Escolar Documentos
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170 30
160 25
20
140
15
120 10
dB A/m
dB A/m
5
100 0
−5
80
−10
60 −15
−20
40 0.15 1 10 30
0.03 0.1 1 10 100 MHz
kHz
Figure 4. Radiated emission limits for navigational receivers
Figure 2. Magnetic field strength limits derived from U.S. MIL- according to draft revision IEC 945 (IEC 80/124/FDIS), originally
STD-461D RE101 (Navy only) [7]. These limits are originally giv- given in dB(mV/m), for the purpose of this article converted into
en in dB(pT) (decibels above 1 pT). The measurement procedure dB(mA/m).
requires a 36-turn shielded loop antenna with a diameter of
13.3 cm. Measurement distance is 7 cm for the upper limit and
50 cm for the lower limit. International and national monitoring of radio signals
and the measurement of propagation characteristics re-
quire the measurement of low-level magnetic fields down
derived limits of the electric field strength which are how- to the order of –30 dB(mA/m): see also subsequent discus-
ever not of concern here. sions and Refs. 7–9. For the protection of radio reception,
By using an approach different from the one of the international, regional (e.g., European) and national ra-
safety standards, the Swedish standard MPR II, which diated emission limits and measurement procedures have
has become an international de-facto standard for video- been standardized for industrial, scientific, medical (ISM)
display units (VDUs) without scientific proof, specifies and other equipment [1,2,10–12]. An example is given in
limits of the magnetic flux density in two frequency rang- Fig. 4.
es, which are bounded by filters: a limit of 40 nT Radiated emission limits of fluorescent lamps and
(E0.032 A/m) in the range from 5 Hz to 2 kHz and a lim- luminaires are specified in a dB(mA) using a large-loop-
it of 5 nT (E0.004 A/m) in the range from 2 kHz to antenna system (LAS) [10]. For further information, see
400 kHz. the text below.
On the low-level end there are limits for the protection
of radio reception and electromagnetic compatibility in
some military standards (see Figs. 2 and 3). 4. EQUIPMENT FOR MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS
0
4.2. Magnetic Field Strength Meters with Loop Antennas
−20
Especially for the measurement of radiowave propagation
−40 and radiated electromagnetic disturbance pickup devices,
the antennas become larger and therefore are used sepa-
−60 rately from the indicating instrument (see Fig. 5). The in-
−70
0.01 0.1 1 10 30 strument is a selective voltmeter, a measuring receiver, or
MHz a spectrum analyzer. The sensitivity pattern of a loop an-
tenna can be represented by the surface of two spheres
Figure 3. Narrowband emission limits of the magnetic field (see Figs. 6 and 7). In order to determine the maximum
strength derived from the German military standard VG
field strength, the loop antenna has to be turned into the
95343 Part 22 [8]. This standard gives the limits of H Z0 in
dB(mV/m) of four equipment classes, the emissions have to be
direction of maximum sensitivity.
measured with a loop antenna calibrated in dB(mV/m) in the near To obtain an isotropic field sensor, three loops have to
field of the equipment under test (EUT). Therefore, the limits be combined in such a way that the three orthogonal com-
have been converted into dB(mA/m). The lower limits is Class 1, ponents of the magnetic field Hx, Hy, and Hz are combined
the upper is Class 4. to fulfill the equation
2402 MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT
Table 1. Overview of Different Magnetic Field Sensors, their Underlying Physical Effects, their Applicable Level, and
Frequency Ranges from Ref. 13a
Type Principles of Operation Level of Operation Frequency Range
–6 9
Search coil magnetometer Faraday’s law of induction 10 –10 A/m 1 Hz–1 MHz
Flux gate magnetometer Induction law with hysteresis of mag- 10–4–104 A/m DC–10 kHz
netic material
Optically pumped magne- Zeeman effect: splitting of spectral 10–6–102 A/m DC
tometer lines of atoms
Nuclear precession mag- Response of nuclei of atoms to a mag- 10–5–102 A/m DC (upper frequency limited by
netometer netic field gating frequency of hydrocar-
bon fluid)
SQUID magnetometer Superconducting quantum interfer- 10–8–10–2 A/m; speciality: DC
ence device differential field mea-
surements
Hall effect sensor Hall effect 10–1–105 A/m DC–1 MHz
Magnetoresistive magne- Magnetoresistive effect 10–4–104 A/m DC–1 GHz
tometer
Magnetodiode Semiconductor diode with undopted sil- 10–2–103 A/m DC–1 MHz
icon
Magnetotransistor Hall and Suhl effects 10–3–103 A/m DC–1 MHz
Fiberoptic magnetometer Mach–Zehnder interferometer 10–7–103 A/m DC–60 kHz
Magnetooptical sensor Faraday polarization effect 102–109 A/m DC–1 GHz
a
To facilitate comparison with values given in text, the values from Ref. 13 have been converted from gauss to A/m.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
H av H¼ Hx2 þ Hy2 þ Hz2
Network Measuring
receiver Isotropic performance is, however, only a reality in broad-
X
r I ZL band magnetic field sensors, where each component is de-
Ri
tected with a square-law detector and combined
Ri
subsequently. For the measurement and detection of ra-
dio signals isotropic antennas are not available. Hybrids
may be used for limited frequency ranges to achieve an
Figure 5. Magnetic field strength measuring loop. The network omnidirectional azimuthal (not isotropic) pickup.
may consist of a passive or active circuit.
4.2.1. Antenna Factor Definition. The output voltage V
z of a loop antenna is proportional to the average magnetic
I
field strength H perpendicular to the loop area. If the an-
E −x Hy
tenna output is connected to a measuring receiver or a
P−z spectrum analyzer, the set consisting of antenna and re-
E y
x ceiver forms a selective magnetometer.
