REPORT WIRED AND WIRELESS CHANNELS

ANALOG COMMUNICATION |
 PROJECT REPORT

ANALOG COMMUNICTION

WIRE LINED & WIRELESS CHANNELS

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 GROUP MEMBERS
Name Registration Number
1. Ibtisam Elahi Karim SP09-BET-035
2. Sana Ullah SP09-BET-080
3. Faiz Ur Rehman SP09-BET-026

TEACHER: Sir Fahad Sharif

DUE DATE: 17th May 2011

SEMESTER: BET 5th

SECTION: 5A

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Contents
INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBER 5
WHAT IS OPTICAL FIBER 5

A BRIEF HISTORY OF FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS..........................................6

THE PHYSICS BEHIND FIBER OPTICS................................................................................6

OPTICAL-CABLE CONSTRUCTION.........................................................................................8

APPLICATIONS................................................................................................................................8
1. OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION........................................................................................8
USES OF COAXIAL CABLE..................................................................................................................10
TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLE................................................................................................................11
THE ADVANTAGES OF USING COAX INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:.................12
EASE OF USE.....................................................................................................................................12
TWISTED-PAIR CABLE...................................................................................................................13

UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)....................................................................................14

SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE............................................................................................15

DEFINITION............................................................................................................................................15
CABLE SHIELDING..........................................................................................................................15
WHAT IS WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 17

INVENTIONS IN WIRELESS WORLD 18

BLUETOOTH 18

WHAT IS BLUETOOTH 18

HOW IT WORKS 18

SOME USES 19

WIFI 19

HOW IT WORKS 20

INFRARED 21

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HISTORY OF INFRARED 21

WHERE IS INFRARED TECHNOLOGY USED 23

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INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBER:
WHAT IS OPTICAL FIBER?

Optical fiber is a term for any sort of plastic or glass conduit meant to transport light. The
principles behind optical fiber are actually quite old, but in recent years it has become an
incredibly important technology, as communications infrastructure has begun to use optical fiber
to transmit data at extremely high rates. Aside from fiber optic communications, however,
optical fiber has a number of applications in medicine, consumer products, and physics. Figure 1
below shows a simple cable of optical fiber.

These sorts of fibers offer a number of advantages over traditional metal wire, the most
important being that there is considerably less signal degradation. Additionally, optical fiber is
immune to electromagnetic interference, which can seriously impede the transmission of data
along normal metal wires. This adds an added security measure, as well, since optical fiber can
survive an electromagnetic pulse which would destroy metal cables.

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 FIGURE 1. An optical fiber cable, consisting of strands of glass.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF FIBER-OPTIC

COMMUNICATIONS
Optical communication systems date back to the 1790s, to the optical semaphore telegraph
invented by French inventor Claude Chappe. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell patented an
optical telephone system, which he called the Photophone. However, his earlier invention, the
telephone, was more practical and took tangible shape. The Photophone remained an
experimental invention and never materialized. During the 1920s, John Logie Baird in England
and Clarence W. Hansell in the United States patented the idea of using arrays of hollow pipes or
transparent rods to transmit images for television or facsimile systems.

In 1954, Dutch scientist Abraham Van Heel and British scientist Harold H. Hopkins separately
wrote papers on imaging bundles. Hopkins reported on imaging bundles of unclad fibers,
whereas Van Heel reported on simple bundles of clad fibers.

In 1961, Elias Snitzer of American Optical published a theoretical description of a fiber with a
core so small it could carry light with only one waveguide mode. Snitzer's proposal was
acceptable for a medical instrument looking inside the human, but the fiber had a light loss of 1
dB per meter. Communication devices needed to operate over much longer distances and
required a light loss of no more than 10 or 20 dB per kilometer.

By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for long-
range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard.
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In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first live
telephone traffic through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach, California.
They were soon followed by Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone communication system
installed in the downtown Chicago area, covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each
optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice channels and was equivalent to a DS3
circuit. Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic is carried
over optical-fiber cables.

THE PHYSICS BEHIND FIBER OPTICS

A fiber-optic cable is composed of two concentric layers, called the core and the cladding, as
illustrated in Figure 2.

