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2.1 Matter
1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass; exists in three states – solid, liquid and gas.
3. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction.
6. Diffusion occurs when particles of a substance move in between the particles of another substance.
7. Diffusion of matter occurs most rapidly in gases, slower in liquids and slowest in solids, due to the
different arrangement and movement of particles in the three states of matter.
1
Do it yourself 2.1
1. Figure 1 below shows the heating curve of a pure substance at room temperature and pressure.
Temperature/oC U
S T
119 Q R
Time / minute
Figure 1
(a)Describe the movement of the particles of the pure substance at stage PQ of the curve?
(b)Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of particles of the substance at stage QR in the box below.
2
(d)Samples of the pure substance at stage RS and TU are taken. Compare the movement of the particles of the
substance at these two stages.
(e)After heating at 500oC, the substance is cooled. Draw and label the cooling curve.
2. P Q
Ice water Salt solution
P: Q:
R: S:
T: U:
(c)Compare the intermolecular distance and the packing of particles in the solid state and the liquid state.
3
2.2 The Atomic Structure
1. John Dalton
- imagined the atom as a small indivisible ball similar to a very tiny ball
2.J.J. Thomson
3. Ernest Rutherford
discovered proton
the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated in a
small, central region called the nuclues
electrons move in a space that is larger than the space occupied by the nucleus
4
4.Neils Bohr
5.James Chadwick
proved the existence of neutrons, the neutral particles in the nucleus. Neutrons
contribute approximately to half the mass of an atom.
5
10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca
Do it yourself 2.2
27 19 23
Symbol of atom Al F Na
13 7 11
Proton number
Nucleon number
Number of protons
Number of electrons
Number of neutrons
6
2.3 Isotopes and Their Importance
1. The isotopes of an element are the atoms of that element which contain a same number of
protons, but a different number of neutrons.
Element Isotopes
Hydrogen 1 2 3
1H 1H 1H
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
0 neutron 1 neutron 2 neutrons
Carbon 12 13 14
6C 6C 6C
6 protons 6 protons 6 protons
6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons
Oxygen 16 17 18
8O 8O 8O
8 protons 8 protons 8 protons
8 neutrons 9 neutrons 10 neutrons
Sulphur 32
S 34
S
16 16
16 protons 16 protons
-
16 neutrons 18 neutrons
Bromine 79 81
35 Br 35 Br
35 protons 35 protons
-
44neutrons 46 neutrons
7
4. The electron arrangement of elements with proton number 1 to 20.
( must know how to memorize)
8
First shell: 2 electrons
Subtitle 3.1: Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass How to measure
mass of an atom?
Concept:
9
We can determine the mass of an atom relative to a standard atom Standard atom
1. hydrogen
2. oxygen
✄ not use any more
because gaseous form
are difficult to handle
Hydrogen as helium atom
standard atom 3. carbon-12
✔ Solid & easy to
handle
A Helium atom is 4 times heavier compare to a hydrogen atom. ✔ Also used as
Helium is said to have relative atomic mass of 4 standard for
mass
spectrometer
Check to:
Look at Ar of all
elements listed in
1/12 of one How many helium
periodic table
atom atoms are
carbon-12 here?????
from periodic table:
Important !!! Ar of Nitrogen is14
Define: The average mass
of a nitrogen atom is
Relative atomic mass, A r 14 times larger than
- of an element is the average mass of one atom of the element when 1/12 of a carbon-12
compared with 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 atom.
Mr of Water
Relative atomic mass of an element Molecule is 18
= The average mass of one atom of an element The average
1/12 x the mass of an atom of carbon -12 mass of one water
molecule is 18 times
Define larger than 1/12
of a carbon-12 atom
Relative molecular mass, Mr
-of a molecule is the average mass of the molecule when compared with
1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
Numerical problems
A. About Relative Atomic Mass
1. How many times is copper atom heavier than two helium atom?
Solution:
Mass of a copper atom = Ar of copper
Mass of 2 helium atom 2 x Ar of helium
= 64
2x4
10
= 8 times
2. How many magnesium atom have the same mass as two silver atoms?
Solution:
Lets the number of magnesium atoms = n
Mass of n magnesium atoms = mass of 2 silver atoms
So, n x Ar of magnesium = 2 x __________
n x 24 =
Do It Yourself
1. How many times is one atom of silicon heavier than one atom of lithium
2. Calculate the number of atoms of lithium that have the same mass as two atoms of nitrogen
3. The mass of one atom Y is A times larger than the mass of one nitrogen .Calculate the
relative atomic mass of Y.