P H I
The proportionality constant is the antenna factor KH
for the average magnetic field strength H:
H H
Pz H A 1 1
KH ¼ in ¼ ð1aÞ
E−x Ex Hy V m V O.m
Hn y
Hy
P−z Hy E −x
E H
H P−z z
P
P H E I
Ez I P
P−x H
E Hy y
Pz Hy
Ex Hy E P I x
P
I
Pz H
H E
Figure 6. Cross section of a loop antenna sensitivity pattern. The Ex Hy
arrow length Ha shows the indicated field strength at an angle a
which is a fraction of the original field strength H, with Ha ¼ Figure 7. Direction of the field vectors (H, E and P) under far-
H cos a. field conditions.
MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT 2403
For the average magnetic flux density B the corresponding Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
proportionality constant is 100 2 3 5 101 2 3 5 10 2 2 3 5 103 2 3 5 104 2 3 5 10 5
0
B m0 H PK
KB ¼ ¼ ¼ m0 KH in −1
V V QP −20
ð1bÞ
V.s A 1 V.s 1 T RMS −30
¼ 2 ¼
Hz
.
A mmV m V V AV −40
−50
In the far field, where electric field and magnetic fields −60
are related via the free-space wave impedance Z0, the CISPR band B (150 kHz to 30 MHz) −70
loop antenna can be used to determine the electric
−80
field strength E. For this case the proportionality constant
dB
is
Figure 8. Detector response of a test receiver for impulsive in-
E Z0 H V A 1 1 terference as specified in Ref. 1.
KE ¼ ¼ ¼ Z0 KH in ¼ ð1cÞ
V V AmV m
In the area of radiowave propagation and radio distur- To understand the function of a weighting curve in
bance measurement, quantities are expressed in logarith- measuring receivers, the following interpretation is given.
mic units. Therefore, the proportionality constants are The test receiver has certain elements that determine a
converted into logarithmic values, too: weighting curve (e.g., for the QP detector): the measure-
ment bandwidth, the charge and discharge times of the
1 detector circuit, and the time constant of the meter. When
kH ¼ 20 logðKH Þ in dB ð2aÞ
Om measured with a QP detector, for the frequency range giv-
en in Fig. 8, an impulsive signal with a constant impulse
T strength and a pulse repetition frequency of 100 Hz will
kB ¼ 20 logðKB Þ in dB ð2bÞ
V cause a meter indication 10 dB above that of the indication
when the pulse repetition frequency is 10 Hz. Or, to
1 produce the same indication on the meter as a signal
kE ¼ 20 logðKE Þ in dB ð2cÞ
m with 100 Hz repetition frequency, the level of the 10-Hz
impulsive signal will have to be increased by an amount
By using logarithmic antenna factors, a field strength lev- of 10 dB.
el 20 log(H) is obtained in dB(mA/m) from the measured Earlier manually operated field-strength meters
output voltage level 20 log(V) in dB(mV) by applying the achieved high sensitivity by operating the loop at reso-
equation: 20 log(H) ¼ 20 log(V) þ kH. The final section of nance [14]. The sensitivity was raised by the amount of
this article describes a method calibrate the antenna fac- the Q factor of the resonating circuit. One of the latest
tors of circular loop antennas. models that was used up to the 1980s reached a sensitivity
of 60 dB(mA/m) with a measurement bandwidth of
4.2.2. Concepts of Magnetic Field Strength Meters. The 200 Hz in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 30 MHz
loop antenna of a magnetic field strength meter may be [15].
mounted on the measuring receiver (or used as a separate For automated field strength measurement systems,
unit, connected to the measuring receiver) with a coaxial tuning of the loop circuit could no longer be afforded. A
cable. CISPR 16-1, the basic standard for emission mea- broadband active loop employs an output voltage propor-
surement instrumentation to commercial (i.e., nonmili- tional to the short-circuited loop current, thus achieving a
tary) standards, requires a loop antenna in the frequency flat response of the antenna factor versus frequency [16].
range from 9 kHz to 30 MHz which is completely enclosed A flat response of the system is also achieved using a
by a square having sides 0.6 m in length. For protection current probe that measures the short-circuit current in
against stray pickup of electric fields, loop antennas em- the large-loop antenna system [LAS] described by Berger-
ploy a coaxial shielding structure. For optimum perfor- voet and van Veen [9]. It is essentially a magnetic-field-
mance, the shielding structure may be arranged induced current measurement (see subsequent explana-
symmetrically in two half-circles around a circular loop tions). The highest sensitivity described in the literature
with a slit between the two halves in order to avoid electric for a wideband system was achieved with a specially de-
contact between the two shields. signed active loop. With additional frequency-dependent
For narrowband magnetic field measurements of radio switching of elements [17], sensitivity is even better than
disturbance, measuring receivers employ standardized that of manually operated field strength meters with tun-
bandwidths and weighting detectors in order to produce ing of the loop circuit. Figure 9 shows the amplitude den-
standardized measurement results for all types of pertur- sity of the minimum pffiffiffiffi detectable magnetic field strength
bations including impulsive signals. For comparison with HNeq in dBðmA=m HzÞ equivalent to the internal elec-
the emission limit, usually the quasipeak (QP) detector is tronic noise of the system consisting of antenna and mea-
to be used. suring receiver.
