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Abstract — In the last thirty years, ongoing and A very rough figure can be drawn in saying that the
fast developments of numerical techniques for development of numerical methods for electrical
the particular questions concerning electrical machines started with the finite difference method
machinery can be noticed. This development can which quickly was followed and further overtaken
be seen in parallel with the efforts and success of from the finite element method.
the soft- and hardware computer industry in With the first numerical models of electrical
producing powerful tools. Computers as well as machines, in the 70s, electromagnetic fields
the commercial software are now ready to be considering imposed current sources could be
applied to solve realistic numerical models of simulated by applying first order triangular
technical relevance. Of course, there are enough elements [1]. Further developments of the finite
complicated problems and questions, which are element method lead via the definition of external
not yet answered to a satisfactory extend. circuits to problem formulations with imposed
This paper is intended to focus on special voltage sources, which where more accurate
problems concerned to better solution of models with respect to the realistic machine that is
electrical machine design and simulation operated by a voltage. Today’s developments are
questions. Particular attention is given to the directed to all aspects of coupled fields. There are
topics of material modeling, winding and coil the thermal/magnetic problems or structure
models and to the dynamic simulation of dynamic field problems coupled to the
electrical machinery. electromagnetic field; e.g. acoustic noise in
Today, efficient numerical solutions can be transformers and rotating machines excited by
obtained for a wide range of problems beyond electromagnetic forces.
the scope of analytical methods. In particular Parallel with the developments of the finite element
the limitations imposed by the analytical method first attempts to numerically optimise the
methods, their restrictions to homogeneous, finite element models where made. Optimisations
linear and steady state problems can be of realistic machine models where first performed
overcome using numerical methods. in the late 80s and early 90s. Various deterministic
and heuristic methods have been applied and can be
INTRODUCTION found in the conference proceedings e.g.
COMPUMAG and CEFC of that time.
At the time, when not too many computers where Research groups at universities have code available
available yet, the design of electrical machines was that goes further in modeling. For example, it can
performed in the classical way, by using one- consider external electrical circuits with power
dimensional models. Particular electro magnetic electronic components operating the machine
parts of the machine are considered to form a model. Such models are consuming a lot of
homogenous element in a magnetic circuit computational time. However, research directed to
approach. In this approach the knowledge of accelerate the numerical solvers is going on as well.
particular “design” factors is assumed. Such models Extensions of the overall machine models can be
enabled the calculation of specific stationary made by applying more realistic material models.
working points of the machine. Laplace Hystersis effects and material anisotropy are still a
transformations applied to such models made it lack in many software packages. Special winding
possible to analyze the machine for the dynamic models allow to reduce the size of a numerical
operation. The refinements of the 1D models yield model significantly and therefore the computation
the technique of magnetic equivalent circuit time as well. To avoid long lasting transient
models. simulations single-phase machines can be modelled
by a time-harmonic approach by modelling separate
rotor models for the rotary fields in reverse D, B , H, and J and the space charge density ρ are
respectively rotation direction of the rotor. in general functions of time and space. The
However, with all developments of numerical conducting current density can be distinguished by
techniques around the electrical machine analysis, a material/field dependent part J c and by an
it must be noticed that the classical approach can impressed and given value J0 . It is assumed that
not be replaced by the numerical models. Enormous the physical properties of the material’s permitivity
expertise and knowledge to model the various ε, permeability µ and conductivity σ are
electromagnetic effects appropriate and accurately independent of the time. Furthermore it is assumed
is still required. The modeling/solving/post- that those quantities are piecewise homogenous.
processing of numerical motor models still requires The Maxwell equations represent the physical
substantial engineering time and can not replace the properties of the fields. To solve them, mainly the
quick and correct answer of an exercised motor differential form of the equations and mathematical
design engineer. Both experts, probably in one functions, the potentials, satisfying the Maxwell
person, numerical modeling and electromagnetic equations, are used. The proper choice of a
motor design engineer, are required for successful potential depends on the type of field problem.
and novel developments in this engineering The electric vector potential for the displacement
discipline. current density will not be introduced here, because
it is only important for the calculation of fields in
FINITE ELEMENT MODELS charge-free and current-free regions such as hollow
wave-guides or in surrounding fields of antennas.
