ON

BASIC ELECTRONICS
AND
PROGRAMABLE LOGIC CONTROLS

JK Tyre - Kankroli
 BASIC ELECTRONICS

1. Diode
2. Zener Diode
3. LED
4. VDR
5. Thermister
6. Rectifier
7. Transistor
8. Triac
9. SCR
10. Thirstier
11. ICs
 Linear
 Digital
12. MOV
DIODE:
A diode is two terminal devices.
The two terminals are called ANODE (A) AND CATHODE (K) respectively. If the anode is connected
to the +ve polarity and cathode is connected to –ve polarity then the diode is said to be forward biased
and current flows from anode to cathode. If the polarities are reversed then the diode is said to be
reverse biased.

ZENOR DIODE:
There are large varieties of diodes depending on its application. When a diode is operated at reverse
bias mode, at a certain voltage the diode junction goes under breakdown and current flows in the
reverse direction. Which does not occur in normal diode. This type of special diode is called ZENOR
DIODE.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

When a P-N junction diode is forward biased free electrons and holes will recombine at the junction.
When a free electron fall in to a hole it drops higher energy level to a lower levels the electron falls and
radiates energy in the form of light and heat. As silicon is not transparent, this light can not escape to
the surroundings. So a semi transparent material is being used. So that some of the light can be escape
to the surrounds by using elements like GALLIUM, ARSENIC, and PHOSPOTRUS. Manufacturers
can produce this type of diodes to radiate RED, GREEN, YELLOW AND AMBER OR
INFRARED.This type of diode is called LED.The LED acts as a normal diode for emitting light, in the
forward biased condition. These diodes operating voltages are normally low. (1.2 to 1.8 v)
TRANSISTORS:

These are three terminal devices. The transistors are the most fundamental device in
modern electronics. Transistor are basically a three terminal semiconductor device.
These are classified in various types according to their working principle. These are
namely BI-polar transistors, Field-effect transistor, Unijunction transistor etc.
Depending on the process again they divided in two PNP-NPN. (Silicon,
Germinium).
Transistors when they connected in circuit the ratio of collector current and base
current is called gain of a transistor. Manufacturer specifies this value. The value of
gain will be varying by transistor to transistor.
EX: Suppose 1ma of current is flowing in base of transistor of gain 100,then
collector current will be 100ma. (The ratio of collector current to emitter current is
almost equal to 1)
SILICON CONTROLL RECTIFIER:

This is four-layer p-n-p-n device but having three terminals only.

It is a unidirectional device like diode provided the gate is having some voltage .The process
of feeding voltage is called as triggering.

When the SCR is forward biased, there is small forward leakage current called forward
blocking current which remains small until the forward break over voltage reached. At this
point current abruptly jumps to the high Conduction State. Then the anode to cathode
resistance of SCR becomes very small, and it acts like a closed switch. After the gate
current has turned on the SCR, the gate losses its control and reducing the gate current .No
effect on anode current.

The SCR remains on until anode forward voltage is withdrawn. However, the SCR’S are
used in AC circuits the SCR gets off in the “natural zero” of ac cycle. Because “natural
zero” is as good as the withdrawal of voltage. (As amplitude becomes zero)
So we can summarize that SCR’s are difficult to switch off in dc circuit when it is on.
Where as in ac circuit application it will be automatically off in natural zero.

The process of making the SCR on by applying some gate voltage is known as FIRING OR
TRIGGERING.
SCR’s are also called as THYRISTORS .It is evident that it conducts in one direction like a
diode when it is TRIGGERED.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CHIP:

However, any electronic system or control circuits can be made up by transistor,diodes etc.
But the invention of IC technology has laid down the possibility of replacement for a
complex circuit in to compact form. It has also provided the wide flexibility of using the
same functional block in various applications.

Basically IC's consists of ACTIVE AND PASSIVE components like Resistors, Capacitors,
Diodes and Transistors etc formed by a processes called diffusion in to a single silicon chip
with inter connections provided by an aluminum metalisation process.
Practically resistance values obtained in IC are in the range of 25 ohms to 500k similarly
the capacitors are obtained in the range of 3 to 30pf.
IC’s are classified in to two categories.

