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Photohydrogen production
by Consortium of Fresh Water
Algal Biomass

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 Article

Photohydrogen production by Consortium of Fresh

Water Algal Biomass
Krishnan Vijayaraghavan* and Rajendran Karthik
*Assistant Professor, Biotechnology Research Division, Department of Biotechnology, Prathyusha Institute of Technology and Management.
Thiruvallur District, Tamil Nadu, India, Phone 00-91-44-27620512, Fax 00-91-44-27620331
Email <vijaya025@yahoo.com>

Abstract
This article explores the capability of fresh water algal biomass consortium in switching over from
oxygen to hydrogen production under sulphur limiting condition. The hydrogen evolving capability
of the algal species was monitored based on alternating light and dark period. Investigation was
carried out during the day time in order to exploit the solar energy for meeting the demand of the
light period. The results showed that when the reactor was operated at varying photoperiod namely
2, 3 and 4 hour of alternating light and dark period, the gas generation was found to be 40±3, 74±4
and 68±4 mL/hour, while the corresponding hydrogen content was 49%, 85% and 88% respectively.
Functional components of hydrogen generation reaction centres were also analysed, which showed
that the PS(I) reaction centres were involved in hydrogen production pathway, as the light absorption
by PS(I) was prerequisite for hydrogen generation under sulphur deprived photoautotrophic
condition. The findings showed a higher gas yield and hydrogen content under dark period, whereas
under light period the gas content was below detectable level for hydrogen due to the reversible
hydrogenase reaction.

Keywords: Photo-hydrogen; hydrogen from algae; sulphur limiting condition; photo-autotrophic;

fresh water algae; light and dark photoperiod

Introduction evolution of both hydrogen and oxygen. The

release of hydrogen gas along with carbon dioxide
The photobiological production of hydrogen had
occurred in Chalamydomonas moewusii (Frenkel
been investigated using green algae, cyanobacteria,
1952) and Scenedesmus species (Kaltwasser and
Chlamydomonas, Anabaena, Chorella, Oscillatoria,
Stuart 1970). Organic substrate stimulated the
Scenedesmus and their mutant in the presence
photohydrogen evolution in Ankistrodesmus braunii
of hydrogenase [FeFe] or [NiFe] enzyme using
(Kessler 1962) and Chlamydomonas eugametos
water as the only electron donor under sulphur
(Abeles 1964). Photohydrogen production by C.
deprived condition (Bishop and Gaffron 1963;
reindardtii under sulphur deprived condition was
Gaffron 1940; Melis 1991; Polle, Kanakagiri, and
investigated by Kosourova, Patrusheva, Ghirardib,
Melis 2003; Posewitz, Smolinski, Saradadevi, et
et al. 2007. While the effect of immobilization
al., 2004; Kari, Torsten, and Peter, 2008; Kim,
on algal cell (Hahn and Ghirardi 2007) and the
Kang, Park, et al., 2006; Greenbaum 1982;
temporal phenomena (Dante, Armenta, Gutierrez,
Roessler and Lien 1984; Happe and Naber 1993;
et al. 2004) on hydrogen production were also
Schulz 1996; Anatoly, Maria, Michael, et al., 2006;
investigated.
Anatoly and Sergey, 2002; Antal, Krendeleva,
The effect of nutrient and medium composition
Laurinavichene, et al., 2003; Tatyana, Sergey,
in photohydrogen production when investigated
Maria, et al. 2008; Förster, Osmond, and Posson
using Anabaena variabilis showed that the specific
2005; Markov, Eivazova, and Greenwood, et al.
hydrogen production rate in Allen–Arnon medium,
2006). Photooxidation of water by Chlorella species
BG-11 and BG-110 was found to be 4.5×10–4,
(Spruit 1952; Spruit 1958) and Scenedesmus
8.0×10–5 and 7.2×10–5 kg H2/kg dry cell/hour
obliquus (Bishop and Gaffron, 1963) also showed
(Halil, Jenny, Laurent, et al. 2008). Anabaena

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 2 january–march 2010

N-7363 immobilized in k-carrageenan gel resulted
in a hydrogen production rate of 3.2 mmol hour–1
g–1dry gel at a light intensity of 6000 lux in a
nitrogen free medium (Karube, Ikemoto, Kajiwara,
et al. 1986). Intermittent illumination improved the
hydrogen production due to the ATP generation,
which enhanced the diffusion of reductant into
the heterocyst during the dark reaction (Jeffries,
Moulthrop, Timourian, et al. 1976). Chlorella
pyrenoidosa produced 0.7 kg H2/m3 (Kojima and
Yamaguchi 1988). Oscillatoria sp. Miami BG7
showed a maximum hydrogen production of
260 μmol/mg chlorophyll/hour (Kumazawa and
Mitsui 1981), whereas immobilized Oscillatoria
sp. Miami BG 7 produced hydrogen at the rate of
13 μl H2/mg dry wt/hr (Philips and Mitsui 1986),
photohydrogen production by Ankistrodesmus,
Chlorella and Scenedesmus followed photosystem (I)
and did not follow photosystem (II) (Kaltwasser,
Stuart, Gaffron, et al. 1969). The hydrogen
generating capability of Scenedesmus was proved
to be potential source of fuel (Buvet, Allen,
Massue, et al. 1977; Mitsui, Miyachi, San Pietro,
et al. 1977; Schlegel and Barnea 1976; Gaffron
and Rubin 1942) and its inhibition due to the
photoproduction of oxygen was also investigated
(Kessler 1974; Zajic, Kosaric, Brosseau, et al.
1978).
Methods and materials
Acclimatization of algal biomass
Fresh water algal samples were taken from the
outlet channel of Pondy Reservoir, Chennai, and
was acclimatized in the photoreactor under natural
environmental condition. The algal photoreactor
was seeded with the fresh water algal consortium
to the fullest operating liquid level say 20 L at
an initial cell density of 9.2±1.3 × 1010 cell/mL.
Thereafter acclimatization of algae was carried
out using fresh water supplemented with macro
and micronutrients with pH adjusted to 7.1±0.2
at a flow rate of 10 L/d in continuous mode. The
concentration of macronutrients like nitrogen,
phosphate and sulphur were maintained at a
ratio of 5:1:1 (g/L), while the micronutrients like
magnesium sulphate 80.0; calcium carbonate 30.0,
copper sulphate 0.05; ferric chloride 0.3 and zinc
sulphate 0.2 mg/L were supplemented in the fresh
feed water during acclimatization period (Guillard
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
and Ryther, 1962; Guillard, 1975). The algal
reactor content was well mixed gently with the help
of submersible pump having a capacity of 15 litres
per minute. The mixing operation was performed
once in every 2 hour for 15 minutes. In the in-
between period aeration was performed at the rate
2 m3/hour using diffused aeration system which
also aided the mixing of reactor content apart from
oxygen transfer. The reactor pH and temperature
were also monitored on daily basis. Samples were
drawn at regular interval of 5 days and its cell
density was monitored on dry weight basis, while
its chlorophyll content was determined based on
spectrophotometric method. The schematic diagram
of the algal reactor is as shown in Figure 1.
9
8
7
6
5 1
1
4
3 2
1. Feed tank 4. Mixing pump 7. Gas phase
2. Feed pump 5. Algal reactor 8. Opening zone
3. Diffused aeration 6. Outlet 9. Gas meter
Figure 1  Schematic diagram of algal reactor set-up
Analytical methods
The cell density was determined by Neubauer
Chamber and its mass was determined on dry
weight basis. The chlorophyll content of the algal
biomass was analysed in spectrophotometer at
663 and 645 nm (Arnon 1949; Witham, Blaydes,
Devlin, et al. 1971). Biogas generation was
monitored by water displacement method while its
3 january–march 2010
 Article
hydrogen content was measured using GC method.
Gas chromatograph (model 3760, Varian, Palo Alto,
CA) with data analysis software (Star 4.0, Varian)
was used to determine the percentage of hydrogen
content in the collected gas sample at varying
photoperiod. The molecular sieve column consisted
of MS-5A, Supelco, Bellefonte, PA with argon as
the carrier gas. Signal generated by the instrument’s
thermal conductivity was calibrated by injecting
suitable aliquot of hydrogen gas as reference.
Isolation and analysis of thylakoid membrane
Consortiums of fresh water algal cells were
harvested by centrifugation at 3000 g for 3 min
at 4 oC. After centrifugation the supernatant
was discarded and the pellet was subjected to
pre-treatment with 100 mM tris-HCl, 10 mM
NaCl, 1 mM p-aminobenzaamidine-2HCl, 1 mM
6-aminocaproic acid, 10 mM EDTA and 100
µM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluorides at pH 6.8.
Subsequently the algae dissolved in the above said
sonication buffer was subjected to cell disruption
in a sonicator for 2 minutes at a pulse mode.
Thereafter larger and unbroken cell fragments
were discarded as pellet by centrifugation at 3000
g for 3 minutes at 4 oC. While the supernatant
was centrifuged at 75 000 g for 30 minutes at 4
o
C and used to estimate the Chl (a+b) content
by extracting in 80% (v/v) acetone (Arnon 1949;
Witham, Blaydes, Devlin, et al. 1971).
Estimation of Functional PS(I) and PS(II)
Reaction Centres
The magnitude of absorbance difference at 700
and 320 nm with respect to light and dark period
was used for quantification of P700 and QA in algal
cells. The measured values facilitates in estimating
the concentration of the functional PS(I) and
PS(II) reaction centres. The amplitude of the
hydroquinone reduced minus ferricyanide oxidized
absorbance difference measured at 554 nm, with
the isobestic points at 544 and 560 nm was used
for the quantification of cytochrome f (Melis1991;
Melis, Murakami, Nemson, et al. 1996).
Effect of alternating photoperiod on
hydrogen production by consortium of fresh
water algae
The effect of alternating photoperiod on hydrogen
production by algal cells was investigated for the
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
following photoperiod cycles, that is, 2, 3 and 4
hour of alternating light and dark period. The algal
reactor was operated for 3 cycles per day in the
case 2 hour of alternating light and dark period,
whereas it was 2 cycles per day in the case of 3 and
4 hour photoperiod.
Results and discussion
Acclimatization of algae
The acclimatization was carried out in fresh water
by supplementing it with nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphate and sulphur. As the acclimatization
period progressed the cell density of the reactor
increased, which confirmed the adaptability of
algae to photoautotrophic condition as shown
in Figure 2. For example at operating period of
5, 15, 30 and 45 days the cell mass were found
to be 2.98, 3.07, 3.82 and 3.97 g/L. During
the acclimatization period the reactor pH and
temperature was found to be 7.2±0.2 oC and
26±2 oC. Spreitzer, Al-Abed, Huether, et al.
1988) investigation revealed that the mutants of
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii which were lacking
photoautotrophic growth were recovered at
35 °C, while its nonconditional mutants at both
25 oC and 35 °C were dependent on acetate for
growth. Conditional mutants having normal
photoautotrophic growth at 25 °C were classified
as (a) temperature-sensitive mutants that died
at 35 °C and (b) temperature sensitive acetate
dependent mutants exhibited heterotrophic growth
Figure 2  Cell density versus acclimatization period
4 january–march 2010
at 35 °C when supplied with acetate in the dark.
In the present investigation as the reactor pH and
temperature was well within the specified range
of operating condition it can be concluded that
the consortium of algal species was growing at its
optimum growth condition.
The chlorophyll content of the algae increased
with the acclimatization period thereby confirming
the growth of the algal species. For example at an
acclimatization period of 5, 15, 30 and 45 days the
cell density of the reactor was found to be 8.13 ×
108, 8.92 × 108, 9.86 × 108 and 1.12 × 109 cell/mL.
Figure 3  Chlorophyll content versus acclimatization period
Figure 4  Chlorophyll (a/b) ratio versus acclimatization period
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
Whereas the corresponding chlorophyll content for
the above said acclimatization period was found
to be 23.7, 24.5, 25.3 and 26.8 µM respectively.
The ratio between Chl a and Chl b ratio showed a
marginal rise in value during the acclimatization
period. For example at operating days of 5, 15, 30
and 45 days the ratio between Chl a/b ratio was
found to be 1.23, 1.38, 1.42 and 1.55 respectively
(Figures 3 and 4).
Effect of alternating photoperiod on
hydrogen production under sulphur limiting
condition
The effect of alternating photoperiod on hydrogen
production by the consortium of algal species
was investigated for the following photoperiod
cycles viz: 2, 3 and 4 hours of alternating light
and dark period. The results showed that for a 3
hour alternating light and dark period higher gas
production was observed, which was followed
by 4 and 2 hour of alternating light and dark
photoperiod. Figure 5 shows the gas evolution
by the algal species when deprived of sulphur
under intermittent illumination. The rate of gas
generation during 2 hour photoperiod consisting of
3 cycles per day produced 40±3 mL/hour during
dark period with a hydrogen content of 49%, but
an alternating photoperiod of 3 hour, consisting
of 2 cycles per day resulted in a gas generation of
Figure 5  Average gas production versus operating period
5 january–march 2010
 Article

