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Table of Contents
I. Introduction..............................................................................................................................................1
II. Voltage Collapse....................................................................................................................................1
A. Introduction 1
B. Modeling of Voltage Collapse 1
C. Voltage Collapse Proximity Indicators 2
D. Conventional Indicators 4
E. Future possibilities 5
F. Time Frame of Voltage Collapse 6
G. Load Types 7
III. Dynamic Sources of Reactive Power .................................................................................................9
A. Static Sources 9
B. Synchronous Machines 10
C. Measurement of Dynamic Reactive Power Reserve 12
D. Excitation Control Devices 14
E. Protection Issues 18
IV. Switched Capacitance .........................................................................................................................20
A. Long-term Time Frame. 20
B. Transient Time Frame 21
V. Automatic Reclosing .............................................................................................................................23
VI. Load Shedding......................................................................................................................................24
A. Manual Load Shedding 24
B. Load Shedding as Part of Energy Management Systems (EMS) 25
C. Automatic Load Shedding 25
VII. Distribution Voltage Control................................................................................................................28
A. General 28
B. LTC Blocking Schemes 28
C. Distribution Voltage Reduction 29
D. Comparison of Voltage Reduction and Blocking Schemes 30
VIII. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................31
A. The fundamental principles of mitigation actions 31
B. Choice of action(s) depends to a large extent on dynamics 32
IX. Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................33
X. References............................................................................................................................................33
Final version, December, 1996
1
Final version, December, 1996
- slow load fluctuations (normal random load reactive support requirements and system
fluctuations) loading capability. However, time-domain
- fast load fluctuations (such as outages of simulations may also be used for voltage stability
large blocks of loads) analysis. Following is a brief account of proximity
Slow load fluctuations may be treated as indicators of steady state voltage instability.
inherently static. They cause the stable
equilibrium of the system to move slowly, Historically, early attempts to investigate voltage
which makes it possible to approximate unstable conditions were based on attempts to
voltage profile changes by a discrete improve the solution of static load flow programs
sequence of steady states rather than a applied to heavily loaded power systems having
dynamic model. low voltage profiles. It was difficult to arrive at
load flow solutions for such systems because at
The following table briefly summarizes the types the point of voltage collapse (and at higher loads)
of disturbances which may cause voltage there is no real steady state solution to the load
instability and the appropriate modeling approach: flow. Later, the dual solution (with two different
voltages for the same power delivered) were
Disturbance Description of Model observed to converge to a single point beyond
Disturbance which it became impossible to solve the power
Topological Equipment Outage Dynamic flow.
Fault Dynamic
Load Fast Dynamic Early indicators used the distance of the two
Fluctuation Slow Static solution points as an indicator of proximity to
collapse, since this distance decreases as the
point of maximum loadability approaches. Figure
While the three types of disturbances which
II-1 shows a VP diagram of a particular system at
require dynamic analysis are also known as the
a particular operating point, with the two solution
leading causes of other types of transient
points.
instability, they may cause voltage instability if
either one of the following happens:
C. Voltage Collapse Proximity Indicators The upper point VU is the normal operating point,
but a solution at VL is also possible. It can be
Presently, static simulations are still widely used seen that the distance between the two solutions
for planning and operating purposes to determine
2
Final version, December, 1996
∆V tends to zero as the margin of power Pm might occur. However, it is difficult to calculate
between the operating point and the point of the system condition and derive the parameters
maximum power approaches zero. in real time. Rapid derivation and analysis of
these parameters is important to initiate
VP curves do not take into account the reactive automatic corrective actions fast enough to avoid
power component of the load. To include the collapse under emergency conditions which arise
reactive component, a third dimension must be due to topological changes or very fast load
added, as shown in Figure II-2 following. changes.
3
Final version, December, 1996
busses in the system when a restricted number voltage in a specific area that may be subject to
of load parameters are allowed to freely change. voltage collapse. Power flow studies will show
how these sources respond to voltage
0.8
depressions in the region of interest. When
studies have defined the relationship of the Var
reserve in these specific sources, to total Var
P3 reserve in the region, it may be possible to use
P2 the Var reserve of these sources as an indicator
Q injected (p.u.)
0.4 P1
of total Var reserve in the region. Another
method may be to compute the significance of all
dynamic sources in the region, measure their
Qmissing
unused Var capability, and compute the amount
0
1.0 of Qreserve available to the region of interest.
Qreserve
4
Final version, December, 1996
system will continue to be maintained through the there is no guarantee that low voltages persist
use of operating procedures such as the over a complete region. In spite of this, such
Reliability Coordination Plan (RCP). The RCP schemes have been operating reliably for many
was developed by utilities owning and operating years [1,5], in the sense that they have been
the transmission systems in various North secure against undesirable operation, and have
American regions. It is used to curtail or limit provided load relief under low voltage conditions.
transfers to insure adequate voltage profiles in However, it is a rare condition to be in danger of
that part of the Eastern Interconnection. imminent voltage collapse; so experience under a
wide variety of system conditions is not available.
Some common indicators of system conditions
that are presently measured to determine an When reactive power limiters on generators or
emergency system state, requiring voltage synchronous condensers operate to maintain the
collapse mitigation actions are machines within their capability, these machines
cannot do any more to support system voltages.
• Tie line status, generator status Thus the operation of the limiters may be good
• Voltage, time indicators of impending collapse. Such indicators
• Reactive power limiters in action are not yet widely used in North America, but are
• Reactive power reserves. more frequently used in Europe.
These indicators may be used individually, or Exhaustion of reactive power reserves is similar
together to determine the need for automatic to operation of reactive power limiters because
action. The status of tie lines or important local the result is an inability to maintain voltages.
generators can be a very good indicator, if their Exhaustion of such reserve means that one of
presence is required for stable operating the margins mentioned above as a direct
conditions. Such indicators cannot normally be indicator of the proximity of collapse has
used by themselves however, since voltage decreased to zero. When system studies define
collapse is a system wide phenomenon which the critical reserves, and levels, measurement of
cannot be described by knowledge of local remaining reserves can give a dependable
conditions alone. To allow use of a scheme warning of the approach of voltage instability. At
looking at the status of the critical equipment, least two utilities in North America (BC Hydro and
manual arming and disarming by system Florida Power and Light) use reactive power
operators may be required. This would place reserve as one factor in arriving at a decision to
extra burden on system operators however, and shed large blocks of load [1,4]. Measurement of
results in less than optimum arming of the reactive power reserve is discussed later in this
mitigation scheme. Thus the status of equipment paper.
can be considered as one part of the indication
of impending collapse. Other important factors E. Future possibilities
like tie line loads or reactive power source Some recently developed relaying techniques
outputs may be combined with equipment status may be useful in providing indication or control
to make the decision. The Florida Power and action in near voltage collapse conditions.