A: Linear IC
B: Digital IC.
LINEAR IC:

These are available in different areas of application like amplifiers with high gain, timers,
regulator circuits, and audio power amplifier and in various video (TV) receivers.
DIGITAL IC:

These are available in the form of combination of logic gates, counters, and decoders. The
latest IC’s are microprocessor chips.

LINEAR IC DIGITAL IC
TRANSISTORS LOGIC GATES
RESISTORS
CAPACITORS
DIODES
ZENOR DIODES
OTHER COPMPONENTS
SOME DEVICES GENERALLY WE USE IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS:

Thermistors are semiconductors having a high negative temperature coefficient and are
used for temperature measurement and control. When temperature increases resistance
of thermistor decreases.

LDR these are light sensitive devices. If the intensity of light increases the resistance of
LDR will drops.

VDR these are voltage dependent resistor or varistors are normally used as protective
device against the distortion of other electronic component under surge voltages.
Normally its resistance is very high, but under certain high voltage compared to operating
voltage its resistance becomes low and it conducts immediately. These are also called
metal oxide varistors. (MOVS)

Seven Segment LED or LCD who are used for numerical and alphanumerical displays in
various controls circuits. LCD stands for liquid crystal display, which are very low power
consuming devices. LED’s are medium power consumption devices. Each segment
represents a single LED or LCD.

Potentiometers-These are used for varicurrent and voltage.

COLOUR CODE OF RESISTORS:

Resistance color Tolerances

BLACK- 0 GOLD: +/- 5%

BROWN – 1 SILVER +/-10%
RED- 2 PINK +/-1%
ORANGE- 3 NO BAND+/-20%
YELLOW- 4
GREEN- 5
BLUE- 6
VIOLET- 7
GREY- 8
WHITE- 9

Out of four colors, fourth one is for indicating tolerances as mentioned above. The other three colors
actually shows the values of resistors OHMS.
CAPACITORS:

These are used for converting the pulsetting dc to

pure dc, Filtering purpose, ignition, and power
factor improvement. These are available in the
market are in the range of MICRO FARAD,
NANO FARAD, PECO FARAD (Unit of
capacitor is farads)
 LOGICAL GATES
GATE:
Gate is a circuit with one or more input signals but only one out put signal.

OR GATE:
An OR -gate has two or more inputs but only one output. The out put of an or gate the state –1
if one or more of the inputs are in the state 1.

AND GATE:
For an AND gate there are two or more inputs but only one output. The out put of an and gate
reaches –a 1 state, if and only all the inputs are in the state 1.

NOT GATE:
The output is high if the input is low and vice versa.

NOR GATE:
All inputs must be low to get a high out put.

NAND GATE:
All inputs must be high to get a low output.
 TO SELECT ANY CONTROL MODE

1. Measured variable (Process variable – MV or PV). The actual parameter being

measured level or temperature etc.

2. Desired value – The value at which the process operator requires the process
variable to be maintained.

3. Set point-The physical input signal facility on the controller.

4. Demand-The actual energy requirement of the process such as heat.
5. Supply-The source of process energy steem or fluid.
6. Is the process response time slow or fast.
7. Is the process a single step control or multiple step control.

In control mode generally two step and three step controllers will be used.
The most powerful controller is PID controller.

PID means proportional –integral-derivative.

PROPORTIONAL:
On/Off Control (two step)

This is the simplest form of control, in which the final controlling device, often
control valve is either full open or fully closed. The only time that this is not so is
when the valve is changing position.

The controller is usually an inexpensive, simple device, such as a pressure switch,

driving a solenoid-operated valve. Normally there will be a differential between
operation on a rising. M.V. and operation on a falling M.V., so there can be no
single set point.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL:
A proportional controller gives an output which is directly (for inversely) proportional to its input. In
practical terms this means that the final control device is positioned purely as a function of the actual
valve of the measured variable. It is capable or producing steady state controls for a wide range of
demand and supply variations.

If at a particular set of supply and Demand conditions the set point and measured variable are equal
any change of supply or demand will cause unbalance of energy. This will cause the measured variable
to change.
The resulting change of controller output will restore the supply and demand balance at some new
value of measured variable. Steady state conditions will be restored but the measured variable will no
longer equal the set point. The difference between S.P. and M.V. in the steady state is called offset.