74±4 mL/hour with a hydrogen content of 85%. the oxygen generation was inhibited in the algae
In the case of 4 hour photoperiod with 3 cycles which prevented oxidative damage to the algal
per day resulted in a gas volume of 68±4 mL/hour cell. During this period protein synthesis occurs
with 88% hydrogen. The reason for lower hydrogen to lesser extent which helps to overcome the
content at 2 hour alternating photoperiod could sulphur limitation, due to the recycling of existing
be due to higher level of photosynthetic oxygen protein which released the sulphur internally for
evolution when compared with 3 and 4 hour biosynthesis of protein for the survival of algal
photoperiod. When compared between 3 and 4 biomass. As the PS(II) showed a decreasing trend
hour alternating period the hydrogen content in in this present investigation it can be concluded
4 hour photoperiod was higher which could be that the hydrogen generating mechanism does not
due to the increased rate in respiration than in depend on the PS(II) pathway. Wykoff, Davies,
photosynthetic oxygen evolution. Melis, et al. (1998) stated that under sulphur
Algal species when subjected to sulphur deprived condition the conversion of PS(II) from
limitation produced hydrogen due to change in QB reducing to QB non-reducing form occurs. This
metabolic pathway. Moreover the Chl content step is followed by loss in PS(II) centres from the
also showed a lower value during the sulphur chloroplast thylakoids. Corroborating results was
limiting condition. The chlorophyll profile during also shown by Melis, Zhang, Forestier, et al. (2000)
the sulphur limiting period showed a decreasing using western blotting for the various reaction
trend irrespective of the photoperiod namely 2, centre proteins of PS(I) and PS(II). Redding,
3 and 4 hour respectively. For example at 2 hour Cournac, Vassiliev, et al. (1999) stated that the
photoperiod during sulphur limiting operating reduced intermediates (e.g., reduced ferredoxin)
period of 5, 10, 20 and 30 days the chlorophyll which are formed at the PS(I) functional centres
per cell was found to be 3.82, 3.77, 3.26 and has a sufficient negative redox potential for the
2.94 mol/cell. In the case of 3 hour photoperiod generation of molecular hydrogen. Due to the
the chlorophyll content or chlorophyll per cell
was found to be 3.76, 3.45, 3.08 and 2.71 mol/ Table 1  Functional values of PS (II), Cytochrome f and PS
cell, whereas for 4 hour photoperiod the values (I) reaction centres for consortium of algal species during
were found to be 3.54, 3.14, 2.64 and 2.02 sulphur limiting period of 30 days.
mol/cell respectively. The Chl a/b ratio value Parametera Days of Photoperiod
showed a marginal increase in value during the operation (light and dark period)
sulphur limiting period, when the algal reactor 2 hour 3 hour 4 hour
was operated for a period of 30 days at varying
PS(II) 1 3.7 3.7 3.7
photoperiod namely 2, 3 and 4 hour respectively.
The initial value of Chl a/b ratio at 2, 3 and 4 hour 5 3.4 3.1 3.0
was found to be 1.29±0.02 which increased up 10 3.2 2.7 2.2
to 1.34±0.02 during the sulphur limiting period. 20 2.5 1.4 1.6
Melis, Zhang, Forestier, et al. 2000) stated that the 30 1.6 1.0 0.7
Chl a/b ratio increased marginally by about 10%
Cyt f 1 3.2 3.2 3.2
to 20% for a time period between 0 to 120 hour of
sulphur deprivation period. 5 3.0 2.8 2.7
The PS(II), Cyt b6–f and PS(I) concentration 10 2.7 2.6 2.5
in the thylakoid membrane of algae are as 20 2.6 2.4 2.2
shown in Table 1. The results showed that as the
30 2.3 2.1 2.0
operating period increased up to 30 days during
the sulphur limiting condition the concentration PS(I) 1 2.9 2.9 2.9
of functional group namely QA, Cyt–f and P700 5 2.7 2.6 2.5
showed a gradual decrease in values. For example 10 2.6 2.5 2.4
at 2, 3 and 4 hour photoperiod the PS(II) value 20 2.3 2.3 2.2
was found to be decreased from an initial value
30 2.1 2.0 1.8
of 3.7 to 1.6, 3.7 to 1.0 and 3.7 to 0.7 mmol/mol
respectively. The decrease in PS(II) showed that Note: Corresponding parameter in chlorophyll (mmol/mol)
a

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 6 january–march 2010

absence of PS(II) functional group the hydrogen
generation depends of the PS(I) mechanism.
Table 1 shows the concentration of Cyt f and
P700 retained in the thylakoid membrane during
the sulphur deprived period of about 30 days. The
Cyt f and P700 values showed a decrease in trend
as the sulphur deprivation prolonged. For example
at 2, 3 and 4 hour photoperiod the Cyt f value
decreased from 3.2 to 2.3, 3.2 to 2.1 and 3.2 to 2.0
mmol/mol. In the case of P700 the value decreased
from 2.9 to 2.1, 2.9 to 2.0 and 2.9 to 1.8 mmol/
mol respectively at the end of 30 days of sulphur
limitation. As cytochrome b6-f and PS(I) are
needed for the transport of electrons from organic
substrate in a chlororespiration type process to
ferredoxin and the reversible hydrogenase (Moller
and Lin 1986). The hydrogen produced through
PS(I) process is supported by the electrons from
endogenous substrate. Reversible hydrogenase
enzymes are induced in the cells after exposure
to a short period of anaerobiosis. However, the
activity of this enzyme is rapidly lost as soon
as the light is turned on, because of immediate
deactivation of the reversible hydrogenase by
photosynthetically generated oxygen. Continuous
purging of hydrogen producing cultures with inert
gases resulted in sustained hydrogen production
for a period up to 160 hours (Reeves and
Greenbaum 1985), such purging are expensive
and impractical for large-scale mass cultures of
algae. The addition of exogenous reducing agent
such as sodium dithionite and herbicides inhibited
photosynthetic oxygen evolution which led to cell
death. Consequently, the absence of a physiological
way of surmounting the oxygen sensitivity of
hydrogenases has discouraged research on applied
algal hydrogen production systems. The only
other mechanism for algae to generate sufficient
amount of ATP for the survival under sulphur
depleted condition depends on hydrogen evolution.
Formation of ATP occurs due to the mitochondrial
respiration and oxygenic photosynthesis, but
this process cannot occur in the sealed and
S-deprived algal cells due to the lack of oxygen
and inactivation of PS(II) function. Hence light-
dependent electron transport by PS(I) through
ferredoxin and reversible hydrogenase produces
molecular hydrogen that sustains the electron
transport process and thus the pH gradient. This
overall process occurs at the expense of reductant
that is eventually released into the environment in
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
the form of gaseous hydrogen. Thus the hydrogen
production process is light dependent and utilizes
the chlororespiratory and reversible hydrogenase
pathways under anaerobic conditions (Gfeller
and Gibbs 1984; Gibbs, Gfeller, and Chen 1986;
Maione and Gibbs 1986).
Conclusion
In summing up, the ability to produce
photohydrogen from algae had been a biological
curiosity for many years until recently. The
present work proved the capability of producing
hydrogen using fresh water algae in a sustainable
photobiological reactor under sulphur deprived
condition that can be employed continuously for
several weeks. As the present investigation relays
on the physiological treatment of the algal culture
and not there mutant cells, it helps in maintaining
natural ecological balance even when the algal
cell are discharged into the environment. This
consortium of algae, grown under sulphur deprived
condition could serve as the basis for further
research and development of renewable gaseous
fuel under optimized light intensity. The future
work aims on the optimizations of experimental
variables like light intensity, introduction exhaust
gas from industrial unit and utilizing treated
effluent as feed water source. Apart from lab scale
study in order to scale up into industrial scale an
in-depth engineering challenges incorporating
biological process of cellular metabolism and basic
biochemistry condition must be studied before this
technology becomes a practical viability in reality.
Being a green fuel, burning hydrogen does not lead
to any green house gas. Hence energy derived from
algal biomass would serve as renewable energy
source with a positive impact on the environment
and human.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the Department of
Biotechnology and the Management of Prathyusha
Institute of Technology and Management for their
financial support to carryout this work.
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planktonic diatoms. I. Cyclotella nana Hustedt and Detonula
confervacea Cleve. Can J Microbiol 8: 229–239
Guillard R R L. 1975. Culture of phytoplankton for feeding
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polyphenol oxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant Physiol 24: 1–5
Witham F H, Blaydes D F and Devlin R M. 1971. Experiments in
plant physiology. New York: Van Nostrand
Melis A. 1991. Dynamics of photosynthetic membrane
composition and function. Biochim Biophys Acta 1058: 87–106
Melis A, Murakami A, Nemson J A, Aizawa K, Ohki K, and Fujita Y.
1996. Chromatic regulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
alters photosystem stoichiometry and improves the
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253–265
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Wykoff D D, Davies J P, Melis A, and Grossman A R. 1998. The
regulation of photosynthetic electron-transport during
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Seasonal variation and graphical representation of

groundwater quality in selected areas of Nellore
district, Andhra Pradesh, India
P M N Prasad and Y V R Reddy
Enviro-analytical Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, S V University, Tirupati – 517 502, Chittor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
Email <vijaya025@yahoo.com>

Abstract
In this study seasonal variations of water quality in Atmakur, Vinjamuru, Kaligiri, Nellorepalem,
Duttalur, and Sangam at Nellore district, were analysed for various physical, chemical parameters
and trace metals. Twelve water samples were collected during post monsoon season in 2008 and 12
water samples were collected in winter and summer of 2009. They were subjected to analysis for
chemical characteristics. The parameters were analysed were total hardness, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, alkalinity, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, sulphate, cyanide, pH, conductivity, total
dissolved solids (TDS), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), per cent sodium (% sodium), Fe, Zn,
Pb, Cu, Cd, Cr and Mn. Higher concentrations of TDS, Ca, Mg, Na, NO3, chloride, fluoride are
observed in winter and summer seasons. The results were compared with drinking water quality
limits. Ionic balance of water is calculated and error percentage of cations and anions were calculated.
Graphical representations of each parameter in different seasons are represented.
Key words: groundwater, quality evaluation, seasonal variation, physico chemical parameters, ionic
balance, Nellore