Light scheme [4] is one such scheme that uses a Following are some examples of these new
combination of equipment status and other developments.
factors.
• Adaptive relays can change settings as
Low voltages over a period of time are widely system conditions change. To cope with
used in undervoltage load shedding schemes and voltage problems, the shedding of load is
load tap changer control schemes (as will be based on voltage measurements, and is
discussed later in this report). A significant initiated when the local voltage falls below a
limitation of localized voltage measurement is that certain setting. The setting, location, and
5
Final version, December, 1996
amount of the load to be shed should be results in aperiodic decreasing (but sometimes
changed to adapt the load shedding scheme increasing) voltages. Figure II-4 shows some of
to the varying system conditions. The the time frames of the various phenomena
protection against voltage instability can be involved in loss of voltage stability. It can be
designed as a part of the hierarchical seen that several orders of magnitude of times
structure. Decentralized actions are are involved.
performed at substations with local
measurements which may be modified by Voltage stability phenomena in the transient
measurements or decisions from a wider region are often closely involved with angular
area, using a communications system. Better stability phenomena. Low voltages can result in
decisions can be made at a higher loss of angular stability, and loss of angular
hierarchical level, but larger number of stability will result in fluctuating voltages. Voltage
relevant system measurements are required. collapses in the longer-term time frames can also
result in loss of angular stability. Voltage
• Phasor measurements are useful to speed collapses do not always result in loss of angular
up state estimation to determine collapse in stability however. Even collapses in the transient
real time fast enough for automatic action. time frame, such as may be precipitated by slowly
Instead of using a relatively slow cleared short circuit faults do not necessarily
communication with conventional SCADA, result in loss of angular stability.
one can envision using faster communication
links with phasor measurement units which do Voltage collapses in the longer time frames are
not require much post-processing of the type that are attracting much of the attention
measurement data, and could possibly be and recent research in power system
used for real-time control of some transients phenomena. Tools to study time dependent
in power networks. Phasor measurement system response in longer time frames have only
units, and similar high-speed measurement been relatively recently developed, while tools for
devices are a predecessor of a new, faster, transient analysis of power systems are very
and more sophisticated generation of data mature and widely used. Advances in numerical
acquisition devices for system-wide algorithms and computer power have made it
monitoring in near real-time conditions for a possible to simulate systems of very large size
variety of disturbances, including voltage and with many types of equipment. Several
instabilities. software tools are now available to perform
simulation of power system responses over a
• User definable relays [6,7] may be useful for long period of time. Examples are the EPRI's
special applications where unique ETMSP [8], EUROSTAG, and PSS/E. Measures
measurements are required. For instance, to avoid collapses in all time frames will be
they may be set for specific rate of change of discussed in this paper. The time frame of the
voltage, if rate or shape of voltage collapse voltage instability phenomenon is an important
can be defined. User configured relays may factor in application of mitigation measures.
discriminate between collapse due to
instability and depression due to fault or Voltage collapses in the transient time frame are
motor starting. They may also be used in most often caused by slowly cleared faults, such
measurement of reactive power being used as the cascading collapse on 22 August, 1987
for voltage support, as a percentage of that TVA experienced [9], and the significant
maximum available reactive power. voltage depression that Philadelphia experienced
on July 1, 1992 [10].
F. Time Frame of Voltage Collapse
Voltage collapse can occur over a wide variety of
time frames. Loss of voltage stability generally
6
Final version, December, 1996
Collapses in the longer term time frame may discussed in the following section). Thus a loss
result from loss of significant sources of local of a significant source of local generation or
generation or reactive support, or from loss of reactive support can precipitate a voltage
heavily loaded transmission capability. In such collapse in the transient, or long term time frame.
cases, transient overload capability may allow
nearby generators to maintain voltages for a G. Load Types
short time, until maximum excitation limiters come Load modeling is an essential, but often
into effect and local Var support is severely inadequately represented element in power
curtailed. However, loss of significant reactive system studies. Given a power system topology,
power support can also lead to loss of angular the behavior of the system following a
stability and voltage collapse in the transient time disturbance, or whether voltage collapse can
frame as was the case in the 13 March 1989 occur, depends to a great extent on how the load
collapse of the Hydro Quebec system due to loss is represented.
of several critical SVCs that were supporting the
transmission system voltages. Load admittances are a function of voltage and
frequency. The characteristics of load with
Collapses in the long term time frame may also respect to frequency are not critical for the
be caused by unusually fast load build up (such phenomena of voltage stability, but the
as the Tokyo 23 July, 1987, incident). They may characteristics with respect to voltage are critical.
also be caused by changing over time, of the Systems with “soft” loads which decrease sharply
characteristic of the load sensitivity to voltage (as
7
Final version, December, 1996
8
Final version, December, 1996
Current Current
SVC Operating Characteristic STATCON Operating Characteristic
Figure III-1 Comparison of SVC and STATCON operating characteristics
9
Final version, December, 1996
Control of SVCs and STATCONs will normally be A typical generator capability diagram as supplied
achieved by use of digital control devices with by a manufacturer of a 165 MW, 0.9 pf turbo
almost unlimited flexibility to provide appropriate generator is shown in Figure III-2 following.
control of terminal voltage within the capability of 150 Mvar Rotor current limited
Unit supplies
the primary equipment. Protective devices vars region
(over-excited)
applied to this equipment will of course have to 100
coordinate with control settings and equipment
Stator current
capability. This coordination is normally 110% limited region
thoroughly checked at commissioning as the Gen. 105%
Terminal 100%
rated output of the device is measured as part of Voltage 95%
Real Power
acceptance testing, and at routine maintenance 90% 0 100 200 (MW)
intervals.