It all starts with Maxwell’s equations (Table I). Various potential formulations are possible for the
Every electromagnetic phenomenon can be different field types. Their appropriate definition
attributed to the seven basic equations, the four ensures the accurate transition of the field problem
Maxwell equations of the electrodynamic and between continuous and discrete space. Using these
those equations of the materials. The latter can be artificial field quantities reduces the number of
isotropic or an-isotropic, linear or non-linear, differential equations. Considering a problem
homogenous or non-homogenous. described by n differential equations, a potential is
chosen in such a way that one of the differential
Table I. Maxwell’s equations. equations is fulfilled. This potential is substituted in
all other differential equations, the resulting system
differential form integral form of differential equations reduces to n-1 equations.
(i) ∂B dφ
∇×E= −
∂t ∫ E ⋅ dr = − dt
C
Flux
∇ ×H = J
∫ H ⋅ dr = I
(ii) Coil
C
∇⋅ B = 0
∫ B ⋅ dS = 0
(iii)
Movement
S
∇⋅ D = ρ
∫ D ⋅ dS = Q
(iv)
S
(v) B = µH
(vi) D = εE
(vii) J = J 0 + J c = J 0 + σE
100 Steel
Ferrit
0
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080
Year
Fig. 3. Development of permanent magnet material.
10 (source: VACUUMSCHMELZE , Germany)
¹
5
Net force (in N)
0
¶
-5
·
¸
-10
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Position (in # pole pitches)
∇ ×T = J , (1)
∂ ∂T z V
− ρ + jωµT z = − jωµ m . (2)
∂x ∂x lz
Fig. 5. Three members of the Penny-Motor family: a) HE ρ is the resistivity, µ the permeability, jω is the
type for high torque; b) YL type for low price; c) EC type angular frequency, Vm the magnetomotive force
for electronic commutation. (source: mymotors & and lz the length of the problem in z-direction.
actuators gmbh, Germany) With this model it possible to determine the losses
for single sheets and for multiple layer
A. EDDY CURRENTS IN LAMINATED arrangements of ferromagnetic lamination (Fig.7).
FERRO-MAGNETIC ELECTRIC STEEL For the simulation of multiple layers an FEM
approach with external magnetic circuits for the
High permeable steel laminations are usually used flux in z-direction has to be chosen [3].
for the design of the magnetic core of electrical
machines. This is because of its magnetically good
properties. However, the material is electrically
very good conducting as well. As a consequece
eddy current losses have to be considered in the
model of steel lamination when time varying fields
have to be assumed. To lower the eddy current
losses in AC fields several iron laminates with
coating material on both surfaces are applied. The Rm
coating material is less conductive and less
permeable when compared to the iron. This
prevents excessive eddy current losses but at the
expense of a higher reluctance of the global
magnetic flux path [2] (Fig. 6).
J
Semi-analytical simulations consider the losses in a
(µ1, σ1 ) single laminate and neglect the conductivity and
permeability of the coating material. The model
presented here deals with coating material with a
finite resistivity. As a consequence, the closing path
of the current may cross the coating layers. The
δ lx (µ2 ,σ2 ) eddy current losses are completely different from
the simplified analytical model. As an external
Fig. 6. One sheet of ferromagnetic lamination with condition, the total magnetic flux through the
coated surfaces. model has to equal the applied flux. The magnetic
equivalent circuit represents the parallel connection some fixed directions. The reluctivity ν meas
of all domains in the electrodynamic model, excited [Am/Vs]
by a flux source (Fig.7). H
By using this hybrid modelization technique, the νmeas = meas , (3)
Bmeas
coupled FEM and magnetic equivalent circuit
model, dependencies of the eddy current losses can depends non-linearly on Bmeas. Fig. 9 shows the
be studied with respect to the frequency and the measured reluctivity curves for a conventional
number of iron layers (Fig. 8a, b, c). The results can grain-oriented (CGO) steel, along several directions
be employed to simulate the materials behavior in with respect to the rolling direction [4, 5].
electrical machines for various frequencies. To
consider the complicated shape of e.g. an induction
machine these simulated results have to be
transformed in such a way that they can be used in
<001>
the 2D model of a realistic electrical machine.
RD 54.7 °
<111>
TD
<110>
a) b) 1500
Re 70 40
90
luc 1200 50
tivi 30 20
900 60 80
ty 10 0
[A 600
m/
Vs 300
]
0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
c)
2
Flux density B [Vs/m ]
Fig. 8. Eddy current density distribution for a field at a)
50 Hz, b) at 500 Hz and c) voor comparison, multiple
Fig. 10. Reluctivity curves for grain-oriented steel under
laminations at a frequency of 50 Hz [3].
various angles referencing to the RD.