Introduction Development Briefs No. 2, 1992, 14 pp]. The

Groundwater is an important and a major source
of drinking water in both urban and rural areas
in India. Determination of water quality is one
of the most important aspects in ground water
studies. Groundwater is highly valued because
of certain properties not possessed by surface
[Goel P K, Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and
Control, New Age International (P) Ltd, New
Delhi, 2000]. People around the world have used
groundwater as a source of drinking water, and
even today more than half the world’s population
depend on groundwater for survival [UNESCO,
Groundwater, UNESCO Environmental and
value of groundwater lies not only in its wide
spread occurrence and availability but also in its
consistent good quality, which makes it an ideal for
drinking. [Groundwater Pollution, International
Hydrological Programme, UNESCO, 2000].
The water quality of borehole is generally
neglected based on the general belief that it is
pure through the natural purification process
[Seasonal variation of some physico-chemical
properties of borehole water in Abraka, Nigeria,
P. O. Agbaire and I. P. Oyibo, African Journal of
Pure and Applied Chemistry, 3 (6), pp. 116-118,
June, 2009]. It is possible to understand the

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 9 january–march 2010

 Article
change in quality due to seasonal variation or rock
water interaction or any type of anthropogenic
influence. The value of groundwater lies not only
in its wide spread occurrence and availability but
also in its consistent good quality, which makes it
an ideal supply of drinking water [Groundwater
pollution, International Hydrological Programme,
UNESCO, 2000]. Groundwater often consists
of seven major chemical elements – Ca+2, Mg+2,
C–1, HCO3–1 Na+1, K+1, and SO4–2. The chemical
parameters of groundwater play a significant
role in classifying and assessing water quality
[Hydrochemical Analysis and Evaluation of
Groundwater Quality in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka
State, India, C Sadashivaiah, C R Ramakrishnaiah
and G Ranganna, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public
Health 2008, 5(3) 158–164]. Environmental
health involves all the factors, circumstances and
conditions in the environment or surroundings of
humans that can influence health and well being.
The neglect of rural areas in most developing
countries in terms of basic infrastructures such as
pipe-borne water and sanitation facilities, expose
the villagers to a variety of health related problems
such as water-borne diseases [Assessment of
Groundwater Quality in a Typical Rural Settlement
in South India. M Adekunle1, M T Adetunji, A M
Gbadebo and O B Banjoko, Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 2007, 4(4), pp. 307–318].
Nellore district is one of the costal areas in
Andhra Pradesh. Nellore is located on the south east
of Andhra Pradesh on the coast of Bay of Bengal.
Nellore is very famous for export of prawns and sea
food, agricultural products. In this paper an attempt
has been made to evaluate the quality and seasonal
variation of ground water in above selected areas of
Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh.
Sample collection
Twelve water samples were collected in each
season (post monsoon season in 2008, winter of
2009 and summer of 2009). Sampling was done
following standard methods of water and waste
water procedure [APHA, Standard methods for
examination of water and waste water. American
Public Health Association 20th edition]. Two litres
of each sample was collected and homogeneous
sample was prepared for analysis of physicochemical
parameters. Separately 100 ml of each water sample
was collected and acidified with concenrtated
HNO3 heavy metal and toxic metal analysis.
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
Quality assurance procedure
Special precautions are taken during sampling and
analysis of water. All the Samples are collected in
polythene containers and stored at 4 °C by using
ice packs for physico-chemical analysis.
Samples are separately collected in 100 ml
polyethylene containers (containers are previously
soaked in 2% nitric acid and washed with distilled
water) and acidified with concentrated HNO3 and
stored at 4 °C for trace metal analysis.
All the containers are rinsed twice with the
same samples before collecting the water samples.
All analytical reagent grade chemicals and
reagents are used in the analysis. Duplicate analysis
was performed and mean results taken.
Analytical methodology
Standard methods were used for the determination
of physical and chemical characteristics of water
(APHA 20th edition). The parameters analysed
were total hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, alkalinity, chloride, fluoride, nitrate,
sulphate, cyanide, pH, conductivity, total dissolved
solids (TDS), sodium absorption ratio (SAR),
per cent sodium, Fe, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd, Cr, Mn, As
and Hg.
Chloride was determined using argentometric
titration method. Titration methods were used for
total hardness, calcium hardness and alkalinity
measurements. Sodium and potassium were
analysed using flame photometer (Systronics 104
model).
Sulphate, nitrate, fluoride and cyanide were
analysed using UV-VIS Spectrophotometer
(Thermo Alpha series). Standard curves of nitrate,
sulphate, cyanide and fluoride were prepared using
different linear concentrations of standards. Good
linear graph and correlation coefficient of standard
curve >0.995 was observed.
Trace metals were analysed using ICP-
OES (Perkin Elmer Optima 7000DV) standard
reference material of 1000 mg/L(23 elements
Merck) is used for analysis of Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn,
Pb, Cd and Cr. Five different linear concentration
standards were prepared ranging from 0.01 mg/L
to 0.2 mg/L. Before doing sample analysis different
concentrations of standards were analysed and
prepared linear curve. All the metals having good
linear graph with correlation coefficient of > 0.999
was observed in standard curves preparation.
10 january–march 2010
Results and discussion
The measurement results of water quality
parameters from 12 sampling stations in three
seasons of Atmakur, Vinjumur, Kaligiri, Sangam,
Duttalur and Nellorepalem areas are represented
in Tables 1, 2, 3. Seasonal variation of physico-
chemical parameters are represented in statistically.
Statistical representation of total cations and
anions in three seasons was also represented.
All the concentrations of major cations and
anions are converted in milli-equivallent per litre
and ionic balance was done. The error percentage
of major cations and anions are calculated. Ions are
well balanced and very low error percentage was
observed.
Calcium and magnesium
Calcium and magnesium cause hardness and most
of the scale-forming properties of water; soap
consuming. Usually have no effect on suitability of
water for irrigation or stock water.
Calcium concentrations in study area ranged
from 0.9 meq/L to 6.09 meq/L in post monsoon
season and 1.3 to 9.28 meq/L, 2.89 to 10.38
meq/L in winter and summer seasons respectively.
Magnesium concentrations in study area ranged
0.6 to 6.6 meq/L, 0.9 to 13.1 meq/L, 3.0 to 15.9
mg/L in post-monsoon, winter and summer
seasons respectively.
Sodium and potassium
High concentrations give a salty taste when
combined with chloride. For most purposes
moderate levels have little effect on the use of
water. Sodium salts may cause foaming in boilers
and high sodium adsorption ratio may limit use of
water for irrigation.
Sodium is ranged from 1.26 to 5.4 meq/L, 1.7
to 8.2 meq/L, 2.4 to 8.9 meq/L and potassium
is ranged from 0.04 to 0.38 meq/L 0.09 to 0.73
meq/L, 0.11 to 0.89 meq/L in post monsoon,
winter and summer seasons respectively.
Carbonates and bi-carbonates alkalinity
Carbonates and bi-carbonates alkalinity ranging from
2.6 to 9.6 meq/L, 4.3 to 13.2 meq/L, 6.0 to 14.1
meq/L in post moon, winter and summer respectively.
Chloride
Chloride salts in excess of 100 mg/L give a salty
taste to water. When combined with calcium and
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
magnesium, chloride may increase the corrosive
activity of water. Chloride content ranges from
0.38 to 5.7 meq/l, 0.7 to 10.6 meq/L, 1.2 to 11.9
meq/L in post monsoon, winter and summer
seasons respectively.
Nitrate
Nitrate encourages growth of algae and other
organisms which produce undesirable tastes and
odours. There is evidence that more than about
10 mg/L may cause methemoglobinemia (‘blue
baby syndrome’) in infants, which may be fatal.
Interference syndrome is likely in cattle if stock
water exceeds 50 to 100 mg/L of nitrate, especially
for long periods of time. At more than 100 mg/L
of nitrate there is the possibility of acute losses
to interference syndrome and secondary disease.
Nitrate content ranges from 0.18 to 0.56 meq/L.
0.18 to 0.93meq/L, 0.26 to 0.97 meq/L post-
monsoon, winter and summer respectively.
Sulphate
Sulphate in combination with other ions gives a
bitter taste to water. Concentrations above 250
mg/L may have a laxative effect. Domestic water
supplies containing more than 1000 mg/L sulphate
can be used for drinking if a less mineralized water
supply is not available. Sulphates content ranges
from 0.17 to 1.20 meq/L, 0.23 to 1.83 meq/L and
0.65 to 2.42 meq/L in post monsoon, winter and
summer seasons respectively.
Fluoride
When fluoride consumed during the period of
enamel calcification fluoride in drinking water
reduces the incidence of tooth decay in children. But
fluoride may cause mottling of the teeth, depending
on the concentration of fluoride, the age of the
child, the amount of drinking water consumed, and
the susceptibility of the individual, 0.8 to 1.7 mg/L
is optimum, depending on the air temperature.
Fluoride content ranges from 0.018 to 0.057 meq/L,
0.024 to 0.066 meq/L, 0.036 to 0.085 meq/L in post-
monsoon, winter and summer seasons respectively.
Sodium absorption ratio (SAR) and per cent
sodium
The index used is the sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR) that expresses the relative activity of sodium
with the exchange reactions with the soil. This ratio
11 january–march 2010
 Article

Water quality Results

Table 1: Major cations and anions concentrations in mg/L and meq/L
Post monsoon
Sample No. Ca2+ mg/L Mg2+ mg/L Na+ mg/L K+ mg/L CO32– & HCO3– F–mg/L meq/L SO42– mg/L NO3– mg/L meq/L Cl– mg/L meq/L
meq/L meq/L meq/L meq/L mg/L meq/L meq/L

