Environ Monit Assess
DOI 10.1007/s10661-010-1348-0
Fluoride contamination in groundwater in parts
of Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India
K. Brindha · R. Rajesh · R. Murugan · L. Elango
Received: 4 February 2009 / Accepted: 18 January 2010
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
Abstract Serious problems are faced in several
parts of the world due to the presence of high
concentration of fluoride in drinking water which
causes dental and skeletal fluorosis to humans.
Nalgonda district in Andhra Pradesh, India is one
such region where high concentration of fluoride
is present in groundwater. Since there are no ma-
jor studies in the recent past, the present study
was carried out to understand the present status
of groundwater quality in Nalgonda and also to
assess the possible causes for high concentration
of fluoride in groundwater. Samples from 45 wells
were collected once every 2 months and analyzed
for fluoride concentration using an ion chromato-
graph. The fluoride concentration in groundwater
of this region ranged from 0.1 to 8.8 mg/l with
a mean of 1.3 mg/l. About 52% of the samples
collected were suitable for human consumption.
However, 18% of the samples were having less
than the required limit of 0.6 mg/l, and 30%
of the samples possessed high concentration of
fluoride, i.e., above 1.5 mg/l. Weathering of rocks
and evaporation of groundwater are responsible
for high fluoride concentration in groundwater of
K. Brindha · R. Rajesh · R. Murugan · L. Elango (B)
Department of Geology, Anna University,
Chennai 600025, India
e-mail: elango@annauniv.edu
this area apart from anthropogenic activities in-
cluding irrigation which accelerates weathering of
rocks.
Keywords Fluoride · Groundwater · Nalgonda ·
Andhra Pradesh
Introduction
Groundwater is the major source of freshwater
on the earth. Groundwater containing dissolved
ions beyond the permissible limit is harmful and
not suitable for domestic use. Fluoride beyond
desirable amounts (0.6 to 1.5 mg/l) in ground-
water is a major problem in many parts of the
world. Around 200 million people from 25 na-
tions have health risks because of high fluoride in
groundwater (Ayoob and Gupta 2006). In India
too, there has been an increase in incidence of
dental and skeletal fluorosis with about 62 million
people at risk (Andezhath et al. 1999) due to high
fluoride concentration in drinking water. Dental
fluorosis is endemic in 14 states and 150,000 vil-
lages in India with the problem most pronounced
in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
and Uttar Pradesh (Pillai and Stanley 2002).
Fluoride in groundwater has been studied in
Guntur district (Subba Rao 2003), Varaha River

Basin (Subba Rao 2008), Ranga Reddy district
(Vijaya Kumar et al. 1991), and Nalgonda dis-
trict (Ramamohana Rao et al. 1993) of Andhra
Pradesh, India. Earlier studies in Nalgonda district
(Ramamohana Rao et al. 1993) have indicated
elevated concentration of fluoride up to 20 mg/l.
After the year 1993, there are no major studies
on fluoride in groundwater of Nalgonda district.
Considering this factor and keeping an account
of the importance of public health, this study
was designed to understand the present status of
fluoride in groundwater of a part of Nalgonda
district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Thus, this inves-
tigation was carried out with the aim of assessing
fluoride concentration in groundwater as a part of
Nalgonda district and to understand the reasons
for its spatial and temporal variation.
Fig. 1 Location of the study area
Environ Monit Assess
Materials and methods
Study area
The study area forms a part of Nalgonda district,
Andhra Pradesh, which is located at a distance of
135 km ESE of Hyderabad (Fig. 1). The south-
eastern side of the study area is surrounded by
the Nagarjuna sagar reservoir and the southern
side of the area is bounded by Pedda Vagu River.
The northern boundary is partially along a wa-
ter divide. This area experiences arid to semiarid
climate. The study area goes through hot climate
during the summer (March–May) with a temper-
ature range from 30◦ C to 46.5◦ C, and in winter
(November–January), it varies between 16◦ C and
29◦ C. The average annual rainfall in this area is
Environ Monit Assess

about 1,000 mm, occurring mostly during south-
west monsoon (June–September). The highest el-
evation in the study area is 348.1 m, and the lowest
elevation is 169.5 m (Fig. 2). The drainage pattern
is dentritic to subdentritic in this area (Fig. 3).
The litho units of this formation are dipping at
an angle ranging from 3◦ to 5◦ towards SE. The
generalized stratigraphic sequence of this area is
given below (after GSI 1995).