Carbon dioxide, Ar of C + ( 2 x Ar of O) = 12 + (2 x 16 ) = 44
11
CO2
Nitrogen gas, N2 2 x Ar of N = 2 x 14 = 28
Do it yourself
Definition of mole
12
• In chemistry, we use the unit ‘mole’ to measure the amount of substance. The symbol of mole is mol.
• 1 mol of substance = the number of particles in 12 g of carbon-12.
= 6.02 x 1023 particles.
Number of particles
Number of moles =
6.02 x 10 23
Example 1:
i. 1 mol of iron atom = 6.02 x 1023 iron atoms
ii. 1 mol of hydrogen molecule = 6.02 x 1023 hydrogen molecules
iii. 1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride
Example 2:
A closed glass bottle contains 0.5 mol of oxygen gas, O2.
i. How many oxygen molecules, O2 are there in the bottle?
ii. How many oxygen atoms are there in the bottle?
Solution:
i. Number of oxygen molecules = 0.5 x 6.02 x 1023
= 3.01 x 1023
Example 3:
Find the number of moles of molecules in a sample containing 9.03 × 1023 molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2.
Solution:
9.02 × 10 23
Number of moles =
6.02 × 10 23
= 1.5 mol.
Do it yourself
1 Define a mole?
13
A mole is the
Number of atoms =
3 How many ions are there in 1.5 mol sodium chloride, NaCl?
1 formula unit sodium chloride, NaCl has 2 ions which are 1 sodium ion and 1 chloride ion.
Thus, number of ions = number of formula units x 2
=
4 Calculate the number of moles of bromine molecules which consists 1.5 × 1022 of bromine
molecules.
Number of moles =
1 ammonia molecule, NH3 has 4 atoms which are 1 nitrogen atom and 3 hydrogen atoms.
Thus, number of atoms =
Molar mass is
*1 : The value of molar mass of an element is equal to its relative atomic mass
*2 : The value of molar mass of a compound is equal to its relative molecular or formula mass
Example:
14
1. Calculate the number of moles found in 20g of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16)
Solution:
2. Calculate the mass in gram found in 0.2 mol of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16)
Solution:
Number of moles = mass
3. How many magnesium ions are there in 30g of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 1023)
Solution:
Therefore, the number of magnesium ions = the number of formula units of MgO x 1
= 4.515 x 1023 x 1
= 4.515 x 1023
Solution:
Number of moles = number of particles
NA
15
Mass = number of particles
Relative formula mass NA
= 0.05 X 40
= 2g
Do It Yourself
2. Calculate the mass in gram found in 0.3 mol of magnesium chloride, MgCl2.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5)
3. How many chloride ions are there in 19g of magnesium chloride, MgCl2.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 1023)
Form 4 TextBook
4. Calculate the mass in gram of 3 x 1022 units of magnesium chloride, MgCl2 . Work This Out 3.2
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 1023) Page 35
Quick Review C
Page 35
E. Chemical Formulae
A chemical formula is a representation of a chemical substance using letters for atoms and subscript
numbers to show the numbers of each type of atoms that are present in the substance.
(i) The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each
element present in the compound.
Example : 2.24 g of iron combines chemically with 0.96g of oxygen to form an oxide. What is the empirical
formula of the oxide ?
[ Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Fe, 56 ]
Do it Yourself
1. The table below shows the relative atomic mass and the mass of elements V and O in an oxide.
Element V O
Relative Atomic Mass 56 16
17
Mass(g) 5.6 2.4
element V Oxygen, O
Mass (g) 5.6 2.4
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles
2. Copper (II) iodide constains 20.13% of copper by mass. Find its empirical formula. [ Relative atomic
mass : Cu,64 ; I, 127 ]
Based on its percentage composition, 100g of copper(II) iodine contains 20.13g of copper. So, taking
100g of the compound.
element K Cl
Mass (g)
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles
Based on its percentage composition, 100g of compound contains 31.84g of potassium, 28.98g of
chlorine and 39.18g of oxygen. So, by taking 100g of the compound:
element K Cl O
Mass (g)
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles
Simplest ratio of
moles
1 mole of potassium atoms combines with 1 mole of chlorine atoms and 3 moles of oxygen atoms.Therefore,
the empirical formula of the potassium compound is KClO3.