Atmakur1 44 2.20 77.8 6.40 48.2 2.10 8.4 0.21 330 6.60 0.4 0.022 25.4 0.53 31.9 0.51 113.4 3.20
Atmakur2 56 2.79 53.5 4.40 51.8 2.25 4.2 0.11 280 5.60 0.3 0.018 23.4 0.49 34.4 0.56 102.8 2.90
Vinjumur1 116 5.79 55.9 4.60 102.8 4.47 10.2 0.26 455 9.10 0.4 0.021 34.9 0.73 35.0 0.56 152.4 4.30
Vinjumur2 122 6.09 72.9 6.00 79.4 3.45 12.6 0.32 480 9.60 0.5 0.026 35.0 0.73 29.9 0.48 180.8 5.10
Duttalur1 76 3.79 80.2 6.60 70.1 3.05 4.8 0.12 330 6.60 0.7 0.036 53.0 1.10 20.7 0.33 187.9 5.30
Duttalur2 108 5.39 68.0 5.60 66.4 2.89 1.6 0.04 330 6.60 0.4 0.021 59.6 1.20 23.2 0.37 202.1 5.70
Kaligiri1 18 0.90 21.9 1.80 28.9 1.26 3.6 0.09 165 3.30 1.0 0.052 8.1 0.17 11.0 0.18 13.5 0.38
Kaligiri2 48 2.40 12.2 1.00 34.5 1.50 4.8 0.12 160 3.20 0.9 0.050 20.1 0.42 12.3 0.20 37.2 1.05
Sangam1 32 1.60 23.1 1.90 39.5 1.72 4.1 0.10 130 2.60 0.5 0.026 25.5 0.53 26.8 0.43 58.5 1.65
Sangam2 44 2.20 18.2 1.50 49.6 2.16 3.4 0.09 195 3.90 0.4 0.023 19.2 0.40 16.1 0.26 49.6 1.40
Nellore 66 3.29 23.1 1.90 124.2 5.40 4.3 0.11 280 5.60 1.1 0.057 34.3 0.71 14.6 0.24 140.0 3.95
palem1
Nellore 72 3.59 7.3 0.60 78.9 3.43 5.6 0.14 205 4.10 1.1 0.057 29.6 0.62 13.5 0.22 93.9 2.65
palem2
Winter
Atmakur1 108 5.39 81.4 6.7 90.5 3.9 13.2 0.34 450 9.00 0.5 0.026 43.1 0.90 43.1 0.88 196.75 5.55
Atmakur2 88 4.39 69.3 5.7 98.6 4.3 11.2 0.29 420 8.40 0.6 0.033 36.3 0.75 36.3 0.93 157.75 4.55
Vinjumur1 186 9.28 93.6 7.7 145.6 6.3 58 1.48 630 12.60 0.5 0.024 62.2 1.29 62.2 0.92 278.28 7.85
Vinjumur2 172 8.58 79.0 6.5 118.4 5.2 39.2 1.00 660 13.20 0.6 0.030 54.3 1.13 54.3 0.85 228.65 6.45
Duttalur1 80 3.99 148.2 12.2 122.4 5.3 6.8 0.17 425 8.50 0.5 0.028 88.1 1.83 88.1 0.54 327.91 9.25
Duttalur2 98 4.89 159.2 13.1 98.2 4.3 3.6 0.09 380 7.60 0.5 0.024 102.1 2.13 37.7 0.61 375.77 10.6
Kaligiri1 26 1.30 29.2 2.4 39.2 1.7 4.4 0.11 215 4.30 1.3 0.066
11.0 0.23 11.0 0.18 24.82 0.70
Kaligiri2 56 2.79 17.0 1.4 62.9 2.7 94.4 2.40 255 5.10 1.2 0.062 23.4 0.48 23.4 0.30 51.40 1.45
Sangam1 48 2.40 26.7 2.2 71 3.1 4.1 0.10 205 4.10 0.3 0.017 33.9 0.70 33.9 0.45 97.49 2.75
Sangam2 42 2.10 18.2 1.5 64.1 2.8 4.9 0.13 220 4.40 0.5 0025 35.4 0.74 35.4 0.40 74.45 2.10
Nellore 112 5.59 14.6 1.2 188.8 8.2 1.1 0.03 385 7.70 1.3 0.067 45.5 0.95 16.3 0.26 191.43 5.40
palem 1
Nellore 84 4.19 10.9 0.9 154.4 6.7 2.4 0.61 310 6.20 1.1 0.056 54.3 1.13 18.2 0.29 166.62 4.70
palem 2
Summer
Atmakur1 128.0 7.19 91.1 8.7 90.5 3.9 13.2 0.34 525 10.5 0.9 0.046 64.3 1.34 59.82 0.96 223.34 6.3
Atmakur2 96.0 4.79 86.3 7.1 98.6 4.3 11.2 0.29 480 9.6 0.7 0.038 42.7 0.89 57.04 0.92 166.62 4.7
Vinjumur1 208.0 10.38 100.8 8.3 179.2 7.8 58.4 1.49 705 14.1 1.1 0.057 81.6 1.70 60.13 0.97 308.42 8.7
Vinjumur2 188.0 9.38 102.1 8.4 148.8 6.5 42.4 1.08 645 12.9 1.0 0.054 71.1 1.48 56.96 0.92 315.51 8.9
Duttalur1 88.0 155.5 12.8 139.6 6.1 9.6 0.25 505 10.1 0.8 0.041 92.0 1.91 44.60 0.72 343.87 9.7
4.39
Duttalur2 108.0 193.2 15.9 110.8 4.8 4.5 0.11 515 10.3 1.0 0.054 116.3 2.42 51.35 0.83 421.86 11.9
5.39
Kaligiri1 58.0 2.89 36.5 3.0 54.6 2.4 7.5 0.19 300 6.0 1.3 0.066 31.1 0.65 16.36 0.26 42.54 1.2
Kaligiri2 66.0 3.29 37.7 3.1 82.1 3.6 9.8 0.25 330 6.6 1.2 0.062 38.9 0.81 23.51 0.38 67.36 1.9
Sangam1 58.0 2.89 38.9 3.2 88.9 3.9 13.4 0.34 270 5.4 0.7 0.037 45.2 0.94 30.33 0.49 113.44 3.2
Sangam2 62.0 3.09 41.3 3.4 88.6 3.9 8.6 0.22 310 6.2 0.5 0.025 51.3 1.07 24.78 0.40 95.72 2.7
Nellore 116.0 5.79 68.0 5.6 204.8 8.9 7.6 0.19 520 10.4 1.6 0.085 91.6 1.91 24.94 0.40 237.52 6.7
palem 1
Nellore 92.0 4.59 45.0 3.7 180.8 7.9 6.4 0.16 440 8.8 1.2 0.062 65.8 1.37 26.35 0.43 187.89 5.3
palem 2
WHO Limits No guideline No guideline 200mg/L Not No guideline No guideline 1.5mg/L 250mg/L 50mg/L 250mg/L
1999 Not
BIS limit 75mg/L 30mg/L Not mentioned Not mentioned 200mg/L 1.5mg/L 200mg/L 45mg/L 250mg/l

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 12 january–march 2010

Table 2: Water Quality data
Unit pH EC TDS at TH SAR % Fe Zn Pb Cd Cu Mn
180°C sodium
– ms/cm Mg/L mg/L – – mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Post monsoon
1 Atmakur 1 7.7 1024 896 430 1.01 19.2 <0.01 0.011 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
2 Atmakur 2 7.3 964 802 360 1.19 23.6 <0.01 0.014 <0.01 <0.01 0.011 <0.01
3 Vinjumur 1 7.1 1521 1298 520 1.96 29.6 0.011 0.298 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.014
4 Vinjumur 2 7.6 1602 1342 605 1.40 21.8 0.013 0.309 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
5 Duttalur 1 6.8 1326 1124 520 1.34 22.5 0.013 0.011 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
6 Duttalur 2 7.1 1428 1192 550 1.23 20.8 0.010 0.010 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
7 Kaligiri 1 7 412 368 135 1.08 31.1 0.038 0.037 <0.01 <0.01 0.013 <0.01
8 Kaligiri 2 7.4 522 454 170 1.15 29.9 0.032 0.041 <0.01 <0.01 0.011 0.015
9 Sangam 1 6.9 544 486 175 1.30 32.3 0.018 0.034 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.011
10 Sangam 2 6.7 611 536 185 1.59 36.3 0.014 0.039 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
11 Nellore palem 1 7.9 1095 932 260 3.35 50.5 <0.01 0.048 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
12 Nellore palem 1 7.2 726 712 210 2.37 44.2 <0.01 0.066 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Winter
15 Atmakur 1 7.3 1632 1396 605 1.60 24.1 0.010 0.023 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
14 Atmakur 2 6.9 1346 1262 505 1.91 29.2 0.011 0.032 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
15 Vinjumur 1 6.7 2452 1482 850 2.17 25.5 0.016 0.705 <0.01 <0.01 0.011 0.031
16 Vinjumur 2 7.2 2081 1832 755 1.88 24.3 0.028 0.548 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.014
17 Duttalur 1 7 2106 1748 810 1.87 24.5 0.026 0.015 <0.01 <0.01 0.011 <0.01
18 Duttalur 2 7.2 2399 1742 900 1.42 19.1 0.019 0.034 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
19 Kaligiri 1 7.1 616 482 185 1.25 30.9 0.082 0.066 <0.01 <0.01 0.012 <0.01
20 Kaligiri 2 7.3 898 796 210 1.89 29.3 0.061 0.089 <0.01 <0.01 0.016 <0.01
21 Sangam 1 7.5 810 712 230 2.04 39.7 0.031 0.062 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.017
22 Sangam 2 7.8 1046 646 180 2.08 42.8 0.024 0.074 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.012
23 Nellore palem 1 7.1 1493 1298 340 4.46 54.6 <0.01 0.084 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
24 Nellore palem 1 6.8 1198 1102 255 4.21 56.6 <0.01 0.104 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Summer
25 Atmakur 1 7.7 1986 1642 695 1.40 19.5 0.012 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
26 Atmakur 2 7.3 1564 1386 595 1.76 26.1 0.019 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
27 Vinjumur 1 7.1 2688 2212 935 2.55 27.9 0.022 0.551 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.028
28 Vinjumur 2 7.8 2422 2106 890 2.17 25.5 0.028 0.386 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.017
29 Duttalur 1 6.8 2264 1842 860 2.07 25.8 0.017 0.084 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
30 Duttalur 2 7.8 2602 2098 1065 1.48 18.4 0.023 0.102 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
31 Kaligiri 1 7.8 812 698 295 1.38 28.1 0.095 0.033 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
32 Kaligiri 2 7.6 998 842 320 2.00 35.0 0.084 0.049 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
33 Sangam 1 7.9 964 892 305 2.22 37.5 0.010 0.014 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.021
34 Sangam 2 7.6 1012 898 325 2.14 36.5 0.019 0.019 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.011
35 Nellorepalem 1 7.4 2142 1684 570 3.73 43.5 0.012 0.078 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
36 Nellorepalem 1 7.6 1682 1396 415 3.86 48.2 0.018 0.116 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
37 WHO limit N.G – 1000 NG – – 0.3 0.05 0.01 0.003 0.2 0.4
38 BIS 6.5- – 500 300 – – 0.3 5.0 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.1
8.5
TH – Total Hardness as CaCO3

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 13 january–march 2010

 Article

Table 3: Per cent error in ionic balance (for total cations and total anions)
Post monsoon Winter Summer
Total cations Total Anions % error Total cation Total anion % error Total cation Total anion % error
(meq/L) (meq/l) (meq/L) (meq/l) (meq/L) (meq/l)
Atmakur 1 10.69 10.86 –0.80 16.02 16.35 –1.00 19.82 19.15 1.73
Atmakur 2 9.45 9.56 –0.58 14.38 14.57 –0.65 16.18 16.15 0.10
Vinjumur 1 14.86 14.71 0.50 23.31 22.69 1.35 26.47 25.52 1.83
Vinjumur 2 15.54 15.94 –1.25 20.23 21.66 –3.41 24.25 24.25 0.00
Duttalur 1 13.44 13.37 0.25 21.51 20.15 3.28 23.26 22.47 1.72
Duttalur 2 13.88 13.94 –0.21 22.26 20.96 3.02 26.11 25.50 1.17
Kaligiri 1 3.96 4.08 –1.53 5.40 5.47 –0.63 8.27 8.18 0.56
Kaligiri 2 4.90 4.92 –0.20 6.93 7.40 –3.25 9.96 9.75 1.09
Sangam 1 5.21 5.24 –0.22 7.68 8.03 –2.18 9.96 10.07 –0.53
Sangam 2 5.85 5.98 –1.09 6.38 7.66 –9.09 10.35 10.39 –0.22
Nellore palem 1 10.60 10.56 0.18 15.00 14.38 2.12 20.30 19.49 2.02
Nellore palem 1 7.62 7.64 –0.10 11.81 12.38 –2.36 16.15 15.96 0.62