Offset is an inherent feature of proportional control and is dependent on the gain of the controller
(proportional band). Offset may be reduced by increasing the gain (reducing P.B.), which simply
means that a particular amount of corrective output will be produced by a smaller change of M.V.
As the gain increases the rate of change of MV will also increase. This will cause larger overshoots and
in the limit total instability ( on /off control).

In proportional control off set has to be compromised with process stability. If the maximum
acceptable off set due to disturbance of supply or demand cannot be met without unacceptable
transient stability, a higher order of control must be used.

For this reason proportional only controllers seldom offer higher than 30% proportional band.
INTEGRAL CONTROL
An integral controller gives an output rate of change, which is proportional to the deviation between
set point, and measure variable. This is not offset, since while deviation exits the controller will
produce corrective and steady state cannot exist. Whatever the value of supply or demand the
controller will endeavor to made the measured variable equal to the set point and will do so subject
to process limitations.

DERIVATIVE CONTROL

The output of a derivative element in a controller is proportional to the rate of change of deviation.
It has no reference to either the actual value of M.V. or to the actual deviation. It is not, therefore,
possible to use a derivative only controller. Derivative action is only used to improve the response
due to proportional control or proportional plus integral control.
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL:

The magnitude of any overshoot of M.V. in a process is dependent on the rate of change of M.V. The derivative
element will sense the rate of increase of deviation and the rate of decrease of deviation. It will attempt to correct
either.

This means a more rapid process response to a disturbance and also a rapid reduction in the rate of change of the
M.V. as it approaches the set point. When correctly set the initial proportional response will be boosted by the
derivative response, producing a single small overshoot very quickly leaving a small deviation for the integral
element to deal with.

In the steady state the integral element is the sole correcting influence. The proportional and derivative terms are
in use only during transients.

Derivative will seldom be used in flow control loops. The process lag is minimal and flow systems are notoriously
noisy, with the measure variable making small, quick excursions, which a derivative element would over-react to.

The only true step disturbance that a controller ever senses is a set point change. The derivative output to a step
change is a saturated output, and this sometimes undesirable. When this is so and a process is subject to frequent
set point changes the derivative unit is placed in the measured variable line to the controller. This ensures that the
controller is only subject to the derivative of the process response to a step disturbance.

In systems where there are multiple large lags three-term control in a single controller may be inadequate and a
higher order of control will be needed.
PROGRAMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

Now a day's programmable logic control is

Most powerful tool for industrial automation.
Plc is a solid-state system that may be utilized
For a wide Varity of applications. Plc offer a
Wide Varity of control options ranging from a
Cost effective alternative to a small number
Of relays to means of controlling a complete
Manufacturing plant.
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLERS

 The basic function of PLC is to provide output commands to a

machine or process based on some combination of a set of
input conditions to that machine or process line.

 The PLC is a similar to the familiar relay logic panel but with
extended capabilities.

 The internal wiring of a PLC is fixed and the logical function that
it must perform as per programmed in to a memory, Hence the
name programmable controller.

 A processor with built- in routine scans the input signals and in

accordance with the stored program in memory initiates the
required output signals.
 The PLC perform timing, counting, and other functions
dependent on the design of the system.
VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF PLC CONTROLS

1 Power supply unit.

2 Central processing unit.
3 Input module.
4 Output module.
5 Bus module.
6 Interfacing module.
7 Interfacing cable.
8 EEPROM
9 Progrommer.
 ADVANTAGES
1. Economy.
2. Reducing the space(compact in size)
3. Reduce the hardware(Like Relays & Contactors )
4. Reducing the power consumption
5. Minimize the break down time.
6. Control & monitoring of process functions
7. Acquisition of process data.
8. Provision of management information.
9. Easy on line process monitoring.
10. Continuos operating cycle can be monitored through td390.
11. Easy problem identification.
12. On line parameters can change through programmer.
13. On line sequence of logic can be changed without touching the
electrical hardware.
 FEATURES:

I/O module for binary operations:

Analogue i/o’s for variable signal application.