-50
B. Synchronous Machines
-100 Stator end winding
heating limited region
1. Capability Diagram Unit absorbs
vars
A synchronous machine is capable of generating (under-excited) -150
10
Final version, December, 1996
Some interesting observations can be made from diagram. Reference[18] describes in more detail
Figure III-2. The reactive power capability the various other factors that can limit the
increases dramatically as real power output is generator capability.
limited. Further, the amount of reactive power Another significant limiter, which does not always
available from the generator is very dependent on coordinate with the generator capability or control
terminal voltage. In this respect, a generator equipment settings is the generator protection.
operating at low real power output can supply Rotor overload protection, loss of field protection,
significantly more reactive power at low voltages and backup protection are all systems that can
than at high voltages. cause unexpected and undesirable disconnection
of a generator in a voltage stressed system.
The increase in reactive power capability at lower Later sections in this paper will discuss some of
real power output means that system planners those protection aspects in more detail. A major
and operators may choose to generate less than reason for unexpected operation of protective
rated real power in order to have more reactive devices is the lack of routine exercising of the
power from generators at critical locations in generator at its capability limits [17].
voltage stability threatened systems. The choice
of operating point (Mw versus Mvar) for Excitation power is supplied by one of two types
generators at critical locations is predetermined, of exciters, rotating and static. As the term
and not usually subject to automatic control. It implies, a rotating exciter is one that mounts on
should be noted that when the generator reaches the machine shaft and rotates with the generator
the limit of its capability, particularly in the rotor producing main field current by induction. The
current limited region, it may not be controlling its exciter's field is energized by some independent
terminal voltage. The fact that it is at its limit of source, e.g., a permanent magnet generator
capability means that it is not able to raise the (PMG), station battery, etc., controlled by the
terminal voltage to the reference setting of the voltage regulator. A static exciter is comprised of
voltage regulator. Thus the reactive power limits a power transformer and power electronics
are to a certain extent, determined by the system utilizing generator terminal voltage as the source
conditions, and independent of the generator of field power. It would appear that a static
excitation system. exciter would be limited in its capability like
switched capacitors or an SVC because it is
The value of a generator as a source of reactive dependent upon the generator terminal voltage
power can be separated from its value as a for power; however, the transformer ratio is
source of real power, if it can be decoupled from selected so that the power electronics can deliver
the turbine and run as a synchronous condenser. a broad range of field current even with
In some plants where fuel or operating costs may depressed voltage. Generally speaking, static
make power generation uneconomic, it may be exciters are quicker in their response to voltage
possible to convert the generator to a disturbances than their rotating counterparts
synchronous condenser, and use it to support because of the latter's additional windings and
voltages in an area where real power has to be their associated time constants.
imported from a remote area.
2. Effect of Cooling Medium on Var
The generator capability diagram as supplied by Capability
the manufacturer is not necessarily the capability Generator capability may depend significantly on
of a given generator connected at a given point in the type and amount of cooling. This is
a system. Many other factors such as auxiliary particularly true of hydrogen cooled generators
equipment voltage limits, stator or transformer where cooling gas pressure affects both the real
winding voltage limits, cooling medium conditions, and reactive power capability. The curves
or over and under excitation controllers can limit shown in Figure III-2 are for an air cooled
a given generator’s capability to significantly less machine, operating at maximum ambient air
than that indicated by the manufacturer’s
11
Final version, December, 1996
temperature of 40 degrees C. Figure III-3 below the higher pressure. In addition to design
shows the variation in capability of a particular differences, the age of the unit, maintenance
306 MVA hydrogen cooled generator (at 100% cycles, and relative duty all affect the leakage
terminal voltage). The mechanical power supply rate at a given pressure.
capability is superimposed to show the limitations
of the steam supply system. The way in which Third, it is important that the generator's hot spot
reactive power capability increases with temperatures be somehow monitored, either
hydrogen pressure is easily seen. directly or indirectly. Average temperature, such
as hot gas temperature, average rotor winding
Mvar 200 60 temperature, etc., provide some information, but
45 H2 Pressure (PSIG) these are not hot spot temperatures. Operating
30
Unit Supplies Rotor Current Limit close to the rated capability curves necessitates
VARS
(Over excited) having this additional information because of the
100 Stator Current Limit potential for causing serious damage due to local
heating above rated temperature. Section III D b)
Real Power
(MW)
below discusses some techniques of rotor
0
0 100 200 300
temperature measurement presently being
investigated.
12
Final version, December, 1996
condensers (rated 2x100 Mvar and 2x50 Mvar) A PLC was used to calculate the average output
in conjunction with low voltages at more than one of the synchronous condensers as a percentage
key bus to initiate a load shedding scheme. The of maximum capability. A simplified logic diagram
simplified scheme logic diagram is shown in of the scheme implemented in the PLC is shown
Figure III-4 following. Staged load shedding will in Figure III-5. It should be noted that this figure
be initiated if the output of the synchronous has been simplified for clarity (as have all other
condensers at VIT is greater than a certain PLC logic diagrams in this paper). PLC logic
percentage of their maximum capability and the diagrams would normally include extensive error
voltage is low at least at two important busses checking routines, most of which are not shown in
(DMR and either SAT, or VIT) in the region. the diagrams.
13
Final version, December, 1996
Yes
D. Excitation Control Devices
SC1 bkr
SC1 var capacity = 0 Mvar Since reactive power sources are so important to
or AVR off?
No voltage stability, then the control of these sources
is also critical. A discussion of various excitation
Set SC1
control features and their effects on voltage
Capacity = Limit 1 stability follows.