measures the relative concentration of sodium to Heavy metals

calcium and magnesium. SAR ranges from 1.01 to
3.35, 1.25 to 4.46, 1.38 to 3.86 and per cent sodium
is 19.2 to 50.4, 19.1 to 56.6, 18.4 to 48.4 in post-
monsoon, winter and summer seasons respectively.
pH and conductivity
Corrosiveness of water generally increases with
decreasing pH, but excessively alkaline water may
also attack metals. A pH range between 6.0 and 8.5
is acceptable and normal for most waters.
The pH of the study area ranging form 6.8 to
7.9 in all three seasons. Electrical conductivity
ranges from 412 to 1602 µs/cm, 616 to 2452 µs/
cm, 812 to 2688 µs/cm in post-monsoon, winter
and summer respectively.
Electrical conductivity (EC) and total
dissolved solids (TDS)
EC and TDS parameter are related to total ions
concentration in water. Electrical conductivity
ranges from 412 to 1602 µs/cm, 616 to 2452 µs/
cm, 812 to 2688 µs/cm in post-
monsoon, winter and summer
Heavy metals may be dissolved from rocks and soils.
Some metals may be released from plumbing. Limits
for heavy metals are usually recommended for
health reasons. Limits for drinking water generally
are conservative and higher concentrations may be
permitted if the water is the best available supply.
Iron, Zinc, Cadmium, Lead, Copper and
Manganese metals are analysed by ICP–OES
(Perkin Elmer). Zinc and Iron concentrations only
found in most of locations in three seasons and rest
of metals concentrations were found absent.
Graphical representation
Concentration variations in three seasons are
plotted for all major parameters. Total cations
and total anions concentrations variation in three
seasons are plotted in meq/L. The major cations
like Ca, Mg, Na, K and major anions like sulphate,
fluoride, nitrate, carbonate, bi-carbonate and
chloride play the key role in ionic balance. The
Total cations variation
30

respectively.
20
Water with more than 1000 Total cations in
milli-equalients
mg/L of dissolved solids may 10

contain minerals which impart

0
a distinctive taste. Water with Atm Atm
ak ur ak ur
Vinj
umu
Vinj
umu
Dutt Dutt
alur1 alur2
Kali
giri1
Kali
giri2
San
gam
San
gam
Nell
uru
Nell
urup

more than 2000 mg/L dissolved Post monsoon 10.7 9.45 14.9 15.5 13.4 13.9 3.96 4.9 5.21 5.85 10.6 7.62
Winter 16 14.4 23.3 20.2 21.5 22.3 5.4 6.93 7.68 6.38 15 11.8

solids is generally too salty to Summer 19.8 16.2 26.5 24.3 23.3 26.1 8.27 9.96 9.96 10.3 20.3 16.2

Name of the location

drink.
Figure 1:  Variation of total cations (in meq/L) in three seasons

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 14 january–march 2010

 Total anions variation
30 concentration of Ca, Na, Mg, Na, F–,
SO42–, NO3–, CO32–, HCO3– and Cl– in
Total anions 20
in mili-
post monsoon, winter, and summer is
equivalents 10 provided in Table 1 in mg/L and meq/L.
The results of pH, conductivity, total
0 Atm Atm Vinj
akur akur umu
Vinj
umu
Dutt
alur
Dutt
alur
Kali
giri1
Kali
giri2
San
gam
San
gam
Nell
uru
Nell
uru
hardness, total alkalinity, TDS, SAR, per
post monsoon 10.9 9.56 14.7 15.9 13.4 13.9 4.08 4.92 5.24 5.98 10.6 7.64 cent sodium, Fe, Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn and Mn in
Winter 16.3 14.6 22.7 21.7 20.1 21 5.47 7.4 8.03 7.66 14.4 12.4
Summer 19.1 16.1 25.5 24.3 22.5 25.5 8.18 9.75 10.1 10.4 19.5 16 three seasons are provided in Table 2.
Name of the location Ionic balance of total major cations,
Figure 2:  Variation of total anions (in meq/L) in three seasons total major anions and percentage of error
value obtained in the ionic balance in
three seasons are summarized in Table 3.

Figure 3:  Major cations variation in three seasons

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 15 january–march 2010

Article

Figure 4:  Major anions variations in three seasons

SAR %Sodium

Figure 5:  SAR and per cent sodium variation in three seasons

TDS Conductivity Total hardness as CaCO3

Total alkalinity (CO32- & HCO3-) as CACO3 pH

Figure 6:  pH, EC, TDS, total hardness, total alkalinity variations in three seasons

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 16 january–march 2010

Conclusion
The groundwater samples collected from the
various places in north east part of Nellore district,
Andhra Pradesh in post-monsoon of 2008, winter
and summer of 2009 for various physicochemical
parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity
(EC), turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), total
hardness(TH), Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, F–, SO42–, PO43–,
NO3–, SAR, % sodium, Na+, K+, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb,
Cd and Fe. These results are compared with BIS
and WHO standards. Atmakur, Vinjumur, Duttalur
and Nellorepalem areas had higher levels of
conductivity, TDS, calcium, magnesium, carbonate
and bicarbonates in winter and summer seasons.
The nitrate concentration levels were observed
higher in Atmakur, Vinjumur and Duttalur areas
in winter and summer seasons. The higher levels of
these ions have considerable impact on the water
used for drinking and cooking purpose. Almost
all the parameters for Kaligiri and Sangam were
reported with lower than the permissible limits of
BIS and WHO standards in all seasons.
According to this study, the groundwater in
Atmakur, Duttalur, Vinjumer and Nellorepalem
Solar nanotechnology: an innovation to harness energy
Imagine not having energy to worry about charging
your cell phone, laptop, PDA, Blackberry, MP3
player, portable DVD, etc., perhaps ever. Solar
nanotechnology just may be the innovation that
would make it possible. Solar power certainly is
not a new concept, but what is new and exciting
is the potential of using solar power for many of
our needs. No longer the realm of tree huggers,
technology companies are investing heavily in this
power of the future. Solar technology, though still
in limited use, has been powering and heating
homes and even commercial buildings for decades,
but its application in portable tech devices is
nearly non-existent, other than in the humble solar
calculator.
The challenges in energy sector
Energy needs have been growing exorbitantly
across the globe and across the sectors. The
energy needs of the 21st century will be definitely
higher than ever. But at the same time, they have
to be met with qualitatively different sources
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
areas were not suitable for drinking purposes.
Generally, the water in these study area was slightly
harmful to human beings and however, the quality
of water in Sangam and Kaligiri were slightly
superior to that of remaining study areas.
References
Water [Goel P K. 2000. Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and
Control. New Age International (P) Ltd., New Delhi
UNESCO, Groundwater UNESCO Environmental and Development
Briefs No. 2, 1992, 14 pp
Groundwater pollution, International Hydrological Programme,
UNESCO, 2000
Agbaire P O and Oyibo I P. 2009. Seasonal variation of some
physico-chemical properties of borehole water in Abraka,
Nigeria, African Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry 3 (6), pp.
116–118
Groundwater pollution111, International Hydrological Programme,
UNESCO, 2000
Sadashivaiah C, Ramakrishnaiah C R and Ranganna G. 2008.
Hydrochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Groundwater
Quality in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka State, India, Int. J.
Environ. Res. Public Health 5(3): 158–164
Adekunle I M, Adetunji M T, Gbadebo A M and Banjoko O B. 2007.
Assessment of Groundwater Quality in a Typical Rural
Settlement in South. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 4(4):
307–318
APHA, Standard methods for examination of water and waste water.
American Public Health Association 20th edition
WHO: World Health Organization, Geneva, 2005
BIS: Bureau of Indian Standards
and processes. The reason is that majority of the
present sources of energy are neither clean nor
renewable and are depleting progressively. Many
of those processes cause heavy damage to the
environment. On both accounts, the entire process
is not sustainable. There have been efforts to get
energy through cleaner and renewable sources
(hydro and wind); but they too have locational
and mechanical limitations. Moreover, the entire
demand-supply chain in the energy sector is
quite capital intensive, monopolistic and hence
cumbersome.
What is solar nanotechnology?
Consider a marriage between solar power
and technology – you end up with solar
nanotechnology, also known as photovoltaics. The
concept involves creating flexible, thin rolls of solar
panels, which will provide power from a building’s
electrical and heating systems to your cell phone,
laptop or virtually any power-driven device. The
flexible films are embedded with tiny solar cells to
17 january–march 2010
 Article
create a self-contained, self-charging battery. These
films are then enclosed or attached to a device such
as a laptop, cell phone, etc., providing power to the
gadget.
Potential usage of nanotechnology
Solar nanotechnology could provide power to
homes, businesses, the military, hospitals, etc. Solar
panels already are used to help power buildings
now, but shrinking down the technology would
allow solar cells to be more integrated with the rest
of the building, embedded in tiles and siding.
Nanotechnology has shown the possibility of
fulfilling everyone’s dream of getting cheap and
clean energy through its strategic applications. Its
intersection with energy will change the way energy
was hitherto being generated, stored, transmitted,
distributed and managed. Nanotechnology will
particularly revolutionize the solar energy sector.
The beauty of solar energy is that it can be
Table 1:  The challenges resolved by nanotechnology
Conventional energy is too expensive
Conventional energy is too centralized
Conventional energy is polluting
Solar energy is too costly
How will it be stored
How to reduce wastage of energy: transmission losses
The photovoltaic cells that make up most present day solar
panels are made up of crystalline silicon, which requires clean
manufacturing environment free of dust and airborne microbes
Silicon is in short supply and expensive
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
produced by every house-hold on their rooftop or
farm. We consume only a fraction of the energy
delivered by the Sun. Theoretically, it is possible
to convert the rest into usable and transportable
energy. If we add into that the potential of energy
generated by Sun’s invisible rays (infrared), the
potential is really immense. Moreover this energy
will be cleaner and sustainable than any of the
other energy streams. Because of that possibility,
in today’s time, not only energy but clean energy
is becoming a huge business in itself. Many
of the developments in clean energy revolve
around strategic applications of nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology applications offer more
possibilities in solar energy sector than they have
been experimented today. The entire technology is
in the process of evolution. But one thing is sure:
it offers immense potential to harness solar energy.
Some of these issues are discussed at length in
Table 1
Nanotechnology-enabled devices have given us the possibility of
producing cheap power and enough for everyone
Nano solar cells embedded in flexible plastics will be able to adjust
to the shape and terrain of the rooftops and/or could be put into the
building materials like tiles and siding. Thus, it will be possible to
produce energy at every roof top
Nano energy is clean; cleaner than anything else possible
Nanotechnology has added to the possibility of producing solar
energy which is cheaper than that from the conventional sources
Nanotechnology enabled super capacitators will help in local
storage of energy
Nano superconductors will replace current transmission facilities
and they will have better performance on this front
With nanotechnology, tiny solar cells can be printed onto flexible,
very thin light-retaining materials, bypassing the cost of silicon
production. Thin rolls of highly efficient light-collecting plastics
spread across rooftops or built into building materials
Nano cells made up of materials, several thousand times thinner
than hair and will have more light capturing capabilities. Each nano
solar cell will be an energy collector and spread with the plastic
sheets will cover large surface areas than photovoltaic cells
18 january–march 2010