Fast counting facility for batch counting & positioning.

TYPE OF LOGIC SYSTEMS:

• Relay based logic system

• Solid state hard-wired logic system

• Stored program-logic system
 RELAY BASED LOGIC SYSTEM

In relay based systems the coils and contactors are wired

specifically for each particular application to achieve the
desired interlocking sequence. The relays though rugged
and simple, have limitations of large space requirement,
very little flexibility for carrying out field alterations of
system logic and frequent maintenance.
 SOLID STATE HARD-WIRED
LOGIC SYSTEM

As the complexity of control systems increased and with

technological advances, relays were being replaced by solid state
logic. Though the use of solid-state logic increased the
reliability and speed, such logic schemes still suffered from the
drawback of little flexibility in altering the logic to suit system
changes. This system is also must be designed specifically to
meet the particular logic requirement.
 STORED PROGRAM-LOGIC SYSTEM
The disadvantages of the two earlier systems are removed
in PLC’s where the stored program logic concept is used.
Here the desired interlocking sequence need not be wired
but can be programmed and stored in its memory. When
necessary on receiving an input command the processor
starts executing the stored program instructions.
THE PLC HAS THREE DISTINCT CATEGORIES
OF CONTROL LIKE -

 INFORMATION OF INPUTS

 DECISION MAKING OR PROCESSING

 ACTION OF OUTPUTS.
The PLC receives their instruction in the form of a program
that can be easily and quickly replaced or modified (that is,
edited) by the user. By contrast, the relay or hardwired solid
state controllers have wires connected to different logic
elements. Any changes in the logic of these systems require
actual changes in the wire connections between these elements.
Such changes cause production downtime and costly hardware
and labour expenses.
 ARCHITECTURE OF PLC

The architecture of the PLC is similar to that of a microcomputer.

POWER SUPPLY:
A regulated power supply is required to operate the system.
I/O DEVICES:
Input Devices Output Devices
Limit switches Solenoids
Push buttons Motor starters
Thumbwheel switches Alarms
Pressure switches Indicators
Analog transducer solid state devices
(The A/D converters) Controllers (with
Sensors D/A converters
Binary I/O’s:

In binary operating system there is only two states such as ON/OFF.

Analogue I/O’s:
A.Variable signals such as current (4-20ma)
B.Variable signals such as voltage (0-10v)
C. Frequency
D.Pulses (Encoder)
Input / output (I/O) interface is placed between the application devices and
the processor. Inputs give, interface for field signals (e.g. pushbuttons and
switches) into the system, to provide the data necessary for system, to
provide the data necessary for the processor to make its control decisions.
Outputs are required to switch on the machine / process loads (e.g.
solenoids, contractors, and motor starters) under direction from the
processor.
INTERFACE MODULES

This module is for communication between one set of modules to

another set of modules.

BUS MODULE

This module is for receive the signals from field and send to
input/output modules. The same module will send the signals to CPU
through inter facing module.
 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The processor (CPU) is the ‘brain’ of the system. The processor reads input signals and in response to these,
generates output commands by interpreting instructions from the program, which is stored in memory.

The CPU is assembled in all PLC’s today with the single chip, which is popularly known as microprocessor.

The program is normally stored in a random access memory (RAM) which, as it is volatile, requires battery
back up. Storing the program in RAM gives the user the facility to change the program easily in many cases
even while the PLC is running – that is, solving logic and controlling the plant. Hence, changes can be made to
programs without affecting processes that cannot be stopped without expensive restarts.

The two other types of memory that are widely used in PLCs are - PROM & core. Programmable read only
memory ( PROM) is used to store data or instructions, which can be kept, unaltered for a long period.
However, PROM can be reprogrammed after erasing the entire memory content with an ultraviolet light
source (EPROM or UV PROM). PROM is inexpensive and non-volatile.

Core memory is the most flexible of the three types. It is corporate the best features of PROM and RAM. Data
may be entered and altered at any time, but the memory is retained when power is removed. Core memory is
rather expensive.

The I/O interfaces allow a PLC to communicate with the plant by converting signals received into information
that the PC can understand, and by translating the PC instructions into actuating / control signals.