The core and cladding have different refractive indices, with the core having a refractive index of
n1, and the cladding having a refractive index of n2. The index of
refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material.
Light travels fastest in a vacuum. The actual speed of light in a
vacuum is 300,000 kilometers per second, or 186,000 miles
per second.

Figure -3 Cross Section of a Fiber-Optic Cable

The index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in

a vacuum by the speed of light in another medium, as shown in the following formula:

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Refractive index of the medium = [Speed of light in a vacuum/Speed of light in
the medium]

The refractive index of the core, n1, is always greater than the index of the cladding, n2. Light is
guided through the core, and the fiber acts as an optical waveguide.

Figure 3 shows the propagation of light down the fiber-optic cable using the principle of total
internal reflection. As illustrated, a light ray is injected into the fiber-optic cable on the left.
If the light ray is injected and strikes the core-to-cladding interface at an angle greater than
the critical angle with respect to the normal axis, it is reflected back into the core. Because the
angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection, the reflected light continues to be
reflected. The light ray then continues bouncing down the length of the fiber-optic cable. If the
angle of incidence at the core-to-cladding interface is less than the critical angle, both reflection
and refraction take place. Because of refraction at each incidence on the interface, the light beam
attenuates and dies off over a certain distance.

OPTICAL-CABLE CONSTRUCTION
The core is the highly refractive central region of an optical fiber through which light is
transmitted. The standard telecommunications core diameter in use with SMF is between 8 m
and 10 m, whereas the standard core diameter in use with MMF is between 50 m and 62.5
m. The diameter of the cladding surrounding each of these cores is 125 m. Core sizes of 85
m and 100 m were used in early applications, but are not typically used today. The core and
cladding are manufactured together as a single solid component of glass with slightly different
compositions and refractive indices. The third section of an optical fiber is the outer protective
coating known as the coating. The coating is typically an ultraviolet (UV) light-cured acrylate
applied during the manufacturing process to provide physical and environmental protection for
the fiber

Three types of material make up fiber-optic cables:

 Glass

 Plastic

 Plastic-clad silica (PCS)

These three cable types differ with respect to attenuation. Attenuation is principally caused
by two physical effects: absorption and scattering. Absorption removes signal energy in the
interaction between the propagating light (photons) and molecules in the core. Scattering
redirects light out of the core to the cladding.

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APPLICATIONS

1. OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to
electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.

For short distance applications, such as a network in an office building, fiber-optic cabling can
save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than electrical
cables such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling

2. FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical
fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiber optic sensor to a measurement system.
Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no
electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed
along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing
the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined
using a device such as an optical time-domain reflect meter.

Common uses for fiber optic sensors include advanced intrusion detection security systems. The
light is transmitted along a fiber optic sensor cable placed on a fence, pipeline, or communication
cabling, and the returned signal is monitored and analyzed for disturbances. This return signal is
digitally processed to detect disturbances and trip an alarm if an intrusion has occurred.

3. IN ENDOSCOPY
The word endoscopy is derived from the Greek words "Endo" meaning "inside" and "skopeein"
meaning "to see". It is a word used in medicine to describe the procedure used see inside various
parts of the body. Medical endoscopy really came into its own after the invention and application
of fiber-optic technology to endoscopy. Fiber-optic endoscopes use bundles of thin glass fibers
to transmit light to and from the organ being viewed. These fibers use the principle of total
internal reflection to transmit almost 100 % of the light entering one end to the other end. Fiber-
optic endoscopes are delicate and expensive items.

Figure.4:Yellowish ulcer on pink stomach lining seen on endoscopy

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 Figure 4.

DEFINITION:
Coaxial cable is an electrical cable consisting of a round, insulated conducting wire, surrounded
by an insulating spacer, surrounded by a cylindrical conducting sheath, usually surrounded by a
final insulating layer.

The cable is designed to carry a high-frequency or broadband signal, as a high-frequency

transmission line. Sometimes DC power (called bias) is added to the signal to supply the
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equipment at the other end, such in direct broadcast satellite receivers. Because the
electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists (ideally) only in the space between the inner and
outer conductors, it cannot interfere with or suffer interference from external electromagnetic
fields.