High manufacturing costs lead to high wattage prices
Further possibilities
Nanotechnology in the energy
sector: A case study of India
India is an emerging economy. With its faster
growth process, its energy requirements are
high and increasing day by day. It has to meet
its massive energy requirements by all possible
sources, preferably the cleaner and renewable
ones. It also has to improve its technological and
managerial skills to reduce the T & D losses.
Practically speaking, energy saved is equal to
energy produced, perhaps a more prudent course
of action. Thus, India is a market where there is
huge potential for energy producing and saving
technologies and equipment. With its faster
growth process, India needs more and more of the
sophistication in its economy, particularly in the
energy sector. At the same time, environmental
awareness is increasing day by day. People are in
search of such technologies that give the required
guarantee of energy availability. This too they
want without either polluting the environment or
without making them entirely dependent on the
power producing companies. Solar energy is the
answer. Nanotechnology is the answer for getting
solar energy made cheaper, cleaner as well as
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
Nano solar cells made of plastic can turn the sun’s power into
electrical energy, and they are many times more efficient than
present solar cells
Flexible sheets of tiny solar cells made by using nano science
applications may be used to harness the sun’s energy and will
ultimately provide a cheaper, more efficient source of energy
By integrating applications of nanoscience ‘solar farms’ may be
created which consist of the plastic material with solar cells which
can be rolled across deserts to generate energy
Nano particles like quantum dots with a polymer to make the plastic
can detect energy in the infrared solar rays. This will strategically
capture more solar energy
Nanotechnology also enables production of solar cell glass that will
not only generate energy, but also act as windows in future houses
and commercial buildings. While it captures solar energy to power
the building it also reduces overheating thereby reducing the need
for cooling
Dye-sensitized nano solar cells using photo sensitive dye which do
not require costly and large-scale production equipment
decentralized. The applications of nanotechnology
can make India the hub of non renewable energy,
particularly the solar energy.
Drawbacks
The precarious state of today’s non-renewable
energy resources makes solar nanotechnology an
exceedingly compelling concept. As appealing
as this notion is however, routine use of solar
nanotechnology is likely several years away. Until
it can be produced and sold at prices similar to
conventional power sources, use and availability of
solar nanotechnology will be limited.
Costs
Currently solar nanotechnology is more expensive
than other energy sources – part of the reason is
that it is still in the research stage.
Sources: http://realtorbenefitsprogram.org/library/
web_intelligence/81; http://www.sainsce.com/energy_
solar.aspx
Compiled by
Shantanu Ganguly, Fellow, TERI
19 january–march 2010
 Policy Announcement
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission –
‘Solar India’ announced
India has high insulation throughout its territory
and an ongoing energy deficit of 10% to 15%,
leaving over 450 million people without access to
electricity.
Coupled with frequent blackouts in cities and
a need to rapidly scale up electricity production
in rural areas, India looks like an attractive market
for solar. Indeed, India’s solar potential has been
looking up over the past three months, as a flurry
of solar-related announcements has emerged.
However, each one has arrived tempered by a
flurry of caveats from developers, financiers and
analysts.
The first and most important announcement
came in November 2009, when India announced
its Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
(NSM), a comprehensive, $19 billion plan with
a goal to reach 20 gigawatts of installed solar
capacity by 2020. The programme was confirmed
with an official announcement from Indian Prime
Minister Manmohan Singh. New and Renewable
Energy Minister, Farooq Abdullah said the Solar
Mission is in line with the vision of modern India
of Pandit Nehru. The Mission is one of the eight
important national missions that contains India’s
National Action Plan on Climate Change. ‘It has a
twin objective – to contribute to India’s long term
energy security as well as its ecological security,’
Abdullah said. ‘The Solar Mission recommends
the implementation in three stages leading up to an
installed capacity of 20 000 MW by the end of the
Thirteenth Five-year Plan in 2022,’ he added.
Dr Abdullah also said that the government
has sanctioned setting up of 1100 MW of grid
solar power and 200 MW capacities of off-grid
solar applications using both solar thermal and
photovoltaic technologies in the first phase of
the Mission. He also added that the Mission
would also centre on research and development
and human resource development and toughen
Application segment Phase 1 (2010–13)
Solar collectors 7 million m
Off-grid solar applications 200 MW
Utility grid power, including rooftop 1000–2000 MW
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
indigenous skills and improve indigenous content
to make the Mission sustainable. ‘The Mission will
have a much focused research and development
programme which seek to address the India-
specific challenges in promoting solar energy,’
Abdullah said. ‘Mission will establish a single
window investor-friendly mechanism, which
reduces risk and at the same time, provides an
attractive, predictable and sufficiently extended
tariff for the purchase of solar power for the grid,’
he added.
The NSM is designed to be implemented in
three distinct phases, each with its own targets.
To reach these lofty goals, the Indian Ministry for
New and Renewable Energy plans to implement
three broad incentives.
1. The NSM establishes a solar energy purchase
obligation for utilities, much like a Renewable
Portfolio Standard in the US and Europe.
Utilities will be required to source 0.25% of
their electricity from solar energy by 2013,
increasing to 3% by 2022. The NSM calls for a
credit trading mechanism (like SREC markets
in the US) to reach these goals more efficiently.
2. India will set up a national feed-in tariff.
The Central Energy Regulatory Commission
(CERC) has indicated that FIT rates in 2010
will be 18.44 rupees/kWh (~$0.40/kWh)
with 25-year term. In contrast to feed-in
tariffs in most of Europe, which are must-
take for utilities, the Indian feed-in tariff will
be implemented through an RFP process,
with projects selected based on financial and
technical feasibility. Developers expect the first
RFP for feed-in tariff projects to begin around
March, with PPAs to be signed by the end of
the year.
3. The government will provide direct subsidies
for off-grid residential projects through the
Remote Village Electrification Programme
Phase 2 (2013–17) Phase 3 (2017–22)
2
15 million m
2
20 million m2
1000 MW 2000 MW
4000–10,000 MW 20 000 MW
20 january–march 2010
 (RVEP), which will offer rebates of up to 90%
of system costs, up to 18 000 rupees ($385) per
household. There may ultimately be additional
off-grid subsidies for larger systems, as well.
NTPC announced that it would construct
301 MW of solar capacity by March 2014. Of
this, 111 MW would be PV and the remainder
would be solar thermal. Three Indian states (West
Bengal, Gujarat and Rajasthan) announced plans
to produce 345 MW of solar capacity under the
NSM: 110 MW in West Bengal, 130 MW in
Gujarat, and 100 MW in Rajasthan.
There are three major barriers that is likely to
hinder market growth in India.
1. NSM Programme Funding: As noted above,
India’s National Solar Mission comes with an
estimated $19 billion price tag. The Indian
government has committed to funding the
$900 million needed for the first phase, but it
is counting on UNFCCC funds (the ones that
raised such a fuss in Copenhagen) to cover the
next two phases. This casts significant doubt on
longer-term market growth.
2. Project Financing: Indian project developers
have suggested that the biggest barrier to near-
term growth will be the willingness of Indian
banks to finance solar projects. Interest rates for
solar projects are reported to be around 13%,
with relatively short maturities. Traditional
energy developers with large balance sheets may
be able to leverage existing relationships with
banks to bring these rates down marginally, but
the likelihood of this to transpire is not clear.
3. Permitting and Project Development: Several
recent reports have addressed the difficulty
associated with attaining permits and land for
solar projects in India.
2010 will be a crucial ramp-up year for the
Indian solar market. As NSM implementation
begins in earnest over the next few months, we
will get early indicators of the severity of project
financing and development barriers. But if funding
remains available and early projects show success,
India could quickly emerge as a vital solar market.
Sources
1. PV News 29(2), 2010
2. http://www.india-server.com/news/jawaharlal-
nehru-national-solar-mission-16529.html
Compiled by
Shantanu Ganguly, Fellow, TERI

eNREE invites contributions

eNREE is meant for ENVIS members and all stakeholders interested in advancing,
promoting, and sharing the knowledge in renewable energy and environment in India and
abroad. We welcome your help in enriching this newsletter by sending us articles, case
studies, and so on, and also welcome feedback on the contents of the newsletter to help us
make it more informative and rich in content.

Please send in your contributions to

Shantanu Ganguly
Editor Tel. 2468 2100 or 4150 4900
T E R I , Darbari Seth Block Fax 2468 2144, 2468 2145
IHC Complex, Lodhi Road India + 91 • Delhi (0)11
New Delhi – 110 003, India E-mail shantanu.ganguly@teri.res.in

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 21 january–march 2010

 RE Technology

Leading Projects in Renewable Energy Technology

Innovative Electricity Markets various externalities – air emissions, system

integration, security of supply, employment – are
The objectives of the project ‘Innovative electricity
included. The web based interactive REcalculator
markets to incorporate variable production’ are to
(http://recabs.iea-retd.org) is a main output from
identify innovative electricity market products and
the project. The project was launched in November
services needed for better integration of variable
2006 and was concluded in February 2008.
electricity generation and to give examples on
http://www.iea-retd.org/page.
how market systems could effectively incorporate
aspx?idsection=32 downloaded on 12.03.2010
variable sources of renewable energy. This includes
developing means for proactive grid planning and
indicating how to prepare markets for dealing with Renewable Energy Technology in
cross-border electricity trade caused by variable Heating and Cooling Markets
supply.
http://www.iea-retd.org/page. Heating in the industrial, commercial and
aspx?idsection=47 downloaded on 12.03.2010 residential sectors accounts for an estimated
40%–50% of global final energy demand. But
renewable energy technologies do not contribute
Policy Instrument Design significantly to providing that heat. The need for
policies supporting heat from renewables is often
The project ‘Policy instrument design to reduce
overshadowed by efforts in transportation and
financing costs in renewable energy technology
power generation. The publication Renewables
projects’ aims to provide a better insight in the
for Heating and Cooling – Untapped Potential
key elements of best practice policy design for
turns the spotlight on a sector often overlooked
renewable energy technologies, which altogether
even though it offers one of the largest potential
will result in lower financing costs. Well-designed
contributions to climate change mitigation and
policies, aimed at reducing the financing cost for
energy security. Taking a hands-on approach, it
renewable electricity projects, can reduce costs
details the ‘carrot and stick’ policies that, when
of renewable electricity by up to 30%. Policies
combined with education programmes, can
influence the risks of financing renewable energy
vigorously support renewable technologies for
projects. If debt/equity providers consider these
heating and cooling. Renewables for Heating and
risks to be too high, the cost of the project – and
Cooling – Untapped Potential comes up with some
hence the required policy support – will increase.
strong findings on both policies and markets for
In a study for IEA–RETD, Ecofys addressed this
renewable heating technologies. It is the fruit of
impact of policy design on costs of renewable
intensive collaboration between researchers and
electricity. A detailed assessment was made for four
takes a crucial step in raising awareness of the vast
technologies (on- and off-shore wind, large-scale
potential of renewable heat.
solar PV, and biomass CHP) in six countries.
http://www.iea-retd.org/page.
http://www.iea-retd.org/page.
aspx?idsection=50 downloaded on 12.03.2010
aspx?idsection=48 downloaded on 12.03.2010

Review of Renewable Energy in

RECaBS – Renewable Energy Costs Global Energy Scenarios
and Benefits to Society
Global energy scenarios are often used to predict
The primary objective of the RECaBS project is
the impact of policy measures. However, in
to estimate the costs and benefits of electricity
calculating overall system costs and benefits of
from renewable energy sources compared to
future energy systems the data for investment and
conventional technologies in a fully documented
environmental costs are often based on incorrect
and transparent way. The economic values of
assumptions about renewable energy technologies.