Geology
Cuddapah super group Massive quartzite
The basement granitic/granitic gneisses of late Srisailam formation Upper shale
Archaen are exposed in most part of this area Quartzite with shale
(Fig. 4). They are generally medium to coarse intercalation
grained. These rocks are traversed by numerous Lower shale with
dolerite dykes and quartz veins. The Srisailam limestone intercalation
formation, the youngest member of the Cuddapah Pebbly and gritty
super group, directly overly this basement gran- quartzite/arenite
ite with a distinct unconformity. This Srisailam
- - - - - - - - - -Eparchean unconformity- - - - - - - - -
formation is exposed in the southeastern part of
the study area. The meta sediments of Srisailam Late archean/lower Granite/granitic gneiss
formation include pebbly-gritty quartzite, shale, proterozoic with intrusion of
dolomitic limestone, intercalated sequence of dolorite dykes and
shale-quartzite and massive quartzites (Fig. 4). quartz veins

Fig. 2 Topography of the study area

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Fig. 3 Drainage map of the study area

Fig. 4 Geology of the study area (GSI 1995)

Environ Monit Assess

Fig. 5 Location of sampling wells in the study area

Sampling and instrumentation
Groundwater samples were collected during the
months of March, May, July, and September 2008
from 45 sampling wells selected on the basis
of well inventory survey (Fig. 5). Totally, 167
groundwater samples were collected during this
study. The depth of the wells varied from 1.45
to about 20 m below ground level. Groundwater
level in the wells was recorded using a water
level recorder, and pH of groundwater samples
was measured in the field using a portable pH
meter. Water samples were collected in clean
polyethylene bottles of 600-ml capacity. The sam-
pling bottles were soaked in 1:1 diluted HCl so-
lution for 24 h, washed with distilled water, and
were washed again prior to each sampling with
the filtrates of the sample. In the case of bore
wells, water samples were collected after pump-
ing the water for 10 min. In the case of open
wells, water samples were collected 30 cm below
the water level using a depth sampler. Samples
collected were transported to the laboratory and
filtered using 0.45-μm Millipore filter paper. The
fluoride concentration of groundwater samples
was determined using Metrohm 861 advanced
compact ion chromatograph using appropriate
standards.

Table 1 Summary of Parameter Minimum Maximum Mean Range SD

statistical values
Groundwater 0 12 3.9 12 2.6
level (bgl in m)
pH 6.3 9.3 7.5 3.0 0.5
F (mg/l) 0.1 8.8 1.3 8.7 1.0
 Environ Monit Assess

Table 2 Percentage of samples in different ranges of fluoride content

Month Less than the Permissible range Greater than permissible range
permissible range
Low (0.1–0.6 mg/l) Medium (0.6–1.5 mg/l) High (1.5–3.0 mg/l) Very high (>3.0 mg/l)
March 26 55 19 0
May 5 62 28 5
July 18 50 32 0
September 22 43 33 2
Average 18 52 28 2

Results and discussion (BIS 1992). Thus, if the concentration of fluoride

The minimum, maximum, mean, and other sta-
tistical parameters of groundwater level, pH, and
fluoride concentration measured during this study
is given in Table 1. The fluoride concentration in
groundwater of this area varied between 0.1 and
8.8 mg/l. The desirable range of fluoride concen-
tration in drinking water is from 0.6 to 1.2 mg/l
according to the Indian standard specifications
is below 0.6 and above 1.2 mg/l, the water is
not suitable for drinking purposes. However, it is
suggested that the maximum limit can be ex-
tended up to 1.5 mg/l (BIS 1992). Based on the
concentration of fluoride, the groundwater sam-
ples obtained from the study area have been clas-
sified into four groups as low (0.1 to 0.6 mg/l),
medium (0.6 to 1.5 mg/l), high (1.5 to 3 mg/l), and
very high (>3 mg/l; Table 2). Figure 6 shows the

Fig. 6 Average groundwater concentration of fluoride (mg/l) during this study

Environ Monit Assess

Fig. 7 Spatial variation of water level (msl in m) and fluoride concentration in groundwater (mg/l) in March 2008

average concentration of fluoride in groundwater
present in different sampling locations. In all the
4 months of sampling, 51% of the samples were
within the range and thus fit for drinking purpose.
Of the rest of the groundwater samples, 19% of
the samples had fluoride below 0.6 mg/l; hence, it
is unfit for drinking purpose. Two samples from
May 2008 and one sample from September 2008
had very high concentration of fluoride, i.e., above
3 mg/l. Thus, on the whole, 30% of samples of
groundwater had more than 1.5 mg/l of fluoride.
It was found that the concentration of fluoride in