B. FERROMAGNETIC ANISOTROPY
However, for anisotropic ferromagnetic materials,
the vectors representing the magnetic field and the
Grain-oriented ferromagnetic materials exhibit
flux density are not parallel with each other. It is
anisotropy at both the microscopic and the
impossible to deduce the angle between B and H,
macroscopic level. In order to assess the
by exclusively considering the measured
macroscopic anisotropy of these materials, single
magnetization curves. For ferromagnetic materials
sheet testers are often used. This is done by
measuring the magnetization curve Bmeas (H meas ) of a
having a Goss-texture, like most transformer steels,
the paper demonstrates a way to compute this angle
series of small strips, cut out of a metal sheet under a posteriori, by combining the measurements from
various angles. As single sheet testers can only a single sheet tester with a physical anisotropy
perform unidirectional measurements, these model.
magnetization curves represent a relation between r
The magnetization Ms [A/m] within a domain
the components of the magnetic flux density B [T]
and the magnetic field strength H [A/m] along tends to align with one of the easy axes of the
crystal. Each deviation from this equilibrium state
corresponds to an increase of energy, which is due field, an expression for the amplitude of M is
to the intrinsic anisotropy of the crystal. For cubic obtained:
crystals, the anisotropy energy Ea [J/m3 ] is given b:
M = (Bmeas / µ0 − H ) / cos(α − θ) . (7)
Ea = K 0 + K 1 (γ12γ 22 + γ 22γ 32 + γ 32γ12 ) + K 2 (γ12γ 22γ32 ) (4)
r
with γ1 ,γ2 and γ3 the direction cosines of Ms in the
RD
crystallographic coordinate system [4]. K0 is an
arbitrary constant. K1 and K2 are the anisotropy M B / µ0
constants. In case of a cubic iron crystal, these are ß
?
K1 = 0.48⋅105 J/m3 and K2 = 0.05⋅105 J/m3 [5]. On
r a
the other hand, if an external field H is applied,
r H Bmeas / µ0
Ms tends to align with it. The corresponding
energy Eh [J/m3 ] is the so-called field energy
r r
Eh = −µ0 M s ⋅ H . (5) Fig. 11. Definitions within the measurement set-up.
The process of coherent rotation of the domains can Subsequently, the components of B are obtained by
be considered as a competition between the projecting (6) on the RD and the TD:
r
anisotropy energy (2) and the field energy (3): Ms
B / µ0 cos β = H cos α + M cos θ
stabilizes in a direction for which the total energy is , (8)
minimal. B / µ0 sin β = H sin α + M sin θ
For silicon iron having a Goss-texture, (2) and (3) Using the previously presented hybrid approach, it
simplify into is possible to compute the two components of B
and hence the reluctivity tensor. If this symmetrical
sin 2 θ (4 − 3 sin 2 θ )
K1 second order tensor is considered in its principal
Ea = (6)
4 coordinate system, it has zero off-diagonal entries
and [6]. For this application, the RD and the TD are the
Eh = − µ0 M sH cos(α − θ ) (7) principal axes of the tensor, as B and H are parallel
in these directions. As a consequence
r
with α the angle between the field H and the RD,
r H RD νRD 0 BRD
and θ the angle between Ms and the RD. After = , (9)
H TD 0 νTD BTD
evaluating (6) obviously, θ = 54.7 ° corresponds to
a maximum of Ea.
with
Hybrid Model. The hybrid method works in two
steps. The direction of the magnetization M is first νRD = ( H cosα) / (B cos β)
determined for a fixed direction of H, by means of and (10)
the previous discussion. If α < 54.7 °, the minimum νTD = (H sin α) /(B sin β )
of Ea + Eh at low values of θ is determined. Else, the
minimum for high values of θ is determined. The for the specified measurement point with β the
second step consists in extracting the amplitude of angle between B and the RD.
M, knowing its direction, from the single strip tester The hybrid model is analyzed for the data set
measurements (Fig. 11). This is done as follows. plotted in Fig. 12. It can be shown, that for low
The flux density B is related to the applied field H fields H, the flux density vector stays close to the
and the magnetization M by:
RD or the TD, irrespective of the field direction α.