2404 MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT
−20 50
Range 1
Range 3
−40 40
dB
Range 2
−60 30
Range 4
−90 Range 5
20
−100
100 1000 10000 105 106 107 108 10
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 9. Sensitivity per hertz bandwidth of the active loop [16]. 0
0.009 0.1 1 10 30
MHz
5. MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH MEASUREMENT Figure 10. Conversion factors DH for the limit of the magnetic
METHODS field strength from measurement distance 30 m to measurement
distances 10 and 3 m above a conducting ground plane according
5.1. Measurement of Magnetic Fields with Regard to Human to Ref. 23. The upper curve is for 30–3 m; the lower curve is for 30–
10 m distance.
Exposure to High EM Fields
Usually, to measure magnetic fields with regard to human
exposure to high fields, magnetic field strength meters are open-area test sites the ambient noise level makes com-
using broadband detectors and apply an isotropic re- pliance testing almost impossible. This is due to the fact
sponse. Modern concepts of low-frequency electric and that ambient noise itself is near or above the emission
magnetic field strength meters apply fast Fourier trans- limit. Two different approaches were proposed as a solu-
form (FFT) for proper weighting of the total field with re- tion to that problem:
gard to frequency-dependent limits [18,19].
1. To reduce the measurement distance from 30 to 10 m
5.2. Use of Loop Antennas for Radiowave Field Strength or even 3 m. A German group proposed frequency-
Measurements up to 30 MHz dependent conversion factors, justified by calcula-
tions and an extensive amount of measurements.
ITU-R Recommendation PI.845-1 Annex 1 gives guidance The conversion factors are given in Fig. 10. In
to accurate measurement of radio wave field strengths. Fig. 10 the slopes between 1.8 and 16 MHz show
Rod antennas are the preferred receiving antennas since the transition region from near field, where H is in-
they provide omnidirectional azimuthal pickup. The posi- versely proportional with r3 or r2.6, to far field,
tioning of vertical rod antennas is important, however, where H is inversely proportional with r.
since the result is very sensitive to field distortions by ob- 2. To reduce the measurement distance to zero. A
stacles and sensitive to the effects of ground conductivity. Dutch group proposed the large-loop antenna sys-
It is a well-known fact that measurements with loop an- tem mentioned previously [9]. With this method the
tennas are less sensitive to these effects and their calibra- EUT is placed in the center of a loop antenna sys-
tion is not affected by ground conductivity apart from the tem, which consists of three mutually perpendicular
fact that the polarization may deviate from horizontal if large-loop antennas (Fig. 11). The magnetic field
ground conductivity is poor. Therefore, many organiza- emitted by the EUT induces currents in the large-
tions use vertical monopoles for signal measurements but loop antennas. Since there are three orthogonal
standardize results by means of calibration data involving loops, there is no need to rotate either the EUT or
comparisons for selected signals indicated by field the loop antenna system. The current induced in
strength meters incorporating loop-receiving antennas. each loop is measured by means of a current probe,
Accuracy requirements are given in Ref. 20, general in- which is connected to a CISPR measuring receiver.
formation on equipment and methods of radio monitoring Since the current is measured, emission limits are
are given in Ref. 21. given in dB(mA) instead of dB(mA/m). Each loop an-
tenna is constructed of a coaxial cable that contains
5.2.1. Solutions to Problem with Ambients in Commercial two slits, positioned symmetrically with respect to
EMI Standards. CISPR Class B radiated emission limits in the position of the current probe. Each slit is loaded
the frequency range from 9 kHz to 30 MHz have been at by resistors in order to achieve a frequency response
34 dB(mV/m) at a distance of 30 m from the EUT for a long flat to within 72 dB in the frequency range from
time. Moreover, the test setup with EUT and vertical loop 9 kHz to 30 MHz [9,10]. In order to verify and vali-
antenna required turning of both EUT and the loop an- date the function of each large loop, a specially de-
tenna to find the maximum emission. On most of the signed folded dipole has been developed [9,10]. It
MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT 2405
Current
probe Hr
EUT P
E
r H
Io
Coaxial- 0
switch y
Ro
To test
Ferrite
receiver
absorbers x
Figure 12. Field components Hr, Hy, and Ej in P at a distance r
Figure 11. Simplified drawing of a large-loop antenna system from the center of the magnetic dipole in the xy plane.
with position of the EUT.
Turntable 0.3 m
Hm ¼ Hd;r þ Hi;r cos yi Hi;y sin yi
EUT ð8Þ
mH d3 2 2
To receiver ¼ 2 þ ð2 cos y i sin yi Þ
4pd3 d3i
1m
0.8 m
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where di ¼ ð2hÞ2 þ d2 is the distance between the mirror
Metallic ground dipole and the loop antenna.
plane Goedbloed gives a numerical example with mH ¼
4p103 mA . m2 (e.g., 100 mA through a circular loop with a
Figure 13. Basic CISPR setup for magnetic field measurements.
