to W Hz, then C( f ) = 0 for | f | >
W.
As a consequence, any frequency components in V( f ) above
| f | = W will not be passed by the channel, so we limit the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal to W Hz.
Within the bandwidth of the channel, we may express C( f ) as
C ( f ) = C ( f ) e jθ ( f )
where |C( f )|: amplitude response.
θ( f ): phase response.
The envelope delay characteristic: τ ( f ) = − 1 dθ ( f )
2π df
4
Characterization of Band-Limited
Channels
A channel is said to be nondistorting or ideal if the amplitude
response |C( f )| is constant for all | f | ≤ W and θ( f ) is a linear
function of frequency, i.e., τ( f ) is a constant for all | f | ≤ W.
If |C( f )| is not constant for all | f | ≤ W, we say that the channel
distorts the transmitted signal V( f ) in amplitude.
If τ( f ) is not constant for all | f | ≤ W, we say that the channel
distorts the signal V( f ) in delay.
As a result of the amplitude and delay distortion caused by the
nonideal channel frequency-response C( f ), a succession of
pulses transmitted through the channel at rates comparable to
the bandwidth W are smeared to the point that they are no
longer distinguishable as well-defined pulses at the receiving
terminal. Instead, they overlap, and thus, we have inter-symbol
interference (ISI).
5
Characterization of Band-Limited
Channels
Fig. (a) is a band-limited pulse having zeros periodically spaced
in time at ±T, ±2T, etc.
If information is conveyed by the pulse amplitude, as in PAM, for
example, then one can transmit a sequence of pulses, each of
which has a peak at the periodic zeros of the other pulses.
6
Characterization of Band-Limited
Channels
However, transmission of the pulse through a channel modeled as
having a linear envelope delay τ( f ) [quadratic phase θ( f )]
results in the received pulse shown in Fig. (b), where the zero-
crossings that are no longer periodically spaced.
7
Characterization of Band-Limited
Channels
A sequence of successive pulses would no longer be
distinguishable. Thus, the channel delay distortion results in ISI.
It is possible to compensate for the nonideal frequency-response
of the channel by use of a filter or equalizer at the demodulator.
Fig. (c) illustrates the output of a linear equalizer that
compensates for the linear distortion in the channel.
8
Signal Design for Band-Limited
Channels
The equivalent low-pass transmitted signal for several different
types of digital modulation techniques has the common form
∞
v(t ) = ∑ I n g (t − nT )
n =0
where {In}: discrete information-bearing sequence of symbols.
g(t): a pulse with band-limited frequency-
response G( f ), i.e., G( f ) = 0 for | f | > W.
This signal is transmitted over a channel having a frequency
response C( f ), also limited to | f | ≤ W.
The received signal can be represented as
∞
rl (t ) = ∑ I n h(t − nT ) + z (t )
n =0
∞
where h(t ) = ∫ g (τ )c(t − τ )dτ and z(t) is the AWGN.
−∞
9
Signal Design for Band-Limited
Channels
Suppose that the received signal is passed first through a filter and
then sampled at a rate 1/T samples/s, the optimum filter from the
point of view of signal detection is one matched to the received
pulse. That is, the frequency response of the receiving filter is
H*( f ).
We denote the output of the receiving filter as
∞
y (t ) = ∑ I n x(t − nT ) + v(t )
n =0
where
x(t): the pulse representing the response of the receiving
filter to the input pulse h(t).
v(t): response of the receiving filter to the noise z(t).
10
Signal Design for Band-Limited
Channels
If y(t) is sampled at times t = kT +τ0, k = 0, 1,…, we have
∞
y (kT + τ 0 ) ≡ yk = ∑ I n x(kT − nT + τ 0 ) + v(kT + τ 0 )
n =0
or, equivalently,
∞
yk = ∑ I n xk − n + vk , k = 0,1,...
n=0
12
Signal Design for Band-Limited
Channels
The amount of ISI and noise in a digital communication system
can be viewed on an oscilloscope.
For PAM signals, we can display the received signal y(t) on the
vertical input with the horizontal sweep rate set at 1/T.
The resulting oscilloscope display is called an eye pattern.
Eye patterns for binary and quaternary amplitude-shift keying
(or PAM):
15
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
Assuming that the band-limited channel has ideal frequency-
response, i.e., C( f ) = 1 for | f | ≤ W, then the pulse x(t) has a
spectral characteristic X( f ) = |G( f )|2, where
( ) ( )
W
x t = ∫ X f e df
j 2πft
−W
We are interested in determining the spectral properties of the
pulse x(t), that results in no inter-symbol interference.