( )
v r r On the other hand, for very higher fields (> 1,7 T),
B = µ0 H + M (8) H and B tend to align. This is in correspondence
The measured and applied field strength are equal. with the theory of magnetization [7,8,9]. Fig. 13
By projecting (8) onto the direction á of the applied reveals how the field behaves, if the flux density
rotates in space with constant amplitude. The result, SIMULATION OF THE TRANSIENT SYSTEM-
for |B| = 1.7 T is plotted in Fig. 14. BEHAVIOR BY STAGED MODELING
α↑
which gives the total flux embraced by one stator
phase as a function of the angular position of the
rotor Θ and the current in that phase I. If the motor
H↑ works in steady state operation, the flux distribution
of one phase is sufficient, as the flux plot for the
other phases are obtained by a simple angle shift. If
the machine works in a non-saturated state, the
dependence on I can be neglected. The flux plot
gathers in one table all the required information
Fig. 13. B and β as a function of H (data set fig. 12). concerning the motor, seen from the inverter.
At high motor-speeds respectively high supply
frequencies, iron core losses may override copper
losses and have therefore to be estimated carefully
over a wide range of frequencies. A difficulty in the
calculation of core losses is that the magnetic flux
density not only varies in time but also varies
B widely in space. Usually one distinguishes hystere-
sis losses, which are proportional to the frequency
H and eddy current losses, which are approximately
proportional to the square of the frequency. One
will therefore assume that core losses can be
expressed by the formula
Vξ = Rξ I ξ + ∂ tφξ , with index ξ = A, B, C (14) The table consists of six sections, which correspond
to the six periods between the switching-on of two
successive phase windings. For instance, let us
in which the flux coupling φξ is given by (11). The
consider the last group of four lines in the table. In
total resistance of the phase is computed the considered period, the phase A has to be
analytically and can be augmented by an extra switched on ( 0 → +1 ) and the phase C has to be
resistance due to the power electronic components. switched off ( + 1 → 0 ), the phase B remains in the
The total phase voltage Vξ is equal to the power same state as before ( − 1 → −1 ). Immediately after
electronic inverter’s dc-link voltage V dc dis tributed sending the switch-on signal to phase A, all three
over the different phases, according to the phases are magnetized by its corresponding
particular topology at each instant of time of the currents. The inverter topologies corresponding
inverter and to the winding connection type, deta with the last two lines of the group of the table are
respectively Y-connection. In this example we used then. In both states, the voltage is positive in
consider a Y-connection and it can be written: the switched-on phase (i.e. phase A), the voltage is
negative in the switched-off phase (i.e. phase C),
Vξ = λ ⋅ Vdc (15) and the voltage is either positive or negative in
phase B, which allows to control the current in that
phase. After a while, the current in phase C reaches
λ is the coefficient, which can be taken from the
zero and the phase ceases to be conducting. From
that instant on, the first two lines of the group are
applied, the first one to let the current decrease
(freewheeling) and the second one to make it
increase in the loop formed by the phases A and B.
Outgoing from the voltage equation (14) the
explicit time-stepping scheme for the phase-
currents can be derived:
Vξ − ω∂ Θφξ − Rξ I ξ ( Θ)
I ξ ( Θ + ∆Θ) = I ξ ( Θ) + ∆Θ
ω∂ I φξ
(16) a)
The given scheme can be applied until the steady
state of the transient behavior, the steady state
wave-shapes of the currents I ξ (Θ) over a period τ
is reached. With this, the electromagnetic torque
can be evaluated:
2π
3 Q ( I , ω)
T (ω,α) =
2π 0 ∫− ∂ Θφ(Θ − α) I ( Θ)d Θ − core
ω
(17)
In a following step the dynamic differential
equation of motion is applied to form the transient
analysis of the overall drive system.
b)
J∂ tω + f (ω) = T (ω, α) , (18)
Fig. 15. Steady state wave-shape form of the phase
where J is the inertia of the rotating part, f (ω ) is current at a speed of a) ω = 1000rad / s with α = 0O
the reaction torque exerted by the load and friction and b) at ω = 2500 rad / s at α = 55O .
forces. When temperature-sensible devices, such as
e.g. permanent magnet excited systems are studied,
at this point of analysis a thermal model has to be
applied as well [10]. With the described modeling
both, transient and steady state behavior of the
drive can be analyzed for e.g. arbitrary values of
the commutation angle α.
However, to conclude this approach of combined
analytical parameter model and numerical finite
element model, building the staged model has
implied assuming particulatr simplifications. On the
other hand the staged model has the big advantage
of providing at a reasonable computational cost a
faithful dynamic and steady state description of an
overall drive system. As the development goes
Fig. 16. Steady state torque of the speed and
along, the staged model is open to gradual
commutation angle α including the field weakening
enrichment and improvements, thanks to further FE range of a permanent magnet excited servo-motor.
investigations aiming at determining its different
parameters or at estimating the influence of the
NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF FINITE
simplifications that have been done.