14
Final version, December, 1996
15
Final version, December, 1996
Rotor temperature measurement is not yet too-low a level of excitation. The MEL needs to
sufficiently reliable for widespread use in be carefully set, coordinating with the generator's
overexcitation control systems. Reference [2] reactive capability curve, the system's steady
describes one application. It is possible that as state stability limit, and the generator's loss of
measurement techniques mature, supplementary field relay. This control function is most important
temperature control may be feasible to extract under conditions of high system voltage, when the
more reactive power from a given generator. generator is operating at low excitation levels to
However, concerns over operating at the limits of absorb the maximum amount of reactive power.
a generator capability (as mentioned in sub-
section B.2 above) must always be weighed Since the MEL is only functional when the voltage
against possible marginal increases in reactive being regulated is higher than the reference
capability. It is likely that temperature monitoring setting, it may not be a critical function during a
will find its optimum application in short term voltage collapse scenario. However, when
overload capability. voltage stability is lost, it is possible for system
voltage to rise above acceptable levels. Such a
The V/Hz limiter is a device that protects the circumstance might happen if too much load is
generator stator and directly connected disconnected during a voltage depression, or too
transformers (main power transformer and unit much capacitance is added to try to boost system
auxiliary transformer) from excessive flux levels voltage. In such cases, proper operation of the
(with the high flux levels being indicated by high MEL, and its coordination with the loss of
ratio of volts to Hertz). When the windings of a excitation protection may be critical in restoring
generator or transformer are exposed to such a voltage stability.
condition, the core iron saturates and magnetic
flux escapes from the intended magnetic path to d) Reactive Droop Control and Load
penetrate the surrounding structural steel where Compensation (LDC)
induced currents can cause excessive I2R These are addressed together here because
heating which may result in failure of the they are closely related, but have opposite
generator or transformer. The V/Hz limiter effects. A control voltage that is proportional to
ensures that dangerously high levels of excitation the reactive power generated by the machine is
do not persist. For instance, it may be required applied to the sensed terminal voltage being
to operate to limit generator terminal voltage to a supplied to the voltage regulator. With reactive
safe level under conditions of depressed droop control, this control voltage is added to the
transmission system voltage when the generator sensed terminal voltage causing the regulator to
is producing a large amount of reactive power. sense too high a feedback voltage, resulting in a
The probability of overexcitation is more likely decrease in excitation. With load compensation,
when load compensation is being applied, as the this control voltage is subtracted from the sensed
automatic voltage regulator is not regulating terminal voltage causing the regulator to sense
terminal voltage under this condition. too low a feedback voltage, resulting in an
Coordination of this control device with the V/Hz increase in excitation.
protective relay (if installed) is necessary to avoid
unit trips for conditions that the limiter will safely With reactive droop control, the end result is a
respond to. sharing of the voltage regulation of a bus to which
multiple generators are connected in parallel.
c) Minimum Excitation Limiter Without droop, the voltage regulators would be
The MEL, or URAL, reduces the probability of a unstable as more than one regulator would
generator losing synchronism with the power attempt to control the same voltage. The
system due to too-low a level of excitation. It is machines would just circulate large quantities of
also intended to prevent generator core end iron Vars, and voltage regulation would be poor.
damage due to stator field fringing resulting from Droop is critical for generators bussed together,
16
Final version, December, 1996
but it needs to be set carefully so that adequate excitation as necessary to control voltage without
voltage levels are maintained. That is, too much regard to Var swings.
droop will result in voltage levels unacceptably
below nominal. The Var regulator is different from the limiter.
This control feature, rather than controlling the
With load compensation, the end result is better voltage to a set point, controls the Var output of
regulation of a point in the system somewhat the machine to a set point. Var regulation is well-
remote from the terminals of the machine. suited to a system that has a steady, baseload
Without load compensation, the controlled point is need for Var support.
the point where the terminal voltage is sensed -
the point where the generator vts tap into the Both of these devices have application with
isolated phase bus. Load compensation moves smaller machines ("small" relative to the
the controlled point out closer to the main power connected system) because of their inability to
transformer's high voltage terminals by significantly alter the transmission bus voltage,
compensating for a portion of the voltage drop regardless of their Var loading. However, it
that occurs across the transformer due to the should be recognized that when these limiters are
loading of the generator. This must be set in operation, the generator will not act to help
carefully to avoid wide reactive power swings on support system voltage during emergencies.
the machine that occur if it attempts to control
voltage at a point too far away in the system, f) Power Factor Limiter/Regulator
electrically speaking. The power factor limiter acts to keep the power
factor of a given machine within specified limits
A plant with more than one generator can be while on voltage control. This device is especially
made to control the voltage on the transmission useful in situations where economic penalties are
system some distance from the plant by the use imposed for operating with a power factor outside
of joint Var control (JVC) equipment. JVC allows of a published acceptable range.
several generators to control the voltage at a
single point without reactive power swings which The power factor regulator, like the Var regulator,
would result from independent voltage control controls to a specific power factor without regard
action on each of the generators. This for the voltage. This can be troublesome for the
equipment ensures that all generators take an bus voltage as the excitation will vary, and hence
equal share of reactive power as they attempt to the voltage will vary, with changes in generator
control the voltage at a common point. watt loading. Again, this is more typically used
with smaller generators or with large synchronous
Compensation for at least part of the reactive motors seeking to operate at or near unity power
drop in a generator step up transformer is one factor (for economic or other reasons).
way of allowing generators to more directly
control system voltage. In addition to the stability The increasing penetration of non utility
concerns, the voltage at the generator terminals generators in power systems results in
must also be controlled to within acceptable limits. increasing effect of their excitation control
Given the wide variation in generator reactive systems on power system voltage stability. Care
power capability, it may be necessary to depend is required to ensure their reactive power
on other controllers such as the volts/Hz limiter or capability is not incorrectly assumed to be
MEL for additional control. dynamic, when in fact they may be operating
under a power factor controller or Var limiter that
e) Var Limiter/Regulator restricts their reactive output to much less than
The Var limiter acts to limit the Var loading of a the units are capable of producing.
generator if the output reaches its threshold.
Otherwise, the regulator is free to adjust
17
Final version, December, 1996
18
Final version, December, 1996
maximum excitation limit is the best way to distance and phase overcurrent relays, however,
ensure coordination is maintained. can be affected by excitation.