Both EUT and loop antennas have to be turned round until the
diameter of 0.40 m). Using Eq. (8) with d ¼ 3 m and h ¼
maximum indication on the receiver has been found. 1.3 m will give Hm ¼ 38.6 dB(mA/m) with the mirror source
and 37.4 dB(mA/m) without the mirror source, which
The CISPR magnetic field measurement method is il- shows that in this case the reflecting ground plane has
lustrated in Fig. 13, with the test setup on a metallic little influence. The influence of the ground plane is quite
ground plane and the receiving antenna in the vertical different in the case of a vertical dipole moment, specifi-
plane. In Figs. 14 and 15, two different cases of radiating cally, a dipole moment perpendicular to the ground plane
electrically small magnetic dipoles are illustrated; the first as illustrated in Fig. 15. In the case of Fig. 15 the loop
one, with the dipole moment parallel to the ground plane antenna does not receive direct radiation at all, as Hd,r (yd
and the second one, with the dipole moment perpendicular ¼ p/2) ¼ 0 and Hd,y is parallel to the loop antenna. Hence,
to the ground plane. Because of the reflecting ground the received signal is completely determined by the radi-
plane two sources are responsible for the field at the loca- ation coming from the mirror source, which also means
tion of the receiving antenna: the original source and the that the result is determined by the quality of the reflect-
mirror source. The points and crosses drawn in both sourc- ing ground plane. With the reflecting ground place Hm ¼
es show the direction of the current. In Fig. 14, the cur- Hi,r sin yi þ Hi,y cos yi ¼ 27.2 dB(mA/m), whereas without
rents are equally oriented. In this case the loop antenna the reflecting ground plane no field strength will be
detects the radial component Hd,r and the direct tangen- measured. If the loop antenna were positioned horizontal-
tial component Hd,y ¼ 0 since yd ¼ 0. Therefore, direct ra- ly above the ground plane at h ¼ 1.3 m, then Hm ¼
diation will only contribute if fd5112 MHz m [see Hd,y þ Hi,r cos yi Hi,y sin yi ¼ 32.4 dB(mA/m) and Hm ¼
Eq. (7)]. In the case of fdb112 MHz m, the loop antenna 31.4 dB(mA/m) without the reflecting ground plane. Mea-
will receive direct radiation if it is rotated by 901. This may surements in a shielded room would be even less predict-
be observed frequently in practical measurements: at low able, since the result would be determined by mirror
frequencies the maximum radiation is found with loop sources on each side, including the ceiling of the shielded
antenna in parallel to the EUT and at high frequencies room. Absorbers are not very helpful in the low frequency
with the loop antenna oriented perpendicular to the EUT. ranges. From the results, Goedbloed concludes that in or-
In addition to these direct components, the indirect radial der to judge the interference capability of an EUT, the
and tangential components Hi,r and Hi,y are superposi- method proposed by Bergervoet and van Veen [9], is an
tioned in the loop antenna. Assuming near-field conditions efficient method of magnetic field measurements.
it follows from Eqs. (4), that the magnitude of the mag-
d H d,
i H i,r
LA
d H i, H i,r
mH LA i H i,
h mH
H d,r Ground plane (b)
h
Ground plane (b)
mH di
h
h di
(a)
mH
Figure 15. (a) Receiving conditions for a magnetic dipole with a
(a)
vertical dipole moment, and the receiving loop antenna in the
Figure 14. (a) Receiving conditions for a magnetic dipole with a vertical position as specified by the standard; (b) vectors of the
horizontal dipole moment; (b) vectors of the directly and indirectly indirectly radiated H-field components (no reception of direct
radiated H-field components. radiation).
MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT 2407
tanðbpr1 Þ
Iav ¼ I1 ð11Þ H Hn
bpr1
H H av
The fraction of Iav/I1 from Eq. (11) expressed in dB gives
the conditions for determining of the highest frequency f
c2
and the radius of the loop r1. The deviation of this fraction
Ar Br Br' Ar'
is plotted in Fig. 18. Qr T Or Qr'
The current I in Eqs. (9) must be substituted with Iav T'
L2
from Eq. (11). Since Eq. (11) is an approximate expression, b2
it is recommended to keep the radius of the transmitting a2
loop small enough for the highest frequency of calibration r2
to minimize the errors. For the dimensioning of the radius
he
P
1.5
L1
Q B O B' Q'
1 A
c1 A'
dB
0.5
b1
0
a1
−0.5 r1
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
MHz
Figure 19. Filamentary loops of two loops with finite conductor
Figure 18. Deviation of Iav/I1 for a loop radius, 0.1 m as radii and orthogonal streamlines of the electromagnetic vectors,
20 log(Iav/I1) in dB versus frequency. produced from transmitting loop L1.
MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT 2409
b 1 ¼ r1 c1 ð12cÞ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R0 ðjÞ ¼ a21 þ b21 2a1 b1 cosðjÞ ð15cÞ
The radius b2 of the effective receiving circular area of the
receiving loop L2: The real and imaginary parts of Ze are the radiation re-
sistance and the external inductance of loops, respectively:
b 2 ¼ r2 c2 ð12dÞ
tanðbpa1 Þ
ReðZe Þ ¼ m0 oa1 b1
bpa1
Z p ð15dÞ
8.3. Impedance of a Circular Loop sinðbR0 ðjÞÞ
cosðjÞ dj
The impedance of a loop can be defined at chosen termi- 0 R0 ðjÞ
nals Q, D, as Z ¼ V/I1 (Fig. 17). Using Maxwell’s equation
tanðbpa1 Þ
with the Faraday’s law curl E ¼ joFm, we can write the ImðZe Þ ¼ m0 oa1 b1
line integrals of the electric intensity E along the loop bpa1
Z p ð15eÞ
conductor through its cross section, along the path joining cosðbR0 ðjÞÞ
points D,Q, and the load impedance ZL between the ter- cosðjÞ dj
0 R0 ðjÞ
minals Q,A:
Z Z Z From Eq. (15e) we obtain the external self-inductance:
Es ds þ Es ds þ Es ds ¼ joFm ð13aÞ
ðAEFDÞ ðDQÞ ðQAÞ tanðbpa1 Þ
Le ¼ m0 a1 b1
bpa1
Here, Fm is the magnetic flux. The impressed emf V acting Z p ð15f Þ
cosðbR0 ðjÞÞ
along the path joining points D and Q is equal and oppo- cosðjÞ dj
site to the second term of Eq. (13a): 0 R0 ðjÞ
ance, and Z2e is the external impedance of the second the measured output voltage VL on the input impedance
loop L2. RL of the measuring receiver. For evaluation of the anten-
The current ratio I2 to I1 in Eq. (16) can be calculated na factor there are two methods. The first is by calculation
from Eqs. (9),(11), and (12). The current I1 of the transmit of the loop impedances, and the second is with the well-
loop with separation distance d: defined standard magnetic field calibration, which will
also be needed for the verification of calculated antenna
Hav pb2 factors [24].