Form 4 TextBook
Work this out 3.7
(2) Molecular Formulae Page 42
(i) The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms of each element present
in a molecule of the compound.
18
(iii) Relating empirical formula to molecular formula
Example :
The empirical formula of a compound is CH. Its relative molecular mass is 78. Find its molecular
formula. [ Relative atomic mass : H, 1; C, 12 ]
Do it yourself
element Z Br
Mass (g)
19
Number of moles of
atoms
2.07/0.02z = ½
z = 207
20
Anion ( negative ion ) Formula of anion Charge of anion
Fluoride ion F- -1
Chloride ion Cl- -1
Bromide ion Br- -1
Iodide ion I- -1
Hydroxide ion OH- -1
Nitrate ion NO3- -1
Nitrite ion NO2- -1
Hydride ion H- -1
Oxide ion O2- -2
Phosphate ion PO43- -3
Carbonate ion CO32- -2
Sulphate ion SO42- -2
Chromate (VI) ion Cr2O72- -2
(iv) The chemical formulae of ionic compounds are electrically neutral because the total of positive
charges are equal to the total of negative charges
(v) The chemical formula of an ionic compound can be constructed as the following :
i. identify and write down the formula of its cation and anion
ii. determine the number of cations and anions by balancing the positive and
negative charges.
iii. Write the formula of the compound
iv. The number of cations and anions are written as subscript numbers.
Magnesium chloride
MgCl2
Do it yourself
1. magnesium chloride
21
2. aluminium oxide
Form 4 Textbook
3. aluminiuim hydroxide
Work This Out 3.9
Page 46
4. sodium sulphate
1. Chemical compounds are named systematically according to the guidelines given by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
2. For ionic compounds, the name of the cation comes first, followed by the name of anion.
3. Transition metals can form more than one ions, Roman numerals ( such as I, II, III ) are used to
differentiate the ions.
Fe2+ - iron (II) ion
Fe3+ - iron (III) ion
4. For simple molecular compounds, the name of the first element is maintained. However, the name of
the second element is added with an “ –ide “.
Examples : HCl – hydrogen chloride
HF - hydrogen flouride
5. Greek prefixes are used to show the number of atoms of each element in a compound.
Examples : CO – carbon monoxide
CO2 – carbon dioxide
CCl4 – carbon tetrachloride / tetrachloromethane
SO3 – sulphur trioxide
Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.10
Page 47
F. CHEMICAL EQUATION
22
♣ The new substances formed are called products.
Example :
Reactants Products
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
Zn (s) + Cl2 (g) ZnCl2 (s)
Do It Yourself 3f
Identify the reactants, products and the state of each substance. Present your answer in the form of a table.
Solution :
Reactants Products
1
2 Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.11
3
Page 49
A chemical equation must be balanced. There must always be the same number of atom of each element on
each side of the equation.
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Example :
Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl to produce magnesium chloride, MgCl2 and hydrogen gas,
H2. Write an equation to represent the reaction.
Write the equation in words. The reactants are written on the left whereas the
STEP 1 products are written on the right.
STEP 2 Write the correct chemical formula for each reactants and products.
Balance the equation. You just need to adjust the coefficients in front of the chemical
STEP 3 formulae and not the subscripts in the formulae.
Solution :
Reactants Products
STEP 2 Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2
Do It Yourself 3.f B
1. A solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of sodium chloride. A precipitate of silver chloride and a
solution of sodium nitrate are produced.
3. When solid lead (II) carbonate is heated strongly, it decomposes into solid lead (II) Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.12
oxide and carbon dioxide gas is released.
Page 50
The coefficients in a balanced equation tell us the exact proportions of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.
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Example :
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)
The equation tell us that 2 moles of hydrogen reacts with 1 mole of oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.
Or
The equation tell us that 2 molecules of hydrogen reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of
water.
Example :
Copper (II) oxide, CuO reacts with aluminium according to the following equation.