49% of the total 167 groundwater samples did not
fall within the desirable range of 0.6 to 1.5 mg/l of
fluoride.
The spatial variation in groundwater level and
fluoride concentration in groundwater of this area
is shown in Fig. 7. In general, it is found that the
fluoride concentration in groundwater increases
along the groundwater flow direction. That is, the
groundwater flow from west to southeastern side
of the study area and the fluoride concentration
increases along this direction.
Probable sources of fluoride
Weathering of rocks
Apatite [Ca5 (PO4 )3 (F, Cl, OH)] and fluorite
[CaF2 ] minerals are the common sources of
fluoride. Many granitic rocks have elevated
fluoride concentration (Murthy and Murthy 1974;
Natarajan and Murthy 1974; World Health Or-
ganization 1970). Granites/gneisses are the ma-
jor type of rocks that occur in the study area
which has the presence of fluoride containing
minerals such as fluorite (0–3.3%), biotite (0.1–
1.7%), and hornblende (0.1–1.1%) (Ramamohana
Rao et al. 1993). The world average of fluoride
concentration in granitic rocks was found to be
810 mg/l (Wedepohl 1969), while fluoride content
of granitic rocks from Nalgonda was found to be
in the range of 325 to 3,200 mg/l, with a mean
of 1,440 mg/l (Ramamohana Rao et al. 1993).
Thus, the granitic rocks of Nalgonda possess the
highest fluoride content than in any other parts of
the world. Hence, the major reason for elevated
Fig. 8 Plot of fluoride
(mg/l) versus pH
Environ Monit Assess
groundwater fluoride concentration in this area
must be due to weathering of rocks and rock–
water interaction.
The pH of groundwater of this area varied
from 6.3 to 9.3 with a mean of 7.5. The pH
of groundwater shows slight increase with in-
crease in fluoride concentration (Fig. 8). This
indicates that the fluoride content of ground-
water will vary due to the changes in alkalin-
ity, i.e., carbonate and bicarbonate content. Also,
the fluoride content of groundwater has an in-
verse relationship with calcium and magnesium
content. This means that as the sum of carbon-
ate and bicarbonate content of the groundwa-
ter samples divided by the sum of calcium and
magnesium content increases as the fluoride con-
centration in the groundwater sample increases.
To demonstrate this, the groundwater samples
were differentiated into samples with fluoride
concentration above 1 mg/l and those below
1 mg/l. Groundwater samples having fluoride
above 1 mg/l and below 1 mg/l were plotted
against the sum of carbonate and bicarbonate
divided by the amount of calcium and magne-
sium ions in groundwater. It was found that as
this range increases, the number of samples hav-
ing fluoride concentration above 1 mg/l increases
(Fig. 9). At a lower range, i.e., below 2, the
number of samples having fluoride concentration
below 1 mg/l was high (n = 32) when compared
to the number of samples having fluoride concen-
tration above 1 mg/l (n = 30). But, as this range
increases and reaches greater than 5.1, it could be
seen that the number of samples with fluoride con-
centration above 1 mg/l was significantly higher
Environ Monit Assess
Fig. 9 [HCO3 + CO3 ]/
[Ca + Mg] vs Fluoride
(n = 15) than the number of samples with fluoride
below 1 mg/l (n = 7). This clearly shows that
the concentration of fluoride in groundwater in-
creases as the carbonate and bicarbonate content
of water increases, and it decreases along with in-
crease in calcium and magnesium content. Such an
observation was also made by Ramamohana Rao
et al. (1993). Overall, high pH, high carbonate plus
bicarbonate, and low calcium plus magnesium in
groundwater leads to leaching of fluoride which
results in increase in the concentration of fluoride
in groundwater.
Fig. 10 Groundwater fluctuation and variation in fluoride
concentration in wells with shallow (0 to 4.5 m bgl) water
table
Groundwater level f luctuation and f luoride
concentration
Fluoride concentration in groundwater varies with
the groundwater level fluctuation. Two distinct
types of relationship between the groundwater
level and fluoride concentration were observed.
In wells where the water table occurs at shallow
depths, that is from 0 to 4.5 m below ground
level, the fluoride concentration was high when
the water level was low and the fluoride concen-
tration decreases with the rise in water table (case
I; Fig. 10). Relative high fluoride concentration
Fig. 11 Groundwater fluctuation and variation in fluoride
concentration in wells with deep (4.5 to 8 m bgl) water table