I1 ¼ Z p jbRd ðjÞ ð18aÞ
tanðbpra1 Þ e
a1 cosðjÞ dj
bpa1 0 Rd ðjÞ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 9.1. Determination of the Antenna Factor by Computing
Rd ðjÞ ¼ d2 þ a21 þ b22 2a1 b2 cosðjÞ ð18bÞ from the Loop Impedances
If a measurement loop (e.g., L2) has a simple geometric
and the current I2 of the receive loop for the same Hav shape and a simple connection to a voltage measuring de-
(here d ¼ 0) is vice with a known load RL, we can determine the antenna
factor by calculation. In the case of unloaded loop from
Hav pb2 Fig. 17 the open-circuit voltage is
I2 ¼ Z p jbR0 ðjÞ ð18cÞ
tanðbpa2 Þ e
a2 cosðjÞ dj
bpa2 0 R0 ðjÞ
V0 ¼ jom0 Hav S2 ð20aÞ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R0 ðjÞ ¼ a22 þ b22 2a2 b2 cosðjÞ ð18dÞ
For the case of loaded loop the current is
The general mutual impedance between two loops from
Eqs. (16) and (17) is V0 V0
I¼ ¼ ð20bÞ
Z RL þ Zi þ Ze
I2
Z12 ¼ ðZ2i þ ZL þ Z2e Þ ¼ Z12i þ Z12L þ Z12e ð19aÞ
I1
The antenna factor from Eq. (9a) can be written with VL ¼
here Z12i is the mutual internal impedance, Z12L denotes ZLI and Eqs. (20) as
the mutual load impedance, and Z12e is the external mu-
tual impedance.
1 Ze Zi A 1
Arranging Eq. (15b)b for Z2e and the current ratio I2/I1 KH ¼ 1þ þ in ð21Þ
from Eqs. (18) external mutual impedance yield jom0 S2 RL RL mV
tanðbpa1 Þ The effective loop area is S2 ¼ pb22 . The external loop im-
Z12e ¼ j m0 oa1 b2
bpa1 pedance Ze can be calculated with Eqs. (15).
Z p jbRd ðjÞ ð19bÞ
e
cosðjÞ dj
0 Rd ðjÞ
9.2. Standard Magnetic Field Method
The real part of Z12e may be described as mutual radiation
In the calibration setup in Fig. 20 we measure the voltages
resistance between two loops.
with standard laboratory measuring instrumentation
The imaginary part of Z12e divided by o gives the mu-
with the 50 O impedance. The device to be calibrated con-
tual inductance
sists at least of a loop and a cable with an output connec-
tor. Such a measuring loop can also include a passive or
tanðbpa1 Þ
M12e ¼ m0 a1 b2 active network between the terminals C,D and a coaxial
bpa1 shield on the circular loop conductor against unwanted
Z p ð19cÞ
cosðbRd ðjÞÞ electric fields, depending on its development and construc-
cosðjÞ dj tion. The impedance ZL at the terminals C,D is not
0 Rd ðjÞ
accurately measurable. Such a complex loop must be cal-
ibrated with the standard magnetic field method. The an-
Equations (19b) and (19c) include the effect of current dis-
tenna factor in Eqs. (1) can be defined by measuring of the
tribution on the loop with finite conductor radii.
voltage VL and the uncertainties between loop terminals
C,D and measuring receiver are fully calibrated. The at-
tenuation ratio a of the voltages V2 and VL can be mea-
9. DETERMINATION OF THE ANTENNA FACTOR sured for each frequency:
Hav
Measuring
receiver Network D
VL Cable V3 ZL L2
Ri r2
C
I2
Terminator
V2
R2 I1 B
Generator
R1 L1
Q I1 r1
A
V0 V1 Figure 20. Calibration setup for circular loop
I1 antennas.
Using Eqs. (22),(1),(11), and (12), with V2 ¼ I1R2, and V0 It is assumed that the generator voltage V0 is constant.
¼ constant, Eq. (9a) can be rewritten: The measuring loop L2 is terminated by ZL. For ZL ¼ 0 and
VCD ¼ 0, one obtains the current I1 in the transmitting
loop as
1 tanðbpa1 Þ a1
KH ¼ a
R2 bpa1 pb2
ð23Þ V0
Z p jbRd ðjÞ I1ðZL ¼ 0Þ ¼ ð24aÞ
e Z212
cosðjÞ dðjÞ R1 þ R2 þ ZAB
0 Rd ðjÞ ZCD
instead of a discrete measurement at each frequency with 16. K. Danzeisen, Patentschrift DE 27 48 076 C2, 26.10.1977,
signal generator and measuring receiver. A network Rohde & Schwarz GmbH & Co. KG, POB 801469, D-81614
analyzer can normalize the frequency characteristic of München.
the transmit loop and gives a quick overview on measured 17. F. Demmel and A. Klein, Messung magnetischer Felder mit
attenuation for the frequency band. extrem hoher Dynamik im Bereich 100 Hz bis 30 MHz (Mea-
surement of magnetic fields with an extremely high dynamic
range in the frequency range 100 Hz to 30 MHz), Proc. EMV
’94, Karlsruhe, 1994, pp. 815–824.