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 22 january–march 2010

Accurate modelling of, for example, fluctuating
energy sources and constraints on the availability of
resources is crucial for accurately determining the
role renewable energy can play in energy scenarios.
The project focuses on the critical assumptions for
renewable energy technologies in existing scenarios
and attempts to determine a methodology that
reflects the opportunities and limitations of
renewable energy in future energy systems.
http://www.iea-retd.org/page.
aspx?idsection=56 downloaded on 12.03.2010
ADORET – Accelerating the
Deployment of Offshore Renewable
Energy Technologies
The overall objective of the project is to assist
policy makers and project developers in a
better understanding of the specifics of offshore
renewable energy and to give them practical
guidelines in how to foster their deployment.
Hence, this project shall focus on the following
objectives.
• Technical: Providing an overview of
technologies, potentials and current status of
wind, wave and tidal energy technologies.
• Economic/ financial: Providing a compendium
of capital structure, costs of energy and
financing schemes for offshore renewable
energy projects, where available, to improve the
understanding of economic and financial issues
of offshore renewable energy projects and their
dependence on perceived and real risks through
relevant case studies.
• Barriers: Improving the understanding of non-
technical barriers.
• Good practices: Giving an overview of world-
leading countries’ experiences and good
practices as a way to provide sound background
information on the deployment; develop
guidelines for project design and development
to prevent delays, cost overruns or the abandon
of the projects.
• Regulatory framework: development of a
generic regulatory policy framework as ‘best
case’ that would include the allocation of
seabed rights and permitting.
• Recommendations: Providing recommendations
on how to avoid the most common barriers,
risks and issues in offshore energy project
development and overcome the economic and
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
financial challenges facing the deployment
of offshore renewable energy technologies by
developing guidelines for regulatory policies
and project development.
An important part of the project is a plan for
the dissemination of the results to policy makers
from International Energy Agency (IEA) countries
and to any other interested stakeholders.
http://www.iea-retd.org/page.
aspx?idsection=92 downloaded on 12.03.2010
Renewables in Transport (Retrans)
The transport sector is one of the major emitters of
greenhouse gases (and other pollutants). According
to the IEA there is a need for a four-fold reduction
of the carbon intensity of transport. Hence,
the transport sector needs a transformation – a
revolution in technology, infrastructure, transport
concepts and political framework in order to
achieve the goal of at least 50% CO2 emission
reduction by 2050. The need for oil for today’s
transport sector is adding to the dependency of
countries on oil imports (from a few regions in
the world). The transport sector is the biggest
contributor to oil-demand growth in non-OECD-
countries, accounting for 57% of global primary
oil consumption in 2030 compared with 52%
in 2008 and 38% in 1980. Despite continuing
improvements of the average vehicle fuel efficiency,
the sheer increase in vehicles numbers, in
particular in non OECD countries, is expected
to push up demand for oil in the transport sector.
The overall objective of this project is to provide
an overview of options and a policy framework
needed for the transformation of the road transport
sector in order to meet the challenges of reduction
of GHG emissions and independence of oil
through large-scale deployment of sustainable and
effective renewable energy (RE) technologies. The
intermediate aims are to:
• provide an overview of road vehicle technology
options on short- and medium-term
• assess in more detail chosen technologies
potential and impact on other sectors
• identify needed policy measures and give
recommendations
http://www.iea-retd.org/page.
aspx?idsection=90 downloaded on 12.03.2010
23 january–march 2010
 Research Update
Current Research and Development
Rao K Usha and Kishore V V N. 2010.
A review of technology diffusion models
with special reference to renewable energy
technologies
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14(3):
1070–1078
TERI University, 10 Institutional Area, Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi – 110 070, India
Diffusion of renewable energy technologies (RETs)
are driven by policies and incentives due to their
inherent characteristics such as high upfront costs,
lack of level playing field but distinct advantages
from energy security, environmental and social
considerations. Even after three decades of their
promotion, only 20%–25% of their potential has
been realized. The theory of diffusion modelling
allows analysis of diffusion processes and study
of growth rates of different technologies and
underlying diffusion factors. Their applications
have focused on commercial and consumer
products such as television, automobiles and IT
products and their applications to RETs have
been limited. Diffusion analysis of RETs have
been based on barriers’ to RET adoption and
techno–economic, learning and experience curve
approaches. It is observed that these diffusion
models when applied to commercial products
do not deal with the issues of policy influences
which are critical to RET diffusion. Since policies
drive RET diffusion, the models for analysing
RET diffusion should allow establishing explicit
relationships between the diffusion parameters and
policies and their impact on diffusion rates. Given
the potential of renewable energy technologies for
sustainable development, the aim of this paper is to
review different diffusion theory based models and
their applicability to RET diffusion analysis.
Keywords: Renewable energy; Diffusion models;
Policies
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
Kanase-Patil A B, Saini R P and Sharma M P. 2010.
Integrated renewable energy systems for off grid
rural electrification of remote area
Renewable Energy 35(6): 1342–1349
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand – 247 667, India
The off grid electrification by utilizing Integrated
Renewable Energy System (IRES) is proposed
to satisfy the electrical and cooking needs of the
seven-unelectrified villages in the Almora district of
Uttarakhand state, India. Four different scenarios
are considered during modelling and optimization
of IRES to ensure reliability parameters such as
energy index ratio (EIR) and expected energy not
supplied (EENS). The optimum system reliability,
total system cost and cost of energy (COE) have
also been worked out by introducing the customer
interruption cost (CIC). The four different
renewable energy scenarios have been compared
for the considered study area using the LINGO
software version 10. The fourth renewable energy
scenario accounting 44.99% micro hydropower
(MHP), 30.07% biomass, 5.19% biogas and
4.16% solar energy along with the additional
resources of wind (1.27%) and energy plantation
(12.33%) has been found to be the best among
the different options considered. Furthermore,
the optimal reliability for the fourth IRES system
has been found to be 0.95 EIR at the optimized
cost of Rs 1.944 million with estimated COE
of Rs 3.36 per kWh. The COE obtained using
LINGO software and HOMER software have also
been compared and briefly discussed for all the
four scenarios. In order to verify feasibility and
cost of system for different biomass fuel prices, a
sensitivity analysis has also been carried out and
it has been found that the fourth scenario is more
sustainable than the other considered options.
Keywords: Integrated renewable energy system;
Optimization; Reliability index; Cost of energy; Off
grid electrification
24 january–march 2010
Singh G K, Senthil Kumar A, and Saini R P. 2010
Performance evaluation of series compensated
self-excited six-phase induction generator for
stand-alone renewable energy generation
Energy 35(1) 288–297
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee – 247 667, India
This paper presents the steady-state behaviour
of a series compensated (short-shunt) self-
excited six-phase induction generator (SPSEIG)
configured to operate as stand-alone electric
energy source in conjunction with a hydro power
plant. A purely experimental treatment is provided
with the emphasis placed on operating regimes
that illustrate the advantages of using SPSEIG.
In particular, it is shown that the SPSEIG can
operate with a single three-phase capacitor bank,
so that the loss of excitation or fault at one winding
does not lead to the system shutdown. The
generator can also supply two separate three-phase
loads, which represent an additional advantage.
Experimental results include loading transients
with independent three-phase resistive and
resistive–inductive load at each of the two three-
phase winding sets, and measured steady-state
characteristics for various load and/or capacitor
bank configurations. Practical results for long-
shunt configuration are also given for comparative
performance evaluation of series compensated
SPSEIG.
Keywords: Renewable energy generation; Six-
phase induction generator; Self-excitation; Small
hydropower generation scheme
Aggarwal R K and Chandel S S
Emerging energy scenario in Western Himalayan
state of Himachal Pradesh
Energy Policy 38(5): 2545–2551
Department of Environmental Science, Dr Y S Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni (Solan) – 173 230, India
The GHGs (greenhouse gases) emitted by using
conventional energy sources rapid industrialization
and development in hills, are contributing to
global warming, which has resulted in melting of
glaciers located in the state at the rate of 0.3–20
m2 per year, as per recent studies. The shrinking
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
of glaciers, which are the main source of water of
Himalayan rivers, can have an adverse impact on
the future of hydro-power projects, many of which
may become non-functional in the next 40–50
years if the current trend of melting of glaciers
continues and the other renewable energy sources
are required to be tapped to supplement the
declining hydro-electricity generation. The energy
consumption for cooking, lighting and space
heating in the Western Himalayan Indian state of
Himachal Pradesh, is highest in the northern India.
The fuelwood consumption constitutes about 52%
of the total energy consumption of the state. About
2.7 hour per person per trip in the rural areas,
are spent for the collection of fuelwood mainly
during winters. A number of options and potential
of renewable energy sources for cooking, heating
and lighting in the state have been discussed. The
future policy interventions in the energy sector are
also presented.
Keywords: Renewable energy technologies;
Global warming; Energy
C. Gonçalves da Silva. 2010
The fossil energy/climate change crunch: Can we
pin our hopes on new energy technologies?
Energy 35(3): 1312–1316
Sandy Bay Consulting Ltd., Rua Maranhão 250/7, São Paulo, SP
01240-000, Brazil
There is a growing perception by society of the
risks of dramatic global climate changes due to
anthropogenic greenhouse gases, in particular
energy related emissions of CO2. This has spurred
a renewed interest in carbon free or carbon neutral
technologies for converting sources of renewable
primary energy to electricity and to transportation
fuels. However, it takes energy to produce energy,
even when the primary source is energetically
cost free, such as solar or wind. The aim here is
to present a model which allows the simulation
of the energy costs of the deployment of a new
energy technology. The author shows that the new
technology may actually be an energy sink, instead
of an energy source, relative to the global total
primary energy supply (TPES) for many years or
decades, depending on its intrinsic energy costs
and deployment path, even though stated aims for
25 january–march 2010
its gross energy output are achieved. As expected,
the energy payback time of the conversion devices,
as well as fuel and maintenance costs are critical
parameters. The author illustrates the general
model with simulations of the deployment of
photovoltaic electricity, at global and national levels.
Keywords: Renewable energies; Deployment
strategies; Energy costs; Net energy transfer
Hiremath R B, Kumar B, Balachandra P and
Ravindranath N H. 2010
Bottom-up approach for decentralised energy
planning: case study of Tumkur district in India
Energy Policy 38(2): 862–874
Walchand Institute of Technology, Solapur – 413 006, India
Decentralized Energy Planning (DEP) is one of the
options to meet the rural and small-scale energy
needs in a reliable, affordable and environmentally
sustainable way. The main aspect of the energy
planning at decentralized level would be to prepare
an area-based DEP to meet energy needs and
development of alternative energy sources at least-
cost to the economy and environment. Present
work uses goal-programming method in order to
analyse the DEP through bottom-up approach.
This approach includes planning from the lowest
scale of Tumkur district in India. The scale of
analysis included village level—Ungra, panchayat
level (local council)—Yedavani, block level—
Kunigal and district level—Tumkur. The approach
adopted was bottom-up (village to district) to
allow a detailed description of energy services and
the resulting demand for energy forms and supply
technologies. Different scenarios are considered
at four decentralized scales for the year 2005 and
are developed and analysed for the year 2020.
Decentralized bioenergy system for producing
biogas and electricity, using local biomass
resources, are shown to promote development
compared to other renewables. This is because,
apart from meeting energy needs, multiple goals
could be achieved such as self-reliance, local
employment, and land reclamation apart from CO2
emissions reduction.
Keywords: Decentralized energy planning;
Energy; Goal programming
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
Jain S and Sharma M P. 2010
Prospects of biodiesel from Jatropha in India:
a review
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14(2):
763–771
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, Roorkee – 247 667, Uttarakhand, India
The increasing industrialization and modernization
of the world has to prepare itself for a steep rise
in the demand of petroleum products. Economic
development in developing countries has led to
huge increase in the energy demand. In India,
the energy demand is increasing at a rate of 6.5%
per annum. The crude oil demand of the country
is met by import of about 80%. Thus the energy
security has become a key issue for the nation as a
whole. Petroleum-based fuels are limited. The finite
reserves are highly concentrated in certain regions
of the world. Therefore, those countries not having
these reserves are facing foreign exchange crises,
mainly due to the import of crude oil. Hence it
is necessary to look forward for alternative fuels,
which can be produced from feed stocks available
within the country. Biodiesel, an ecofriendly
and renewable fuel substitute for diesel has been
receiving the attention of researchers/scientists
all over the world. The R & D has indicated
that up to B20, there is no need of modification
and little work is available related to suitability
and sustainability of biodiesel production from
Jatropha as non-edible oil sources. In addition, the
use of vegetable oil as fuel is less polluting than
petroleum fuels. The basic problem with biodiesel
is that it is more prone to oxidation resulting in
the increase in viscosity of biodiesel with respect
to time which in turn leads to piston sticking,
gum formation and fuel automization problems.
The report is an attempt to present the prevailing
fossil fuel scenario with respect to petroleum
diesel, fuel properties of biodiesel resources for
biodiesel production, processes for its production,
purification, etc. Lastly, an introduction of stability
of biodiesel will also be presented.
Keywords: Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) kinetics;
Transesterification; Methyl ester (ME); Fatty acid
methyl ester (FAME)
26 january–march 2010
Mallah S and Bansal N K. 2010
Allocation of energy resources for power
generation in India: Business as usual and energy
efficiency
Energy Policy 38 (1):, 1059–1066
Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu and Kashmir –
182 320, India
This paper deals with MARKAL allocations for
various energy sources, in India, for Business
as Usual (BAU) scenario and for the case of
exploitation of energy saving potential in various
sectors of economy. In the BAU scenario, the
electrical energy requirements will raise up to
5000 bKwh units per year or 752 GW of installed
capacity with major consumers being in the
industry, domestic and service sectors. This demand
can be met by a mix of coal, hydro, nuclear and
wind technologies. Other renewables, that is, solar
and biomass will start contributing from the year
2040 onwards. By full exploitation of energy saving
potential, the annual electrical energy demand gets
reduced to 3061 bKwh (or 458 GW), a reduction
of 38.9%. The green house gas emissions reduce
correspondingly. In this scenario, market allocations
for coal, gas and large hydro become stagnant after
the year 2015.
Keywords: Energy efficiency; MARKAL; Power
sector
Agrawal B and Tiwari G N. 2010
Optimizing the energy and exergy of building
integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT) systems
under cold climatic conditions
Applied Energy 87(2): 417–426
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz
Khas, New Delhi – 110 016, India
Building integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT)
system has the potential to become a major source
of renewable energy in the urban environment. In
this paper, the system has been used as the roof top
of a building to generate higher electrical energy
per unit area and to produce necessary thermal
energy required for space heating. One-dimensional
transient model has been developed using basic
heat transfer equations. On the basis of this model,
an analysis has been carried out in order to select
an appropriate BIPVT system suitable for the cold
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
climatic conditions of India. The PV performances,
net energy gain and exergy of the building are
determined. The results show that for a constant
mass flow rate of air the system connected in series
gives a better performance whereas for a constant
velocity of air flow the system connected in parallel
gives a better performance. The BIPVT system,
fitted on the rooftop in an effective area of 65 m2, is
capable of annually producing the net electrical and
thermal exergies of 16 209 kW h and 1531 kWh,
respectively, at an overall thermal efficiency
of 53.7%.
Keywords: Roofing system; Air heating system;
Building integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT);
Photovoltaic (PV); Solar energy; Renewable energy
Kumar A, Shankar R, Momaya K, and Gupte S. 2010.
The market for wireless electricity: The case of
India
Energy Policy 38(3): 1537–1547
Nokia Siemens Networks, 438 B Alexandra Road, Alexandra
Technopark Block B, Singapore 119968, Singapore
A wireless revolution has transformed telecoms in
India and in other emerging markets. The electricity
market, on the other hand, remains underdeveloped.
The authors define wireless electricity as renewable
energy produced within a few hundred metres of
the point of consumption. A wireless revolution in
electricity would solve the problem of electricity
deficit, empower people at the bottom of the
pyramid and mitigate the environmental impact of
bringing hundreds of millions out of poverty as the
Indian economy grows. The stark difference in the
diffusion patterns in telecoms and electricity has
been ignored by leaders in government, business
and academics. The authors present common
frameworks to explain the different directions of
reform in telecoms and electricity. The authors
explain some of the dynamics which prevent the
diffusion of wireless electricity. They use a causal
loop diagram to explain the status quo in the off-
grid electricity market and propose changes which
will lead to the formation of a market for wireless
electricity. India has the entrepreneurial talent
to develop this market—and the largest number
of potential customers. The world will benefit as a
result.
Keywords: Mobile communications;
Decentralized electricity; Renewables
27 january–march 2010
India at a glance