Dynamic coordination of the volts/Hz protection In the case of the phase distance relay,
with the volts/Hz controller is relatively easily depending upon its reach, the combination of low
achieved, because their time/flux characteristics system voltage (due to a collapse) and high load
are both well defined. A point of concern can (due to high Var output in response to the
arise when the volts/Hz protection is provided by collapsing voltage) could be interpreted as a low
one or two definite time relays set at specific magnitude three phase fault resulting in an
levels of volts/Hz. It may be difficult to coordinate undesirable trip. This is a problem especially if
the definite time characteristics with inverse time the generator is connected to a stiff system
characteristics of the control device. It is of because of the generator's relative inability to
course also important to coordinate the volts/Hz control the system voltage regardless of its
protection with the maximum voltage regulator excitation level.
control voltage. The maximum voltage regulator
setting may be very close to the maximum rated In the case of the phase overcurrent relays, they
continuous operating voltage, leaving little room are typically set with a pickup below rated load,
for the volts/Hz protection pick up point to fit relying on healthy voltage as a restraint. With the
between the two limits. same scenario as in the case above, if the
voltage falls below the set-point, the relay could
Auxiliary equipment may be protected by operate on load, again causing an undesirable
undervoltage relays to ensure the generator is trip. As with the distance relay, this is more likely
shut down safely before any essential auxiliary to occur when the generator is connected to a
equipment stalls or becomes disconnected due to stiff system.
low voltage. It is possible that low terminal
voltage could impose a limit in the underexcited It should be noted that undesirable trips could
region that the MEL must coordinate with. Since occur under low excitation conditions, as well,
the undervoltage protection would normally have because low excitation translates to low terminal
a significant time delay, dynamic coordination voltage, especially when the generator is
with the MEL may not be as much of a concern connected to a weak system. However, the
as static coordination. combination of low voltage due to
underexcitation, and heavy load is unlikely, so this
In spite of the difficulties in operating generators is seldom a problem.
at reactive power limits, regular testing of the
coordination of protection and control devices at The probability of undesirable trips of backup
those limits remains the best way of ensuring protection systems is reduced by detailed
important reactive power reserves are available application studies when applying such protection
when required during system emergencies. and when calculating settings. System
Reference [17] gives further details on benefits simulations for multiple or low probability
and difficulties of testing generators at reactive contingencies may be required to ensure the
power limits. backup devices are secure under such
conditions. If time delays of backup relays are
2. System Backup Relays short, dynamic system simulations may be
System backup relays are generally of three required as well as static simulations.
types: phase distance, phase overcurrent, and
ground overcurrent. Of these, the ground If reliable backup transmission protection exists
overcurrent is not affected by excitation levels, at the switching substation, backup phase
so it will not be addressed here. The phase distance relays may not be needed.
Consideration could be given to either removing
such relays, or reducing their reach such that
19
Final version, December, 1996
undesirable trippings under low voltage conditions nearby synchronous condensers, or static Var
are highly unlikely. compensators.
20
Final version, December, 1996
Start
Watchdog Fail
OK?
Measure var
inputs
Measured vars Fail
OK?
Measure volt
Inputs
Find valid Fail
voltage Alarm and block outputs
Yes Yes
Mvar>20 & Time Delay Switch CX1 on
CX1 off?
V<141kV?
No No
Yes
CX2 off? Switch CX2 on
No
Yes Yes
Mva<-45 & Time Delay Switch CX1 off
CX1 on?
V>135kV?
No No
Yes
CX2 on? Switch CX2 off
No
Yes Yes
Mvar>70 & Time Delay Switch CX1 on
CX1 off?
V<141kV?
No No
Yes
CX2 off? Switch CX2 on
No
Yes Yes
Mvar<-95 & Time Delay Switch CX1 off
CX1 on?
V>135kV?
No No
Yes
CX2 on? Switch CX2 off
No
Figure IV-1 Logic Diagram for medium speed PLC capacitor control
device.
21
Final version, December, 1996
1. Capacitor Switching in 0.75 Seconds three phase voltages are below the threshold.
Reference [5] describes an undervoltage This reduces the probability of switching for
capacitor switching scheme installed by one utility unbalanced faults such as resistive single line to
which operates in conjunction with a load ground faults which might be cleared in longer
shedding scheme to avoid the possibility of than 12 cycles. A programmable logic controller
voltage collapse. This scheme is intended to (PLC) was selected to perform the measuring
insert a capacitor bank if the voltage drops due to and logical functions as shown in Figure IV-2
loss of a major system tie transformer. following.
22
Final version, December, 1996
Start
Measure 3 Ph
Voltage
No No
No Any Yes Yes Yes
Voltage Capacitors Voltage Voltage
<98%? "on"? >107%? >110%?
Yes No
Reset No Voltage
Timer <98%?
Yes
Voltage No
<95%?
Yes
>1 No
Reset avail. caps
Timer "off"?
Yes
Switch on 2 Switch on 1
capacitors capacitor
Wait 12 cycles
No Voltage
<98%?
Yes
No Any
avail. caps
"off"?
Yes
Figure IV-2 Logic Diagram for PLC High Speed Capacitor Control Device
23
Final version, December, 1996
24
Final version, December, 1996
enough for prompt action. However, when short manual load shedding would be too slow to
term operational planning studies (time frame prevent a voltage collapse. Automatic load
less than a week) show the possibility of collapse shedding must be used to quickly arrest a fast
due to expected load and actual contingencies, voltage drop and allow the voltage to recover to
manual shedding can be applied with good an acceptable level before voltage collapse can
results. occur.