∞
Since
y k = I k + ∑ I n xk − n + vk
n =0
n≠k
⎧⎪1 ( n = 0 )
x ( nT ) = ⎨
⎪⎩0 ( n ≠ 0 )
is that its Fourier transform X(f ) satisfy
∑ X(f +m T)=T
m = −∞
17
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
Proof:
In general, x(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of X( f ). Hence,
∞
x(t ) = ∫ X ( f )e j 2πft
df
−∞
18
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
Breaking up the integral into integrals covering the finite
range of 1/T, thus, we obtain
m
∞
( 2 m +1) f = f '+
∑ ∫(
2T
x ( nT ) = X ( f ) e j 2π fnT df T
2 m −1) 2T
m =−∞ ⎡ 2m − 1 2m + 1 ⎤
f :⎢ ,
∞ ⎣ 2T 2T ⎥⎦
∑∫
1 2T
= X ( f '+ m T ) e j 2π f ' nT df ' ⎡ −1 1 ⎤
−1 2 T f ': ⎢ , ⎥
m =−∞
⎣ 2T 2T ⎦
⎡ ∞ ⎤ j 2π fnT
∑
1 2T
=∫ X ( f + m T )⎥ e df df = df '
−1 2T ⎢
⎣ m =−∞ ⎦
1 2T
=∫ B ( f ) e j 2π fnT df (1)
−1 2T
∞
where we define B( f ) as B ( f ) = ∑ X(f +m T)
m = −∞
19
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
Obviously B( f ) is a periodic function with period 1/T, and,
therefore, it can be expanded in terms of its Fourier series
coefficients {bn} as
∞
B( f ) = ∑ n
b e
n =−∞
j 2π nfT
where
1 2T
bn = T ∫ B ( f ) e −2π nfT df (2)
−1 2 T
Comparing (1) and (2), we obtain Recall that the conditions for
no ISI are (from ∗):
bn = Tx(− nT ) ⎧⎪1
x ( t = kT ) ≡ xk = ⎨
( k = 0)
⎪⎩0 ( k ≠ 0)
20
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
Therefore, the necessary and sufficient condition for
∞
y k = I k + ∑ I n xk − n + vk
n =0
n≠k
to be satisfied is that
( n = 0)
⎧⎪T
bn = ⎨
( n ≠ 0)
⎪⎩ 0
∞
which, when substituted into B ( f ) = ∑ bn e j 2πnfT
, yields
n = −∞
B( f ) = T
∞
or, equivalently ∑ X(f +m T)=T
m = −∞
24
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
When T > 1/2W, B( f ) consists of overlapping replications of
X(f) separated by 1/T:
25
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
A particular pulse spectrum, for the T > 1/2W case, that has
desirable spectral properties and has been widely used in
practice is the raised cosine spectrum.
Raised cosine spectrum:
⎧ ⎛ 1− β ⎞
⎪ T ⎜0 ≤ f ≤ ⎟
⎝ 2T ⎠
⎪
⎪⎪ T ⎧ ⎡πT ⎛ 1− β ⎞⎤ ⎫ ⎛ 1-β 1+ β ⎞
X rc ( f ) = ⎨ ⎨1 + cos ⎢ ⎜ f − ⎟⎥ ⎬ ⎜ ≤ f ≤ ⎟
⎪2 ⎩ ⎣ β ⎝ 2T ⎠⎦ ⎭ ⎝ 2T 2T ⎠
⎪ ⎛ 1+ β ⎞
⎪ 0 ⎜ f > ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ 2T ⎠
β: roll-off factor. (0 ≤ β≤ 1)
26
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
The bandwidth occupied by the signal beyond the Nyquist
frequency 1/2T is called the excess bandwidth and is usually
expressed as a percentage of the Nyquist frequency.
β= 1/2 => excess bandwidth = 50 %.
β= 1 => excess bandwidth = 100%.
The pulse x(t), having the raised cosine spectrum, is
sin (πt T ) cos(πβt T )
x(t ) =
πt T 1 − 4 β 2t 2 T 2
cos(πβt T )
= sin c(πt T )
1 − 4 β 2t 2 T 2
x(t) is normalized so that x(0) = 1.
27
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
Pulses having a raised cosine spectrum:
29
Design of Band-Limited Signals for
No ISI – The Nyquist Criterion
If the receiver filter is matched of the transmitter filter, we have
Xrc( f )= GT( f ) GR( f ) = | GT( f )|2. Ideally,
GT ( f ) = X rc ( f ) e − j 2πft0
and GR( f ) = GT∗ ( f ), where t0 is some nominal delay that is
required to ensure physical realizability of the filter.
Thus, the overall raised cosine spectral characteristic is split
evenly between the transmitting filter and the receiving filter.
An additional delay is necessary to ensure the physical realization
of the receiving filter.
30
Implementation of
Square Root Raise Cosine Filter
Simplified System Architecture
Transmitter Receiver
LPF
SRRC-TX DAC DAC SRRC-RX
32
Design of SRRC
Operation of the SRRC-TX module includes:
Over-sampling
Over-sampling rate is a system design issue (performance
vs. cost).
For a over-sampling rate = 4, we pad three zeros between
each sample.
Finite-impulse-response (FIR) filter
The FIR filter acts as a low pass filter.
The FIR filter is a square root raised cosine filter with roll-
off factor β= 0.22.
33
Detail of FIR Filter Module
Input
● ● ●
0 ∑ ∑ ∑ ● ● ● ∑
∑ ∑ ∑ ● ● ● ∑
34
Raised Cosine Filter
Raised cosine spectrum:
⎧ ⎛ 1− β ⎞
⎪ T ⎜0 ≤ f ≤ ⎟
⎝ 2T ⎠
⎪
⎪⎪ T ⎧ ⎡π T ⎛ 1− β ⎞⎤ ⎫ ⎛ 1-β 1+ β ⎞
X rc ( f ) = ⎨ ⎨1 + cos ⎢ ⎜ f − ⎟⎥ ⎬ ⎜ ≤ f ≤ ⎟
⎪2 ⎩ ⎣ β ⎝ 2T ⎠⎦ ⎭ ⎝ 2T 2T ⎠
⎪ ⎛ 1+ β ⎞
⎪ 0 ⎜ f > ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ 2T ⎠
The pulse x(t), having the raised cosine spectrum, is
π ⎜1 − ⎜ 4β ⎟ ⎟
TC ⎜ ⎝ TC ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where TC is the inverse of chip rate ( ≈ 0.2604167µ s)
and β = 0.22.
36
Square Root Raised Cosine Filter
Because SRRC(t) is non-causal, it must be truncated, and pulse
shaping filter are typically implemented for ±6TC about the t = 0
point for each symbol.
For an over-sampling rate of 4, n is equal to 48.
37