Fig. 12 Conceptual
model showing
groundwater
fluctuation and
fluoride concentration
during the lowering of water table is because of
possible direct evaporation of groundwater from
the wells. The fluoride concentration was low
when the water level rises due to dilution by fresh
rainwater recharge.
In case of wells where the water level occurs
at depths beyond 4.5 m below ground level, the
fluoride concentration varies similar to water level
fluctuation (case II; Fig. 11). That is, the concen-
tration of fluoride measured in groundwater after
the monsoonal rains (July and September) were
higher than the preceding months (March and
May). Evaporation/evapotranspiration results in
precipitation of salts on the top layers of the soil.
During subsequent rains, these fluoride-rich salts
in the soil get leached from the soil along with
the percolating rain water, and it gets mixed with
the groundwater. That is, the infiltrating rainfall
recharge flushes the fluoride salts in the unsatu-
Fig. 13 Average fluoride
concentration (mg/l) in
irrigation and domestic
wells
Environ Monit Assess
rated zone which results in increase of fluoride in
groundwater along with the raise in water table.
Conceptual model of these two cases is shown in
Fig. 12.
Anthropogenic activities
Anthropogenic activities like the application of
fertilizers and industrial activities like brick
kilning may be some of the other factors respon-
sible for elevated fluoride concentration. In the
study area, irrigation is largely practiced, and this
is the major activity that contributes to the source
of living for the people. Irrigation increases the
sodicity of the soil. Also, the fertilizers used for
irrigation purpose are expected to contribute for
high fluoride concentration in the aquifers. It is
as well possible that long-term continuous irriga-
tion practice could affect the fluoride content of
Environ Monit Assess

groundwater. Brick kilning, which is yet another at suitable places, which will result in reduction
factor responsible for increase in fluoride concen- of fluoride in groundwater. Further, recharge of
tration, was found to be practiced in the study rainwater after filtration through the existing wells
area. Coal, which is used by brick kiln industries, can also be planned to improve the groundwater
is a potential source of fluoride, and further, clay quality of this region.
too, used for making bricks, contains several hun-
dreds of milligrams per liter of fluoride (Jha et al.
2008). But, their contribution may be in negligible
Conclusion
amounts only, as these activities are not practiced
on a large scale over the entire study area when
The present status of groundwater in parts of
compared to contribution by weathering of rocks.
Nalgonda was assessed in this study. High con-
The concentration of fluoride in groundwater
centration of fluoride in groundwater of up to
samples taken from wells in agricultural fields and
8.8 mg/l was measured. About 30% of wells had
domestic wells did not show much difference. This
fluoride concentration above the permissible limit
depicts that the contribution by fertilizers used in
of 1.5 mg/l set by Indian drinking water standard.
agriculture did not play a major role in increasing
Moreover, it is also important to note that 18% of
the fluoride concentration in significant amounts
groundwater samples were below the prescribed
in groundwater. Figure 13 shows that the wells
concentration (0.6 mg/l). Thus, out of 167 ground-
in agricultural fields and domestic areas possess
water samples analyzed during the study, 48% of
fluoride concentration in similar range and do not
them had fluoride either above or below the per-
vary much.
missible limit. The use of groundwater for drink-
ing purpose from these wells has to be restricted.
Groundwater management
The rocks of this area possess fluoride content
higher than the world average. Weathering of
Sustainable management of groundwater in this
rocks and leaching of fluoride bearing minerals
area poses many challenges besides improper
are the major reasons which contribute to ele-
solid waste disposal, uncontrolled use of fertil-
vated concentration of fluoride in groundwater.
izers and pesticides, and lack of awareness of
The other important natural phenomenon that
the public. Improving the groundwater quality in
contributes to high fluoride is evaporation. Suit-
Nalgonda region can be done by identifying wells
able measures such as defluorinating the ground-
with high fluoride concentration, avoiding con-
water before use and recharging the groundwater
sumption of water from those wells, reducing the
by rainwater harvesting need to be practiced to
use of chemical fertilizers for agriculture, adopting
improve the groundwater quality in this area.
organic farming, and reducing evaporation by in-
creasing vegetation cover and spreading environ-
Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Board
mental awareness among the public by organizing of Research in Nuclear Sciences, Department of Atomic
campaigns. Defluorination of groundwater before Energy, Government of India for the financial support.
using it for consumption is essential. In Nalgonda The analytical facilities created using DST-FIST and UGC-
technique, which is used for defluorination, the SAP grants are also acknowledged.
chemicals such as alum and lime should be used in
the right proportion, failing which technique may
prove ineffective. Also, the generation of residual References
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