B. Load Shedding as Part of Energy Undervoltage detectors are often used to initiate
Management Systems (EMS) automatic load shedding. For low voltage events
Some utilities have installed remote controlled which do not lead to collapse (such as during a
devices to control the residential air conditioners, normally cleared system fault), these detectors
water heaters, and other loads as a part of must not operate in order to prevent nuisance
energy conservation effort to reduce system tripping of customer load. Security of the
peak demand. During the system peak load undervoltage detectors can be increased by
condition, a signal will be broadcasted to selected applying multiple phase detection, proper time
areas to cycle the interruptible loads off for 15- coordination between fault clearing and time
minute intervals. This short interruption will not delay for load shedding, and use of fault detection
drastically change the room or water temperature relays to inhibit load shedding. Reliability of load
to cause significant discomfort or inconvenience shedding to prevent voltage collapse can be
to customers. enhanced by use of other indicators than voltage
magnitude such as voltage and power sensitivity
This program is normally initiated by system factors or other forms of voltage stability indices.
dispatchers or by EMS based on the need of the
system. This same program can be used for Developing appropriate settings for the
load shedding either manually by dispatcher undervoltage detectors and time delays are
control or automatically from EMS if proper logic challenging problems. It might require intensive
can be programmed to detect a voltage instability. network analysis to find the desired values to
provide optimum coordination between load
To be effective, load shedding from this program shedding and voltage collapse. Generally, the
requires participation of large groups of settings are in the range of 85 to 95 percent of
customers. Such participation is unlikely to the operating voltages, with time delays ranging
materialize unless there is some sort of financial from tens of cycles to minutes [1,5,20]. The
incentive (such as reduced rates) for sensitivity of the load to the voltage level has a
participation. This type of action is most likely to great impact on the settings.
be considered when utilities can defer large
amounts of capital expenditure to reinforce For example, air-conditioning load is sensitive to
transmission if the program is implemented. In low voltage and can aggravate the system
order to get a reasonable return on the loss of voltage once the voltage drops below a level
revenue from financial incentives, operation of causing the air conditioners to stall [21]. The
this type of load shedding scheme would be aggregated locked rotor currents from stalled air-
expected much more often than the alternative of conditioners, which are almost entirely inductive,
disconnecting large blocks of load under extreme could drag the system voltage down if they
emergency conditions. remain connected to the system. Therefore, the
time delay for this type of load shedding may
C. Automatic Load Shedding need to be much shorter than others.
When the voltage instability is caused by sudden
loss of critical transmission equipment or Var On the other hand, if the system is capable of
generating equipment, the lead-time prior to a operating in the low voltage condition for long
voltage collapse will be very short. Therefore, enough, stalled motor load will disconnect itself by
it’s overload protection. Such disconnection was
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Final version, December, 1996
observed in the Philadelphia Electric Company detectors are set very close to normal operating
low voltage incident [10]. The concern was voltages, it is sometimes necessary to ensure
expressed in analysis of that incident that if undervoltage relays sense voltages at very stiff
automatic load shedding had been applied, too busses. Stiff busses will be better regulated and
much load might have been disconnected, and subject to less disturbance (due to local transient
overvoltages could have resulted. conditions such as faults), than weaker busses.
Automatic load shedding to arrest frequency Use of multiple sensing relays can greatly
declines leading to possible blackout is widely increase reliability of underfrequency and
accepted and required in many interconnected undervoltage load shedding schemes. In some
systems. This type of protection system has cases, system studies may show that small
proven to be very reliable in not shedding load frequency changes are a necessary condition for
unnecessarily, and in shedding load when disturbances leading to voltage collapse. In such
required. Its success is due in part to the close cases, supervision of load shedding by
tolerances at which system frequency is normally underfrequency detectors can enhance security
maintained, and the reliability of deviation outside of the load shedding scheme. For example,
those tolerances as an indicator of serious Florida Power and Light supervise a load
generation/load mismatch. shedding scheme by underfrequency relays set
at 59.9 Hz. These relays trigger a latched relay
The comparison of settings of relays for that stays latched for up to a minute after the
underfrequency load shedding with those of frequency excursion. Load shedding is allowed if
relays for undervoltage load shedding is the latched relay is operated at the same time
interesting. In order for each member company that the reactive power deficiency decision is
of a coordinated council to shed the appropriate transmitted to the load supply point [4].
load, given the same frequency conditions, the
settings for the underfrequency relays and their Some relaying considerations associated with
associated timers are generally programmed to load shedding schemes:
trip essentially at the same time. Staged
shedding of load is achieved by programming the • Undervoltage detectors operate very close to
settings of various relays into different steps of normal operating voltages. Caution is
frequencies. However, undervoltage detectors required in setting and application to ensure
for automatic load shedding may be set at voltage reliability. Relays must be very accurate, and
levels close to each other, but spread into steps must be connected to accurate voltage
with different time delays (considerably longer transformers. The relay dropout ratio and
than underfrequency relay trip time). dropout time are important factors. If the
Underfrequency relays are often inhibited during voltage is depressed and restored due to a
undervoltage conditions to ensure response only transient event, the relays must reset before
to system wide frequency excursions. load shedding is initiated. To minimize the
response of relays to voltage depressions
Frequency decline due to generation/load due to unbalanced faults, three phase
mismatch is uniform over a wide area. measurement (all three phases must operate)
Underfrequency detectors with similar or identical or positive sequence voltage measurement
settings can be applied throughout a system. may be employed. To avoid load shedding
Voltage magnitude during a voltage instability for loss of potential supply, a window
incident is much more variable in the area under measuring principle may be employed. If the
consideration. Undervoltage detectors usually voltage is depressed to a very low level,
have to be installed in specific areas and (such as might occur for loss of potential
locations within a system, depending on system supply), no amount of load shedding is going
studies to identify the areas with a high probability to restore voltage to near normal, therefore
of voltage collapse. Since undervoltage
26
Final version, December, 1996
the voltage detector may be set to ignore near voltage collapse conditions. System
such voltages. simulations can produce sensitivity analyses
from which the critical blocks of load may be
• Steady state phase voltage unbalance due to determined.
heavy loading on untransposed lines is also a
factor in voltage measurement. Since • Unexpected loss of load (such as tripping of
undervoltage relay settings are very close to motor starters) in addition to intentional
normal operating levels, phase voltage disconnection of load, may result in
unbalance of only a few percent can be excessive loss of load. This excessive loss
significant. Measurement of all three phase of load, in addition to mitigation measures
voltages or use of positive sequence voltage such as switching on of shunt capacitors,
are techniques used to minimize the effects may result in unacceptably high voltages
of steady state phase voltage unbalance. during loss of voltage stability incidents.
27
Final version, December, 1996
VII. Distribution Voltage Control to this regulating effect, the LTC is an important
part of the overall voltage collapse scenario.