ELEMENT MODELS
Fig. 16 illustrates some results obtained from a
servo-motor. Flux weakening consists here in
The design process of electromagnetic devices
selecting, at each speed ω , the commutation angle
reflects an optimisation procedure. The
α that maximizes the torque in that point of construction and step by step optimisation of
operation. technical systems in practice is a trial and error-
process. This design procedure may lead to sub- results from a high number of design parameters, a
optimal solutions because its success and effort complicated dependence of the quality on design
strongly depends on the experience of the design parameters and various constraints. Often the direct
engineer. To avoid such individual parameters and relation of the desired quality of the technical
thus to achieve faster design cycles, it is desirable product on the objective variables is unknown.
to simulate the physical behaviour of the system by Stochastic optimisation methods in combination
numerical methods such as the finite element with general numerical field computation
method. In order to get an automated optimal techniques such as the finite element method
design, numerical optimisation is recommended to (FEM) offer the most universal approach in AOD.
achieve a well-defined optimum. Optimisation of To be able to select the appropriate optimisation
electro-magnetic devices turns out to be a task of algorithms to form an overall design tool together
increasing significance in the field of electrical with the numerical field computation, the properties
engineering. The term of Automated Optimal of typical electromagnetic optimisation problems
Design (AOD) describes a self-controlled has to be considered. Electromagnetic design and
numerical process in the design of technical optimisation problems nowadays reflect mainly the
products. Recent developments in numerical following categories:
algorithms and more powerful computers offer the • constrained
opportunity to attack realistic problems of technical • problem type:
importance. parameter- or static optimisation,
In general, the development of numerical f ( x ) → min .
optimization algorithms can be distinguished in
trajectory, or dynamic problem,
their evolution into three generations: f (x&, x) → min .
• First generation: Direct evaluation of a quality
function; end 80s and early 90s. • non-linear objective function
• Second generation: Evaluation of an • design variables:
polynomial approximation of the quality real
function; around 96s. mixed real/integer
• Upcoming third generation: The unknown • multi-objective function
quality function is constructed by using • interdependencies of the quality function and
artificial intelligence, such as Neuro-fuzzy the design variables are unknown; no
models. derivative information available
The two first generations of numerical optimization • the quality function is disturbed by stochastic
algorithms with known objective function can be errors caused by the truncation errors of the
distinguished in deterministic (gradient methods, numerical field computation method.
linear programming) and stochastic approaches In reality electromagnetic optimization problems
(genetic algorithms, evolution strategy, simulated are constrained due to the various reasons
annealing). A prerequisite of the deterministic mentioned. Nowadays optimizations are performed
approach is the availability of derivatives, which is mainly as static problems. Numerical optimizations
for the optimization of FEM models mainly not the require huge amounts of computation time.
case. Their advantages can be seen in its efficient Therefore, the optimization as aimed at here,
iterative search. However, such algorithms can combined with the FEM, of the dynamic system
easily be trapped in a local minimum. with time-derivative x& is not yet commonly
Stochastic search methods do not use derivatives, performed. For transient problems an evaluation of
are robust in identifying the global optimum but the quality function by numerical methods (FEM)
have the disadvantage of very large computational is still too time consuming. Considering mixed
costs. This can be partly overcome by searching the real/integer design variables results in long
optimization space in parallel. computation times as well. The tick boxes in the
A hybrid optimization can be obtained by list, which are not marked, represent future
identifying a global optimum by stochastic methods developments.
which is further evaluated by a deterministic search In general, optimization means to find the best
to extract the global minimum. These combined solution for a problem under the consideration of
algorithms have the advantage of a higher accuracy given constraints and it does not mean to select the
and are more efficient regarding computational best out of a number of given solutions.
expenses. The application of an optimization using evolution
The distinctive feature of an electromagnetic strategy and the FEM is demonstrated here by the
optimisation problem is its complexity, which
optimization of a small dc motor applying the
evolution strategy [11].
The objective is to minimise the overall material
expenditure, determined by permanent magnet-,
copper- and iron volume subject to a given torque
of the example motor.
Tmin −T ( x)
T < Tmin : T ( x )
penalty = 10 (20) Fig. 18. Course of the optimization.
T ≥ Tmin :
1