Coaxial cables may be rigid or flexible. Rigid types have a solid sheath, while flexible types have
a braided sheath, both usually of thin copper wire. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric,
has a significant effect on the cable's properties, such as its characteristic impedance and its
attenuation. The dielectric may be solid or perforated with air spaces. Connections to the ends of
coaxial cables are usually made with RF connectors.

USES OF COAXIAL CABLE

Short coaxial cables are commonly used to connect home video equipment, or in ham radio
setups. They used to be common for implementing computer networks, in particular Ethernet,
but twisted pair cables have replaced them in most applications.

Long distance coaxial cable is used to connect radio networks and television networks, though
this has largely been superseded by other more high-tech methods (fibre optics, T1/E1, satellite).
It is still common for carrying cable television signals.

TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLE

In broadcasting and other forms of radio communication, hard line is a very heavy-duty coaxial
cable, where the outside shielding is a rigid or semi-rigid pipe, rather than flexible and braided
wire. Hard line is very thick, typically at least a half inch or 13mm and up to several times that,
and has low loss even at high power. It is almost always used in the connection between a
transmitter on the ground and the antenna or aerial on the tower. Hard lines are often made to be
pressurised with nitrogen or desiccated air, which provide an excellent dielectric even at the high
temperatures generated by thousands of watts of RF energy, especially during intense summer
heat and sunshine. Physical separation between the inner conductor and outer shielding is
maintained by spacers, usually made out of tough solid plastics like nylon.

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TRIAXIAL CABLE or triax is coaxial cable with a third layer of shielding, insulation and
sheathing. The outer shield, which is earthed, protects the inner shield from electromagnetic
interference from outside sources.

TWIN-AXIAL CABLE or twinax is a balanced, twisted pair within a cylindrical shield. It

allows a nearly perfect differential signal which is both shielded and balanced to pass through.
Multi-conductor coaxial cable is also sometimes used.

BIAXIAL CABLE or biax is a figure-8 configuration of two 50-ohm coaxial cables, used in
some proprietary computer networks.

RADIATING COAXIAL CABLE this cable is akin to the Hard line Coaxial cable however it
has points which are adjusted to find radio frequencies this is inserted into the outer shield. Two
different routes of seepage assist linking the transmitter with the receiver.

RG6 COAXIAL CABLE is utilized at work or in the house. It is the most well known cable and
is put together in a very fundamental way with a lone copper conductor in the middle and outer
buffer being split with a woven copper semi-transmitter. There are a variation of RG6 cables.
The plain RG6 can be used both out in the elements and inside. Flooded coaxial cable is perfect
to be used within the earth.

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Coaxial cable is still the most common means of data transmission over short distance

THE ADVANTAGES OF USING COAX

INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:
Each of the multiple channels offers substantial capacity. The capacity depends on where you
are in the world. In the North American system, each channel in the cable TV system is 6MHz
wide, according to the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) standard. In Europe, with
the Phase Alternate Line (PAL) standard, the channels are 8MHz wide. Within one of these
channels, you can provision high-speed Internet access-that's how cable modems operate. But
that one channel is now being shared by everyone using that coax from that neighborhood
node, which can range from 200 to 2,000 homes.
Because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield, noise immunity is improved, and coax has
lower error rates and therefore slightly better performance than twisted-pair. The error rate is
generally 10-9 (i.e., 1 in 1 billion) bps.

EASE OF USE
 Cutting and terminating coaxial cables only takes three tools at most: wire cutters, coax
strippers and a compression crimp tool. In addition, connectors are modular. Stripping the
cable to the proper depth for field installations is done nearly automatically when the strip
tool's blade depth is properly set. All that is required to connect a coaxial cable is to
screw the connector on clockwise to the threaded RF jack on the tuner or other device.