A. General
For the more frequent case, where the real
Electric utilities utilize load tapchangers (LTC) to power loads have some voltage dependency, the
maintain customer voltage levels as the system LTC can be utilized to reduce the severity of the
conditions change. Typically, as load increases, voltage collapse if appropriate control operation
the LTC will act to raise the tap position in order can be obtained. Blocking operation of the LTC
to maintain the voltage level. The LTC control has been widely offered as a method to reduce
relay will be set to operate in one of two modes - the negative effect on the system. Load voltage
bus voltage regulation or load center voltage reduction can be used to reduce the loading on
regulation using the line drop compensator. the system. This is similar to the peak shaving
systems widely used at many utilities. Therefore
Load Center voltage regulation requires a line the load tapchanger may be both a cause and a
drop compensator to regulate the voltage at the partial solution to the problem of voltage collapse.
load center. Transformers at distribution
substations are more likely to use load center B. LTC Blocking Schemes
voltage regulation than those at transmission
The simplest method to eliminate the LTC as a
substations. Therefore, it is important to know
contributor to voltage collapse is to block the
the mode of LTC control operation when
control’s automatic raise operation during any
modeling the effect of the tapchanging
period where voltage collapse appears to be a
transformer operation during voltage collapse.
concern. The decision to temporarily block the
tapchanger can be made using locally derived
During a period of voltage collapse, the LTC
information or can be made at a central location
control relays will detect a low voltage and begin
and the supervisory system can then send a
timing to raise the tap position of the transformer.
blocking signal to the unit. This action may result
When the voltage collapse occurs slowly, the
in a period of low voltage on the affected loads.
controls will time out and begin to raise the
The effect of the reduced supply voltages on
transformer tap position. Assuming no change in
power quality to customers in the whole service
the load on the transformer during this period, the
area must be weighed against the possible
LTC can often be considered a constant power
alternative of complete disconnection of some
load (i.e., α and β are near zero) as long as the
customers in a smaller area. Tap changer
tapchanger can maintain a constant load voltage.
blocking will be more effective for voltage decays
Since the primary voltage level drops, the current
slower than the transient time frame. It will also
flow in the transmission system is increased to
be more effective on loads that have a relatively
maintain the load power. This increasing current
high voltage dependency (i.e., α approaches 2
flow will further reduce the transmission system
and β is considerably higher). In cases where
voltage, making the voltage collapse more
the steady state value of β is high (such as the
severe.
value of 4 as seen in Figure II-5), the reduction of
reactive power demand due to reduced
In some cases, tap changers can also have a
distribution voltage will be very significant in
beneficial effect. Consider for instance, a case
helping keep transmission voltages up.
where a transformer is supplying predominantly
motor load with power factor correction
Local blocking schemes are implemented using
capacitors. The LTC keeps the supply voltage
voltage relays and timers to sense the voltage
high and hence does not affect the real power
level on the high voltage bus at the substation.
consumption (which is relatively independent of
The setpoint voltage is usually chosen to be a
voltage), and also maximizes the reactive support
level that is less than that which occurs during
from the power factor correction capacitors. Due
maximum acceptable overload conditions.
28
Final version, December, 1996
Blocking is initiated if the abnormal undervoltage transformer must be accurately estimated so that
condition exists longer than a predetermined the voltage calculation will be accurate. This
time. The time period may vary from 1 to several information can be derived via several methods
seconds. The LTC is unblocked when the and must be then utilized by the measuring relay.
voltage has recovered to an acceptable level for The transformer load current, series reactance,
a predetermined period of time, typically 5 and series resistance are also required to
seconds. Since the blocking action will be estimate the voltage drop due to load current. If
removed if the voltage recovers, usually a single load current is near unity power factor, the series
phase-phase voltage measurement is adequate resistance of the transformer will be the most
for this scheme. important factor in its impedance. If there is
significant reactive power flow through the
A coordinated blocking scheme can be utilized to transformer, the voltage drop across the series
block operation of LTC’s in an area where reactance will also be important. By combining
voltage instability is imminent. The coordinated the effects of the variable tap position of the
scheme can be accomplished with undervoltage transformer and the voltage drop caused by load
schemes acting independently (as described current, a reasonably accurate estimation of the
above) in a coordinated fashion at various high voltage level can be made.
stations within a region, or it can be a centralized
scheme that recognizes a pattern of low voltages C. Distribution Voltage Reduction
at key locations. In a centralized scheme, the Many utilities have implemented systems to
LTC blocking can be implemented in substations reduce distribution voltages during peak load
throughout the affected region, even if the voltage periods. The reduction in voltage is used to
at all locations is not yet below a specific reduce the system peak demand. In a similar
threshold. The key to operation of a centralized fashion the voltage reduction concept can be
system is the reliability of the communications used during periods where voltage stability
system. The data needed for decision making margins are insufficient.
must be collected at the central location for
analysis. Control decisions must then be sent to An example of voltage reductions for peak
each affected transformer location. shaving follows:
The effectiveness of an LTC blocking scheme at Voltage reductions represent an operating tool
the transmission level will largely depend on that may be included in load management
whether distribution transformers are LTC-type. programs. The Pennsylvania-New Jersey-
If the distribution transformers are LTC-type, Maryland Interconnection (PJM) utilizes 3%
additional measures are required to prevent their
and 5% voltage reductions to aid in curtailing
action from negating the effect of the LTC
peak load when required to provide sufficient
blocking scheme at the transmission level.
reserves to maintain tie flow schedules and
The blocking schemes described above require preserve limited energy sources. Voltage
an accurate measurement of the high voltage reductions are initiated for both capacity
level at each substation. When high side shortages and when reactive limits are
potential devices exist at the substation, this reached or exceeded. Experience has
voltage measurement can be made directly. In indicated that implementing a 5% voltage
substations that do not have potential devices on reduction on the PJM system will result in an
the high voltage, an estimation of the high voltage initial load reduction of approximately 2%.