Calculate the mass of aluminium required to react completely with 12 g of copper (II) oxide, CuO.
[Relative atomic mass : O, 16 ; Al, 27 ; Cu, 64]
Solution :
3CuO (s) + 2Al (s) Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
3 mole 2 mole
Based on the chemical equation, 3 mole of Copper (II) oxide, CuO requires 2 mole of aluminium. Therefore,
the number of aluminium required by 0.15 mole of Copper (II) oxide, CuO
25
= 0.1 mol x 29 g mol-1 = 2.7 g
Do It Yourself 3f (D)
1. 2K (s) + Br2 (g) 2KBr (s)
How many moles of potassium are needed to reacts with 0.5 mole of bromine gas ?
Solution :
2K (s) + Br2 (g) 2KBr (s)
2 mole 1 mole
Based on the equation, 1 mole of bromine gas reacts with 2 moles of potassium.
2. 1.35 g of aluminium reacts with excessive copper (II) oxide powder to produce aluminium oxide powder and
copper. Find the number of copper atoms produced.
[Relative atomic mass : Al, 27 ; Avogadro constant : 6.02 x 1023 mol-1]
3.
Zn (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
What is the mass of zinc needed to produce 2.4 dm3 of hydrogen gas at room conditions ?
[Relative atomic mass : Zn, 65 ; Molar volume 24 dm3 mol-1 at room conditions]
26
More Exercises:
In this reaction, 300 cm3 gas carbon dioxide are produced at room temperature, when calcium carbonate
are heated. Find:
(a) the mass of calcium carbonate used.
(b) mass of calcium oxide produced.
When 0.23 g of sodium is added to water, the metal will react vigorously at the surface of the water, find
(a) the mass sodium hydroxide produced.
(b) volume of hydrogen gasses being produced at temperature room.
4. 2Mg + O2 2MgO
A strip of magnesium has a weight of 1.2 g are being burn with sufficient oxygen to produced magnesium
oxide. Find:
(a) the mass magnesium oxide being produced.
(b) the mass of oxygen that needed for this reaction.
Propane gas was burned in oxygen follow as equation above. If 3.36 dm 3 of carbon dioxide gas are
produced in this reaction at s.t.p, find
(a) the mass of propane burned
(b) volume of oxygen gas that reacted
27
6. 2Al + 3CuO Al2O3 + 3Cu
1.35g of aluminium powder and copper (II) oxide was heated strongly in laboratory to produced aluminium
oxide and copper. Find
(a) the mass of copper (II) oxide reacted
(b) the mass of aluminium oxide produced.
(c) the mass of copper produced.
CHAPTER 4.
28
A. Historical Development of the Periodic Table
Antoine Lavoisier
• First chemist who classify the element into 4 group.
• The 4 group consisted of gases, metal, non-metal and metal oxide.
• Element in the group is classify into metal and non-metal.
Johann W. Dobereiner
Classify the element with same chemical properties into a few group
• Each of group consisted from 3 element called triad.
• He found that the relative atomic mass of the element in the middle of
each triad is approximately equal to the average atomic mass of other
two elements.
• Triad law show the relationship between the relative atomic mass of
elements with it chemicals properties.
• This law cannot be use to most of the other element.
29
Average atomic
Lithium Sodium Potassium
Element in triad mass
Li Na K
Li and K
Relative atomic 7 + 39 = 23
7 23 39 2
mass
Ca Sr Ba (40 + 137) ÷ 2 = 88
Li Na K Cl Br I
7 23 39 35 80 127
John Newlands
• Arranged 62 known elements in order of increasing nucleon number
(atomic weights ) in horizontal rows.
• He noted that after interval of eight elements similar physical/chemical
properties reappeared.
• He was the first to formulate the concept of periodicity in the properties of
the chemical elements.
• He proposed the Law of Octaves:
Lothar Meyer
31
Henry Mosely
• He was able to derive the relationship between x-ray frequency and number of protons. and
obtained a straight line graph.
• When Moseley arranged the elements according to increasing atomic numbers and not atomic
masses, some of the inconsistencies associated with Mendeleev's table were eliminated.
• The modern periodic table is based on Moseley's Periodic Law (atomic numbers/proton number).