FIBER DISADVANTAGES:
Very expensive to produce.
Need expensive lasers and receivers at each segment.
Modifications take highly trained personel and expensive equipment.
Higher overhead: all signal packets need to be converted to electrical signals to determine
routing info, then re-converted back to light to continue to next destination.
Very little infrastructure already in place
Not robust- if you bend the cable too tightly, it will disrupt the signal

BIDIRECTIONAL UPGRADE REQUIRED

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In countries that have a history of cable TV, the cable systems were designed for broadcasting,
not for interactive communications. Before they can offer to the subscriber any form of two-
way services, those networks have to be upgraded to bidirectional systems.
GREAT NOISE
The return path has some noise problems, and the end equipment requires added intelligence
to take care of error control.
HIGH INSTALLATION COSTS
Installation costs in the local environment are high.
SUSCEPTIBLE TO DAMAGE FROM LIGHTNING STRIKES
Coax may be damaged by lightning strikes. People who live in an area with a lot of lightning
strikes must be wary because if that lightning is conducted by a coax, it could very well fry the
equipment at the end of it.

TWISTED-PAIR CABLE
A type of cable that consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one another.
The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction.
While twisted-pair cable is used by older telephone networks and is the least expensive type of
local-area network (LAN) cable, most networks contain some twisted-pair cabling at some point
along the network. Other types of cables used for LANs include coaxial cables and fiber optic
cables.

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The Twisted Pair

UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)

A popular type of cable that consists of two unshielded wires twisted around each other. Due to
its low cost, UTP cabling is used extensively for local-area networks (LANs) and telephone
connections. UTP cabling does not offer as high bandwidth or as good protection from
interference as coaxial or fiber optic cables, but it is less expensive and easier to work with.

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Unshielded twisted pair cable with different twist rates

SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE

DEFINITION
 a cable consisting of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other to reduce
induction and so interference, then wrapped in an insulated shielding layer to further
reduce interference.

CABLE SHIELDING

SCTP, ALSO KNOWN AS FTP

Twisted pair cables are often shielded in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic interference.
Because the shielding is made of metal, it may also serve as a ground. However, usually a
shielded or a screened twisted pair cable has a special grounding wire added called a drain wire.
This shielding can be applied to individual pairs, or to the collection of pairs. When shielding is
applied to the collection of pairs, this is referred to as screening. The shielding must be grounded
for the shielding to work.

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SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (STP OR STP-A) 
150 ohm STP shielded twisted pair cable defined by the IBM Cabling System
specifications and used with token ring or FDDI networks. This type of shielding protects
cable from external EMI from entering or exiting the cable and also protects neighboring
pairs from crosstalk.

Shielded and Unshielded Twisted Pairs

WHAT IS WIRELESS COMUNICATION

In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi opened the way for modern wireless
communications by transmitting the three-dot Morse code for the letter ‘S’ over a distance of

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three kilometers using electromagnetic waves. From this beginning, wireless communications
has developed into a key element of modern society. From satellite transmission, radio and
television broadcasting to the now ubiquitous mobile telephone, wireless communications has
revolutionized the way societies function

Wireless communications is a rapidly growing segment of the communications industry, with the
potential to provide high-speed high-quality information exchange between portable devices
located anywhere in the world.

INVENTIONS IN WIRELESS WORLD

BLUETOOTH

 WHAT IS BLUETHOOTH
Created by telecoms vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless
alternative to  data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of
synchronization.

 HOW BLUETOOTH WORKS?

Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short
distances (using short wavelength radio transmissions) from fixed and mobile devices,
creating personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security. Bluetooth is managed by
the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 14,000 member companies in the
areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics.[2] The SIG
oversees the development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects
the trademarks.[3] To be marketed as a Bluetooth device, it must be qualified to standards
defined by the SIG. A network of patents are required to implement the technology and are only
licensed to those qualifying devices; thus the protocol, whilst open, may be regarded as
proprietary.

 SOME USES
Bluetooth is a simple type of the wireless networking that operates in the digital devices, like
mobiles phones, personal computers, PDA, Laptops, digital camera, MP3 players and other
Bluetooth enabled devices to form a small network. In the Bluetooth technology eight devices
can be connected to each other at the same time. Bluetooth can also be found in the headsets,

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hands-free kits, wireless keyboards and mouse. Bluetooth technology was invented by Ericsson
in 1994 and after four years in 1998 some major mobile phone companies such as Nokia,
Ericsson, Intel and Toshiba formed a group to promote this technology.