Wind energy market in India from 1999 to 2008

Year Energy in MW
1999 43
2000 N 169E W R E L E A S E S
2001 236 Environmental concerns and sustainable
2002 220
development: some perspectives from India
Industrialization and development have brought about a radical shift in production
and consumption patterns all over the world, including India. However, the impact
2003 423 of these trends on the earth’s climate and various natural resources has been quite
serious. There is a need to bring about a major transition, whereby this generation,
2004 875 and more importantly, generations yet to come do not suffer from the ill effects of
today’s development, which is clearly not sustainable. The human race has to bring
about a rapid transition to a pattern of growth and development that is genuinely
2005 1390 sustainable.

2006 1840 Table of contents

• Development and displacement in tribal areas
2007 1617 • Sustainable development and liberalization
• Source: Sunrehabilitation
Environmental and Wind Energy, November
and livelihood impact (2009)
• Case of Goa Bachao Abhiyan
2008 1810 • Environmental impact of population, affluence, and technology
• Garbage not in my backyard syndrome in Goa
• Impact of environmental degradation on women
• Development-induced displacement
• Organic produce supply chains
9788179932247 • 337 pages • Genuine people’s participation in sustainable forest development
• A review of judicial and legislative initiatives on sustainable development
Hardbound • Rs 450/USD 40 • Land and water management practices in Warana region
2009 • TERI Press • Sustainability through people’s participation in the health sector
• Organic farming and sustainable development

TEDDY(TERI Energy Data Directory & Yearbook, 2009)

An annual publication brought out by TERI since 1986, TEDDY provides an
overview of the implications of government policies for the Indian economy.
Besides sections on the latest technological developments and the environmental
implications of energy use, TEDDY includes India’s commercial energy balances
for the past four years. The contents of TEDDY are categorized under (1) energy
supply (coal and lignite, oil and gas, power, and renewable energy sources and
technologies); (2) energy demand (agriculture, industry, transport, and domestic
sector); (3) forests and environment; and (4) global environmental issues.

Table of contents
• Organization of the energy sector • Agriculture
• Indian energy sector: an overview • Industry
• Explanatory note for commercial • Domestic sector
energy balance tables • Forestry
• Coal and lignite • Environment
• Oil and gas • Global environment issues
9788179932438 • 576 pages
• Power • Glossary
Hardbound • Rs 1500/USD 129
• Renewable energy sources and • Index
• 2009 • TERI Press
technologies
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eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 28 january–march 2010

Leading Renewable Energy Manufacturers and
Suppliers in India

Source: Sun and Wind Energy, November (2009)

eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1 29 january–march 2010

 Events
Forthcoming events
3–5 May 2010, San Diego,
California, USA
5–7 May 2010, Shanghai ,
China
17–22 May 2010 Phoenix, AZ
23–27 May 2010, North
Carolina, USA
16–18 June 2010, Paris, France
20–25 June 2010, Honolulu,
Hawaii, USA
29–30 June 2010, New York,
USA
13–15 July 2010, San Francisco,
California , United States
6–10 September 2010, Valencia,
Spain
eNREE • volume 7 • issue 1
Photovoltaics Summit 2010
Tel: 1 207 781 9635
Fax: 1 207 781 2150
E-mail: christopher.smith@pira-international.com
Website: www.photovoltaicssummit.com
SNEC PV Power Expo 2010
Tel: 86 159 21921158
E-mail:cathychu2007@163.com
Website:www.snec.org.cn
SOLAR 2010 – The National Solar Conference
American Solar Energy Society, 2400 Central Ave, Ste A
Boulder, CO 80301
Tel. 303-443-3130
E-mail: conference@ases.org
Website: www.solar2010.org
Fifth International Symposium on Computational Wind Engineering
(CWE2010)
Tel:910 452 0006
E-mail: cwe2010@teamycc.com
Website:http://www.cwe2010.org
Renewable Energy Exhibition 2010
Tel: 33 4 722232-60
Fax: 33 4 722232-58
E-mail: cguillem@sepelcom.com
URL: www.energie-ren.com
35th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference
Tel: 1 908 981 0060
Fax: 1 908 981 9667
E-mail: corporate-communications@ieee.org
Website: www.ieee.org
7th Annual Renewable Energy Finance Forum
Tel: 1 202 429 20304
Fax: 1 202 429 5532
E-mail: weirich@acore.org
Website: www.acore.org
Intersolar North America
Tel:49 7231 585982-2
Fax:49 7231 585982-8
E-mail: doeppe@intersolar.us
Website:www.intersolar.us
25th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference
Tel: 49 89 720 12 735
Fax: 49 89 720 12 791
E-mail: pv.conference@wip-munich.de
Website: www.wip-munich.de
30 january–march 2010
 ENVIS Centre on Renewable Energy
and Environment
A knowledge gateway
The ENVIS
(Environmental
Information System)
network was
established under
the MoEF (Ministry
of Environment and
Forests), Government
of India, in December
1982. The objective
was to work towards
bridging the data
gaps by developing
an environmental
information system that <http://www.terienvis.nic.in>
will help disseminate
information to decision-
makers, scientists, and other stakeholders.
For more information on ENVIS Secretariat, please
visist <www.envis.nic.in>.
T E R I became the host to the ENVIS Centre on
Renewable Energy and Environment in July 1984.
The mandate for the TERI–ENVIS centre is to collect,
collate, store, retrieve, and disseminate information on
renewable energy and environment as well as to support
and promote research and development. The Institute
has also hosted the EMCB (Environment Management
Capacity Building) Node on Renewable Energy
and Environment since 2000/01, a sub-component
of ENVIS that aims to build capacity through the
development and maintenance of a web site that serves
as an information clearing house.
This new-look, revamped website has helped achieve
just what the centre set out to do display a world of
information at a glance. TERI’s ENVIS Centre and the
EMCB Node have been actively engaged in resource
generation, data collection, problem recognition
and provision of solutions, capacity building, and
information dissemination. Rich in content that is
constantly updated, the site does an impressive job of
plugging information gaps that existed in the renewable
energy and environmental sectors. Besides these it also
draws the attention of the Indian scientific community,
a fact that becomes evident from the hundreds of
technical queries
received through the
website. Here’s a
snapshot of some of
the main features of
the site.
P Regular sections
– news, events,
statistics, etc. –
provide updates on
the environmental
impact of power,
renewable
energy, transport,
pollution control
technologies,
hazardous waste
management, and other related subjects spanning
local and national boundaries.
P Recently developed renewable energy technologies
and case studies are added attractions.
P Review articles from the Centre’s premier publication
TIDEE (T E R I ’s Information Digest on Energy and
Environment) enrich the knowledge base of the
scientific community by providing information on the
latest developments on energy and environment.
P eNREE (E-Newsletter on Renewable Energy and
Environment), a quarterly, non-priced, electronic
newsletter (also uploaded on the site) highlights
recent issues in the renewable energy and
environment sector.
P GIS Maps. Select maps are provided on important
areas of renewable energy and development.
P The search function for the bibliographic database
and the directory of experts can further be screened
through categories such as title, author, etc. The
online bibliographic database includes bibliographic
records of selected fields from 1991 onwards,
covering over 13 800 records. The centre is also
building up an exhaustive Directory of Experts on
Renewable Energy and Environment.
P The colourful and lively children’s section, Edugreen,
lives up to its tag line—‘making environmental
learning fun for the young’.

P Editors  Shantanu Ganguly and P K Bhattacharya  P Assistant Editor  Gopalakrishnan S  P Design  Ajith Kumar
The Energy and Resources Institute, Darbari Seth Block, I H C Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Tel.  +91 (0) 11 2468 2100 or 4150 4900  •  Fax  +91 (0) 11 2468 2144 or 2468 2145
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