• He suggest proton number determine the position of elements in periodic table.
• He arranged elements in periodic table in order of increasing proton number.
• He also left gaps for the elements yet to be discovered.
32
What is the basic principle applied
in arranging the elements in the
Periodic Table today?
• Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in an increasing order of proton number.
• Elements with similar chemical properties are placed in the same vertical column.
• There are 18 vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table. Each column is called group. The
vertical columns are known as Group 1 to Group 18.
• There are 7 horizontal rows of elements in the Periodic Table. Each of these horizontal rows of
elements is called a period. The horizontal rows are known as Period 1 to Period 7.
33
Do you know how the electron
arrangement of the atom of an element
related to its group and period?????
1. The number of valence electrons in an atom decides the position of the group of an element.
The number of
1 2 3+10 4+10 5+10 6+10 7+10 8+10
valence electron
Group in The
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Periodic Table
Example 1;
40
Number of proton = 20
20
X Number of electron = 20
Number neutron = 20
Electron arrangement = 2.8.8.2
The number of valence electrons = 2
The number of shells =4
Example 2;
16 Number of proton =8
8 Y Number of electron = 8
Number neutron =8
34
Example 3;
Number of proton = 18
40
Number of electron = 18
18
Z Number neutron = 22
Electron arrangement =
The number of valence electrons =
The number of shells =
B. GROUP 18 ELEMENTS
GROUP 18
http://periodictable.com/
1.The elements in Group 18 are
Helium 2
Neon 2.8
Argon 2.8.8
Krypton 2.8.18.8
Xenon 2.8.18.18.8
Radon2.8.18.32.18.8
1. They are also known as noble gases, which are chemically unreactive. Noble gases are
monoatomic.
2. Helium has two valence electrons. This is called duplet electron arrangement.
3. Other noble gases have eight valence electrons. This is called octet electron
arrangement.
35
4. Duplet and octet electron arrangements are very stable because the outermost occupied
shells are full.
4. From Table 1, when going down the group, atomic size and density increase.
5. When going down the group, melting points and boiling points decrease
Helium
• Used to fill airships and weather balloons, because the gas is very light.
• The diver’s oxygen tank contains a mixture of helium (80%) and oxygen (20%).
Neon
• Advertising lights.
• Television tubes.
• Airport landing bulb to help aero plane landing safely.
Argon
36
• To fill light bulbs, it can last longer
• To provide inert atmosphere for welding at high temperature.
Krypton
• Used in lasers to repair the retina of the eye.
• To fill photographic flash lamps.
Radon
• Used in treatment of cancer.
Xenon
• Used in bubble chambers in atomic energy reactors.
C. GROUP 1 ELEMENTS
GROUP 1
http://periodictable.com/
Lithium 2.1
Sodium 2.8.1
Potassium 2.8.8.1
Rubidium 2.8.18.8.1
Caesium 2.8.18.18.8.1
Francium 2.8.18.32.18.8.1
7. They are also known as alkali metals which react with water to form alkaline
solutions.
8. All Group 1 elements have one valence electron in their outermost occupied shells.
37
2. They have silvery and shiny surfaces.
6. From Table 1, when going down the group, atomic size and density increase.
7. When going down the group, melting points and boiling points decrease
[Video]
38
Chemical equation;
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Potassium Water Potassium Hydrogen
hydroxide gas
2. Alkali metals react rapidly with oxygen gas, to produce white solid metal oxides.
Chemical equations;
4Li + O2 → 2Li2O
Lithium Oxygen Lithium
gas oxide
4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
Sodium Oxygen Sodium
gas oxide
4K + O2 → 2K2O
Potassium Oxygen Potassium
gas oxide
39
Chemical reaction;
2K + Cl2 → 2KCl
Potassium Chlorine Lithium
gas chloride
For example,
2K + Br2 → 2LiBr
Potassium Bromine Potassium
gas bromide
Alkali metals have one valence electron in their outermost occupied shells.
Each of them reacts by donating one electron from its outermost occupied shell to form
an ion with a charge of +1, thus achieving the stable electron arrangement of the atom of
noble gas.
Li Li+ + 1e-
2.1 2
40
Na Na+ + 1e-
2.8.1 2.8
K K+ + 1e-
2.8.8.1 2.8.8
41