Bluetooth technology falls in the category of personal area networking because it operates in the
range of 30 to 300 feet. Bluetooth uses the radio waves technology, which is not very expensive
and has low power consumption. Many different companies are intended to add the Bluetooth
chip in their digital devices. Bluetooth technology is getting very popularity because of its low
cost and portability.

WI-FI' (IEEE) 802.11 STANDARDS."

 WHAT IT STANDS FOR?

The term Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity.
The name of a popular wireless  networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless
high-speed Internet  and  network  connections. The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns
the Wi-Fi (registered trademark) term specifically defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area
network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers'
(IEEE) 802.11 standards."

 HISTORY OF WIFI

Back in 1991 Wi-Fi was invented by NCR Corporation/AT&T (later on Lucent & Agere

Systems) in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. Initially meant for cashier systems the first wireless
products were brought on the market under the name Wave LAN with speeds of
1Mbps/2Mbps. Vic Hayes who is the inventor of Wi-Fi has been named 'father of Wi-Fi' and was
with his team involved in designing standards such as IEEE 802.11b, 802.11a and 802.11g. In
2003, Vic retired from Agere Systems. Agere Systems suffered from strong competition in the
market even though their products were cutting edge, as many opted for cheaper Wi-Fi solutions.
Agere's 802.11abg all-in-one chipset (code named: WARP) never hit the market, Agere Systems
decided to quit the Wi-Fi market in late 2004

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HOW IT WORKS
The typical Wi-Fi setup contains one or more Access Points (APs) and one or more clients. An
AP broadcasts its SSID (Service Set Identifier, Network name) via packets that are
called beacons, which are broadcasted every 100ms. The beacons are transmitted at 1Mbps, and
are relatively short and therefore are not of influence on performance. Since 1Mbps is the lowest
rate of Wi-Fi it assures that the client who receives the beacon can communicate at least 1Mbps.
based on the settings (i.e. the SSID), the client may decide whether to connect to an AP. Also
the firmware running on the client Wi-Fi card is of influence. Say two AP's of the same SSID are
in range of the client, the firmware may decide based on signal strength (Signal-to-noise ratio) to
which of the two AP's it will connect. The Wi-Fi standard leaves connection criteria and roaming
totally open to the client. This is a strength of Wi-Fi, but also means that one wireless adapter
may perform substantially better than the other. Since Windows XP there is a feature called zero
configuration which makes the user show any network available and let the end user connect to it
on the fly. In the future wireless cards will be more and more controlled by the operating system.
Microsoft's newest feature called SoftMAC will take over from on-board firmware. Having said
this, roaming criteria will be totally controlled by the operating system. Wi-Fi transmits in the
air, it has the same properties as a non-switched Ethernet network. Even collisions can therefore
appear like in non-switched Ethernet LAN's.

SOME OF ITS USES

A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a personal computer, video game console, Smartphone, and
digital audio player can connect to the  Internet when within range of a wireless
network connected to the Internet. The coverage of one or more (interconnected) access
points — called  hotspots when offering public access — generally comprises an area the size of
a few rooms but may be expanded to cover many square miles, depending on the number of
access points with overlapping coverage.

'Wi-Fi' is not a technical term. However, the Alliance has generally enforced its use to describe
only a narrow range of connectivity technologies including wireless local area network (WLAN)
based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, device to device connectivity [such as Wi-Fi Peer to Peer
AKA Wi-Fi Direct], and a range of technologies that support PAN, LAN and
even WAN connections. Derivative terms, such as Super Wi-Fi, coined by the U.S. Federal

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Communications Commission (FCC) to describe proposed networking in the UHF TV band in
the US, may or may not be sanctioned by the alliance.

The technical term "IEEE 802.11" has been used interchangeably with Wi-Fi, but over the past
few years Wi-Fi has become a superset of IEEE 802.11. Wi-Fi is used by over 700 million
people, there are over 750,000 hotspots (places with Wi-Fi Internet connectivity) around the
world, and about 800 million new Wi-Fi devices every year. Wi-Fi products that complete the
Wi-Fi Alliance interoperability certification testing successfully can use the Wi-
Fi  certified designation and trademark.