18. CLC/TC111(Sec)61: Sept.1995: Definitions and Methods of
BIBLIOGRAPHY Measurement of Low Frequency Magnetic and Electric Fields
with Particular Regard to Exposure of Human Beings (Draft
1. CISPR 16 Specification for radio disturbance and immunity 2: August 1995).
measuring apparatus and methods—Part 1: Radio distur- 19. DKE 764/35-94: Entwurf DIN VDE 0848 Teil 1, Sicherheit in
bance and immunity measuring apparatus (8.1993); Part 2: elektrischen, magnetischen und elekromagnetischen Feldern;
Methods of measurement of disturbances and immunity Mess- und Berechnungsverfahren (Draft DIN VDE 0848 part
(11.1996). 1 Safety in electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields; mea-
2. CISPR 11/2nd edition 1990-09 and EN 55011:07.1992: Limits surement and calculation methods).
and methods of measurement of electromagnetic disturbance 20. Recommendation ITU-R SM 378-5, Field-Strength Measure-
characteristics of industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) ra- ments at Monitoring Stations, SM Series Volume, ITU, Gene-
dio-frequency equipment. va 1994.
3. IRPA Guidelines on Protection against Non-Ionizing Radia- 21. Spectrum Monitoring Handbook, ITU-R, Geneva 1995.
tion, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, 1991.
22. J. J. Goedbloed, Magnetic field measurements in the frequen-
4. ENV 50166 Part 1:1995—Human Exposure to electromagnet- cy range 9 kHz to 30 MHz; EMC91, ERA Conference, Hea-
ic fields—Low-frequency (0 Hz to 10 kHz) and Part 2:1995— throw, UK, Feb. 1991.
Human exposure to electromagnetic fields—High frequency
23. J. Kaiser et al., Feldstärkeumrechnung von 30 m auf kürzere
(10 kHz to 300 GHz).
Messentfernungen (Conversion of field strength from 30 m to
5. VDE 0848 Part 4 A2:Draft 1992—Safety in electromagnetic shorter distances), 110:820–825 (1989).
fields. Limits for the protection of persons in the frequency
range from 0 to 30 kHz and Part 2: Draft 1991—Safety in
electromagnetic fields. Protection of persons in the frequency
range from 30 kHz to 300 GHz.
6. IEEE standard C95.1-1991: IEEE Standard for Safety Levels MAGNETIC MATERIALS
with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electro-
magnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz. ROBERT B. VAN DOVER
7. MIL-STD-461D, Jan. 11, 1993: Requirements for the Control Bell Labs, Lucent Technologies
of Electromagnetic Interference Emissions and Susceptibility,
MIL-STD-462D, Jan. 11, 1993: Measurement of Electromag-
netic Interference Characteristics, DoD, USA. 1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
8. VG 95373 Part 22, Cologne, Germany: Beuth Verlag, 1990.
9. J. R. Bergervoet and H. van Veen, A large loop antenna for Magnetic materials have been known since ancient
magnetic field measurements, Proc. Int. Symp. EMC, Zürich, times—for example, in 380 B.C.E. Plato wrote [1] of the
1989, pp. 29–34. ‘‘stone which Euripides calls a magnet,’’ which we infer
10. CISPR 15/5th edition 1996-03 and EN 55015:12.1993: Limits was Fe3O4, now known as magnetite. The scientific quality
and methods of measurement of radio disturbance character- of magnetism studies abruptly and dramatically jumped
istics of electrical lighting and similar equipment. with the publication in 1600 by Gilbert of the classic text
11. Draft revision of IEC 945 (IEC 80/124/FDIS): Maritime nav- De Magnete [2]. Quantitative measurements of magnetic
igation and radiocommunication equipment and system— materials were enabled by the 1820 discovery by Oersted
General requirements, methods of testing and required test that an electric current creates a magnetic field. In 1846
results; identical requirements are given in Draft prETS 300 Faraday made systematic studies of the attraction and re-
828/02.1997: EMC for radiotelephone transmitters and re-
pulsion of materials in a gradient field and classified ma-
ceivers for the maritime mobile service operating in the VHF
bands, and Draft prETS 300 829:02.1997:EMC for Maritime
terials as diamagnetic if they are repelled by a region of
mobile earth stations (MMES) operating in the 1,5/1,6 GHz increased flux density and paramagnetic if they are at-
bands; providing Low Bit Rate Data Communication tracted. To this we add ferromagnetic (strongly magnetic,
(LBRDC) for the global distress and safety system (GMDSS). like iron) to form the set of three basic classes of magnetic
12. U.S. FCC Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 47 Part 18. Edi- response.
tion Oct. 1, 1996. Since the early part of the twentieth century, magnetic
13. J. E. Lenz, A review of magnetic sensors, Proc. IEEE materials have been the subject of deep and broad re-
78(6):973–989 (1990). search and development because of their economic and
14. L. Rohde and F. Spies, Direkt zeigende Feldstärkemesser (Di- scientific importance, and much of our knowledge is ma-
rect indicating field-strength meters), Z. Technische Physik ture. Nevertheless, startling discoveries continue to be
10(11):439–444 (1938). made, such as the discovery of Nd–Fe–B permanent mag-
15. Datasheet edition 9.72 of Rohde & Schwarz Field-strength nets and the ‘‘giant magneto-resistance’’ effect in thin-film
Meter HFH (0.1 to 30 MHz). multilayers.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2413
individual moments couple with each other can be under- only paramagnetism. Thus Tc measures the magni-
stood in terms of quantum mechanics. There are three tude of the exchange coupling energy. For example,
types of ‘‘exchange’’ interaction generally found: the Tc of Fe is 7701C while for Co, Tc ¼ 11151C, and for
Ni, Tc ¼ 3541C. The ferromagnetic transition is a sec-
*
The first is direct exchange, in which an unpaired ond-order phase transition, which means that the
electron on one atom interacts with other unpaired order parameter (magnetization) increases continu-
electrons on atoms immediately adjacent via the Cou- ously from zero as the temperature is lowered below Tc.