level can be made from a voltage measurement
made on the low voltage side of the LTC The mechanics for implementing voltage
transformer. In order for this estimate to be reductions varies among the PJM member
accurate, several data items must be considered
companies since voltage control methods and
in the estimation. The tap position of the
29
Final version, December, 1996
facilities differ. In general, if load tap changing eliminating the delay typically present in the
facilities are available at distribution automatic control. In transformers, with static or
substations, tap changes or voltage schedule digital controls, voltage reduction inputs are
changes are initiated remotely by supervisory available that provide equivalent operation without
or radio control. If remote control facilities do the necessity of adding the fooler circuit. In
not exist, such action must be taken manually either case, the voltage reduction schemes
typically have one to three discrete steps
at the station. Some companies utilize load
available to the user. Typically steps of 2.5%,5%,
tap changing facilities at the subtransmission
and 7.5% of voltage reduction can be selected by
level rather than at the distribution level. In the system operator or SCADA system.
such cases, the subtransmission voltage is
reduced in order to lower the underlying During a period of potential voltage instability the
distribution voltages. In cases where voltage reduction scheme could be utilized to
automatic load tap changing is employed, reduce the system voltage to its minimum level so
control systems are used in which the tap as to reduce the load as much as possible. This
changer controller is fooled into thinking that step could be instituted prior to any load shedding
the controlled voltage is 3% or 5% high. The and could reduce the need for load shedding and
controller action subsequently automatically the corresponding load disruption. The voltage
provides the action to implement the desired reduction scheme could be implemented using a
voltage reduction. distributed or by a centralized measuring system
similar to the systems described above.
Voltage reductions during reactive D. Comparison of Voltage Reduction and
emergencies can provide the additional Blocking Schemes
benefit of increasing the connected reactive
These schemes are similar to each other in trying
support by forcing on capacitors which may to minimize the chance of complete
have not been switched into service by their disconnection of some customers by providing
associated voltage controllers. Localized slightly reduced voltage to most customers. Their
problems may occur during voltage effectiveness are both similarly dependent of
reductions due to the existence of voltage load characteristics and the time frame of voltage
sensitive customers in an area. In such decay.
cases, member companies are given the
flexibility to deviate from the voltage reduction The load characteristics are important in
directive in the specific problem areas. determining the amount of load relief that may be
expected for a given voltage depression. For
Voltage reduction schemes involve changing the loads that are predominantly motor loads, the real
setpoint of the systems distribution transformer power loss is minimal for a small voltage
LTC controls so that a lower distribution voltage depression. Thus load mix (ratio of residential,
is achieved. Several types of systems have commercial and industrial loads) is important as
been developed to implement voltage reduction. well as seasonal characteristics (air conditioning
Voltage fooler circuits are used to increase the loads for summer peaks). The time frame is
sensing voltage input to the LTC control relays. important because LTCs are effectively blocked
These circuits typically consist of a step-up in the transient time frame. As shown in Figure II-
transformer, with one or more taps, in series with 4, LTCs do not start to move until after the
the potential input to the control. Using SCADA transient time frame.
contacts the LTC control is fed a voltage that is
higher than the actual voltage, causing the control The voltage reduction scheme has an advantage
to act to lower the voltage. In some cases the over the blocking scheme in that the quality of
controls preset time delay is bypassed, power supplied to customers remains defined by
30
Final version, December, 1996
the new (reduced) set point. It has a potential Use appropriate diagnostic techniques to
disadvantage however, of providing less load provide early warning of the onset of voltage
relief than the blocking scheme which allows stability problems. Since voltage collapse is a
distribution supply voltages to drift down to wide area problem, these techniques often need
whatever levels the transmission voltage goes to. communications assistance. The
communications are not necessarily high speed,
A major point of concern in application of the but must be reliable. The techniques involve
blocking scheme using local voltage detectors is measurement of relevant factors such as voltage
that the LTC may have already moved to near it’s magnitude, status and output of sources of
full boost position by the time the primary voltage reactive power, rate of change of reactive power
has reduced to a level below the normal generation with respect to load, and magnitudes
maximum. Thus blocking the LTC may be too of real and reactive power flows.
late. Use of a centralized decision which could
be taken at an earlier time (since more Provide temporary reactive support until
information may be available to determine the operator action can stabilize system. This may
possible onset of collapse), may allow blocking require taking advantage of temporary overload
the LTC when it is in a near normal position. This capabilities of generators and synchronous
concern is not as important in a voltage reduction condensers in the affected area. To ensure full
scheme which retains control of the LTC. capability of all sources are available, they should
be operated from time to time at maximum and
With both schemes, the characteristics of the minimum reactive outputs to ensure all protective
distribution system is important. To minimize devices coordinate properly with control devices.
unacceptable power quality to some customers,
the voltage profile along the distribution feeder Provide permanent reactive support. Since it
should be fairly flat. If the profile is too steep, it is deficiency of reactive power sources that
will not be possible to reduce voltage levels at causes voltage to drop, provision of these
customers near the substation without reducing sources are an effective means of maintaining
voltage levels at distant customers to voltages. Switched capacitors are a popular
unacceptable levels. means of providing such support, but care must
be taken to avoid depending entirely on fixed
VIII. Conclusion support such as is provided by capacitors. Fixed
sources do not provide the control of system
A. The fundamental principles of voltage which is critical in near collapse
mitigation actions situations.
Anticipate the problem by using load flow and
stability studies to identify system conditions that Provide an appropriate mix of static and
may lead to voltage instability. Conditions that dynamic sources of reactive support.
lead to voltage collapse may be caused or Although dynamic sources of reactive power are
aggravated by heavy power transfer between much more expensive than fixed sources, they
regions; so coordination among the affected do have the advantage of being able to control
regions is essential to develop the appropriate voltages. Some relatively economical means of
mitigative action. Results of these studies can be providing dynamic support include use of LDC so
used to develop special operating procedures to that generators regulate voltages some distance
minimize the probability of collapse. Where from their terminals. Conversion of uneconomic
studies show that operating procedures alone are generators to synchronous condensers, and fast
not sufficient to ensure voltage stability, special switching of capacitors are sometimes options
control and protection schemes can be applied to for increasing the availability of sources of
mitigate the conditions leading to collapse. dynamic reactive support. Where possible,
dynamic sources of reactive power may be
31
Final version, December, 1996
32
Final version, December, 1996
33
Final version, December, 1996
20 C. W. Taylor, “Concepts of
Undervoltage Load Shedding for Voltage
Stability,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol. 7, No. 2, p.p. 480-488, April
1992.
34