Not every Wi-Fi device is submitted for certification to the Wi-Fi Alliance. The lack of Wi-Fi
certification does not necessarily imply a device is incompatible with Wi-Fi devices/protocols. If
it is compliant or partly compatible, the Wi-Fi Alliance may not object to its description as a Wi-
Fi device though technically only the CERTIFIED designation carries their approval.

Wi-Fi certified and compliant devices are installed in many personal computers, video game
consoles, MP3 players, smart phones, printers, digital cameras, and laptop computers.
However, the use of Wi-Fi via virtual Router is also possible in a number of ways.

BLUETOOTH VS WI-FI IN NETWORKING

Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have many applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files.

Wi-Fi is intended for resident equipment and its applications. The category of applications is
outlined as WLAN, the wireless local area networks. Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement for
cabling for general local area network access in work areas.

Bluetooth was intended for non-resident equipment and its applications. The category of
applications is outlined as the wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is a
replacement for cabling in a variety of personally carried applications in any setting and can also
support fixed location applications such as smart energy functionality in the home (thermostats,
etc.).

Wi-Fi is a wireless version of a traditional Ethernet network, and requires configuration to set up
shared resources, transmit files, and to set up audio links (for example, headsets and hands-free
devices). Wi-Fi uses the same radio frequencies as Bluetooth, but with higher power, resulting in
a faster connection and better range from the base station. The nearest equivalents in Bluetooth
are the DUN profile, which allows devices to act as modem interfaces, and the PAN profile,
which allows for ad-hoc networking

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 INFRARED

WHAT IS INFRARED
Infrared are waves that lies between the visible and microwave portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Infrared are light waves that have a range of wavelengths, just like visible light has
wavelengths that range from red light to violet. "Near infrared" light is closest in wavelength to visible
light and "far infrared" is closer to the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The longer,
far infrared wavelengths are about the size of a pin head and the shorter, near infrared ones are the size
of cells, or are microscopic.

HISTORY OF INFRARED
Infrared radiation was discovered in 1800 by Sir William Herschel while he was measuring the
temperature of the various colors of the visible spectrum separated by a prism.  Herschel observed that
the temperature of his thermometer increased as he moved it from the blue to the red.  When he
accidentally placed his thermometer beyond the red region of the visible spectrum, he noted a further
increase in temperature.  Herschel called this invisible light “infrared”, meaning below the red.

HOW IT WORKS
Infrared light is part of the Sun's invisible spectrum. And is simply a form of

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Energy that is directly transmitted onto objects because of its specific
Wave length. It has nothing to do with ultraviolet light which gives you sunburn
and damages your skin. Where conventional saunas transfer heat by circulating hot air, thus
warm your body from your head, the infrared heat rays warm your body directly. This allows an
in-depth heat in a more pleasant temperature of 30-40C, thus providing more
health benefits and a highly enjoyable and comfortable environment.

Conventional saunas need high air temperatures to pull impurities from the body,
but Physiotherm Infrared saunas can directly penetrate up to 45 mm inside the
body. Impurities can be pushed out using lower and more comfortable
temperatures.

HOW DOES IT BENEFIT US?

As the body temperature rises by infrared heat, perspiration occurs and blood

circulation increases. The muscles and organs are stimulated and toxic waste

(fat, heavy metals and other toxic materials) is removed from your body through

perspiration. One of Far Infrared light's characteristics is the ability to easily

penetrate human tissue. When this happens, it creates a natural resonance, which

has manybeneficial properties. Remember the last time you were sunbathing with

sunscreen? Were you still hot? Of course you were because the sunscreen only

stops the UV (Ultraviolet) light from hitting your skin. Physiotherm Far Infrared

penetrates your skin, giving you that wonderful natural warmth. You can be exposed

to Far Infrared heat for hours and it will never cause your skin to burn. Far Infrared

heat is completely healthy and safe for allliving things .

WHERE IS INFRARED TECHNOLOGY

USED?

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Infrared heat is well known for pain relief. Health professionals have used red infrared heat
lamps for decades to treat muscle and joint problems. In hospital baby care units, incubators are
often equipped with infrared heating systems to keep new-born babies warm.

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