lomb interaction. This is the strong mechanism that *
The saturation magnetization is the macroscopic
dominates in most metallic magnetic materials, such magnetic moment of all of the spins averaged over
as Fe, Ni, Co, and their alloys. It results in a positive the volume of the sample. Thus, in a material with
exchange energy, so the spins on adjacent atoms tend many unpaired electrons per atom, Ms will be large
to align parallel. (e.g., Fe with m0Ms ¼ 2.16 T at room temperature).
*
The second is indirect exchange, or superexchange, in Conversely, Ms will be much smaller in materials
which the moment of an unpaired electron on one that also contain nonmagnetic atoms or ions (e.g.,
atom polarizes the (paired) electron cloud of a second Fe3O4 with m0Ms ¼ 0.60 T at room temperature).
atom, which in turn interacts with the unpaired elec- *
The electron spins couple weakly to their orbital mo-
tron on a third atom. This is the mechanism that tion in a process known as spin–orbit coupling, a rel-
dominates in most oxide materials, such as ferrites. ativistic effect. As a result, the energy of the system
For example, in Fe3O4 the Fe ions (with unpaired depends on the orientation of the spins (i.e., the mag-
electrons) interact through O ions (which have only netization) with respect to the orbitals of the atoms
paired electrons). Superexchange creates a negative (i.e., the orientation of the sample). This results in an
exchange energy. intrinsic coupling of the magnetization to the crystal
*
Finally, there is the possibility of interaction between lattice. It leads to magnetic anisotropy—that is, the
electrons that are not localized but can move freely as energy of the system depends on the orientation of
in a metal. This interaction, known as the RKKY in- the magnetization with respect to the sample. The
teraction after its discoverers (Ruderman, Kittel, direction along which the magnetic moment tends to
Kasuya, and Yoshida), is usually weaker than direct lie is known as the ‘‘easy axis.’’ The magnitude of the
exchange. It plays an important role in the behavior anisotropy may be large, as in SmCo5 permanent
known as ‘‘giant magnetoresistance’’ and can result magnets that strongly resist demagnetization with
in either a positive or negative exchange energy. KB107 J/m3, or it may be quite small, as in the high-
permeability materials Ni0.8Fe0.2 (Permalloy) or a—
The main properties that characterize ferromagnetic ma- Fe0.80P0.13C0.07 (an amorphous alloy).
terials are the Curie temperature Tc, the saturation mag- *
Another source of anisotropy can arise from the
netization Ms, the magnetic anisotrophy energy K, and the
shape of the specimen, or from the shape of individ-
coercive field Hc (see Fig. 2). The first two are intrinsic to a
ual grains within the specimen. This is a local mag-
material. The third has both intrinsic and extrinsic fac-
netostatic effect, rather than an intrinsic effect, and is
tors. The last is extrinsic and depends on the form (mi-
called shape anisotropy (see Fig. 3). It is an extremely
crostructure, overall shape, etc.) of the material and will
be discussed later.
*
The exchange interaction that leads to ferromagne-
tism can be disrupted by thermal energy. At temper-
atures above Tc, the disruption is so great that the
ferromagnetism ceases, and the material exhibits
Mr
The interpretation of M–H loops can often involve sub-
tle aspects of the loop, including directional properties, the
approach to saturation, possible nonsigmoidal curving,
Hc discrete jumps (known as ‘‘Barkhausen jumps’’), and so
H on. These may reflect coherent rotation of spins in a do-
main when the external field is not aligned with an easy
(0) axis or may be due to subtleties of domain wall motion.
Development of superior magnetic materials often involves
intensive research into these issues, but usually the de-
signers of devices need only focus on a few properties.
Figure 5. Schematic M–H curve, showing saturation magneti- 3.6. Negative Exchange Interaction
zation Ms, remanent magnetization Mr, coercive force Hc, and ini- The exchange interaction, as mentioned previously, need
tial permeability m(0) (defined for an initially demagnetized not be positive, inducing alignment of adjacent spins.
sample, i.e., with H ¼ 0 and M ¼ 0).
When it is negative, adjacent spins will tend to align an-
tiparallel. This can lead to a variety of behaviors depend-
This hysteretic, sigmoidally shaped M–H curve is very ing on the structure of the material.
typical of ferromagnetic materials. Four important param-
eters are immediately evident from examination of the 3.7. Antiferromagnetism
M–H curve:
The simplest configuration that can be obtained with a
negative exchange energy is antiferromagnetism, in which
1. The limiting magnetization is just Ms, the the spins on adjacent sites in a unit cell cancel to give no
single most important measure of a ferromagnetic net magnetic moment. A simple example is NiO, which
material. forms in the rock salt (NaCl) structure (see Fig. 6). The
2. The slope of the M–H curve at M ¼ 0 is the small- ordering temperature for antiferromagnetic materials is
signal permeability m(0), which measures the re- called the ‘‘Néel temperature’’, TN, after the discoverer of
sponsiveness of the magnetic material to an exter- antiferromagnetism, and is analogous to the Curie tem-
nal field when it is close to its demagnetized state. perature of a ferromagnet. Above TN ¼ 2501C, NiO is of
This parameter is particularly important for soft course, paramagnetic. In the antiferromagnetic state the
magnetic materials, which use the magnetic mate- susceptibility is not negative, as in the case of a diamagnet
rial to obtain a flux multiplication by the factor m(0). (which has no permanent dipoles) but is positive, small,
This parameter is determined partly by the magnet- and depends on the direction of the external field due to
ic anisotropy that is characteristic of the material intrinsic magnetocrystalline anisotropy. The details of spin
but is also affected by factors that impede domain- configurations and other properties of antiferromagnets
wall motion, such as physical grain structure, mi-
croscopic inclusions, dislocations, or magnitude of
the magnetocrystalline anisotropy.
3. The magnetization observed at zero field (after the
sample has been fully magnetized) is called the re-
manence, Mr. This is an important parameter for
permanent magnets, as it measures the magnitude
of M available when the material is isolated. Note
that the ‘‘squareness ratio,’’ Mr/Ms, is dominated by
extrinsic aspects of the material, such as grain
structure and defect, along with underlying an-
isotropies including the shape of the specimen.
4. The field required to reduce the external magneti-
zation to zero (again, defined only after the sample −
[010] [111]
has first been fully magnetized) is called the ‘‘intrin-
sic coercivity’’ or coercive field Hc. At this field, the
sample is in a multidomain state and the magneti-
−
zations from all of the various domains exactly can- [101]
cel out. The coercive field is an important property Figure 6. Antiferromagnetic structure of NiO, showing Ni atoms
for permanent magnets, as it measures the ability of in the ð1 0 1Þ plane. The spins are aligned along ½1 1 1 directions as
a material to withstand the action of an external shown. The magnetic unit cell is twice the length of the crystal-
magnetic field, whether applied or self-generated. It lographic unit cell.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2417
H
Ferromagnetic Loop offset
layer in H Figure 7. Schematic illustration of exchange
anisotropy arising from interface coupling be-
tween an antiferromagnetic and ferromagnet-
ic material. The schematic M–H loop indicates
Antiferromagnetic that the loop is offset in H and that with no
layer
external field there is only one stable state
(namely, the saturated state). That is, at H ¼ 0
there can be no domain structure.
2418 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
phenomenon is known as ferromagnetic resonance (FMR), essential feature of the phenomenon of giant magnetore-
although it is most important in insulating ferrimagnets sistance (GMR), which is observed in metallic thin-film
where eddy currents do not already dominate the losses. ferromagnet/paramagnet multilayers (vide infra).
Above the FMR frequency the magnetic material has a
nonmagnetic response. 3.10. Spin Glass State
At very high frequencies the response of ferrimagnets is
not dominated by domain-wall motion, which is sluggish, When a magnetic material has structural disorder, it is
but by coherent rotation of the spins in the sample. Then sometimes not possible for the exchange interaction
the permeability is given simply by mc ¼ Bs/Han, so oFMR mc among various neighbors to be satisfied, and no long-
¼ gBs. This equation, known as ‘‘Snoek’s law,’’ says that for range orientational order (either ferromagnetic or antifer-
a given material, a higher FMR frequency can only be ob- romagnetic) can be achieved. At low enough temperature
tained at the cost of a correspondingly smaller permeabil- such a ‘‘frustrated’’ material will achieve a quasiordered
ity. It is a basic limitation to the use of ferromagnetic configuration in which the spins are static but aligned in
materials at frequencies above about 10 MHz. Other is- random directions. This is the ‘‘spin glass’’ state. In a given
sues, such as domain-wall resonances, may reduce the sample, the magnetic properties are found to be history
maximum frequency even further. dependent: For example, the saturation magnetization de-
pends on whether the sample was cooled in a magnetic
field or in zero field. So-called spin glass materials should
3.9. Metamagnetism not be confused with the metallic glasses discussed later.
If a large enough magnetic field is applied to an antifer- The nature of the spin glass state has been a productive
romagnet along an easy axis, the spins that are anti- area of study for physicists for many years, but the phe-
aligned with the field will suddenly flip their orientation to nomenon has no current engineering significance [6].
achieve a lower energy state; that is, for a sufficiently high A related concept is that of ‘‘geometric frustration,’’
magnetic field, H, the magnetostatic energy m H (where which occurs in materials that have triangular site coor-
m is the dipole moment of an individual atom) will inev- dination and that therefore are frustrated even in a per-
itably outweigh the exchange energy. In some antiferro- fectly ordered material. These materials are presently
magnetic materials this flipping can be observed with being explored intensively by physicists, but also have
achievable magnetic fields; it is then called metamagne- no current engineering significance [7].
tism. Note that in principle all antiferromagnets will ex-
hibit this behavior at a high enough field—the distinction 3.11. Double-Exchange Materials
is only in whether the required field can be produced in Along with the exchange mechanisms listed previously,
the laboratory. there is a fourth mechanism, double exchange, that is rel-
Antiferromagnets with a relatively low anisotropy en- evant only to a small class of materials. The prototype
ergy can exhibit an intermediate state between the anti- material is (La,Ca)MnO3, a perovskite oxide, in which the
ferromagnetic and metamagnetic states as the field is Ca substituted for La acts as an electron donor. Electrons
increased. In this case, application of the field along the hopping from one Mn atom to another do not change their
easy axis will cause the spins to reorient perpendicular to spin orientation during the hop, so the Mn atoms orient
the magnetic field, and still in an approximately antifer- ferromagnetically. The most interesting property of these
romagnetic configuration, as shown schematically in materials is observed in the paramagnetic state—in zero
Fig. 8. This transition is called ‘‘spin flopping.’’ field the Mn spins are randomly oriented, inhabiting elec-
Neither metamagnetism nor the spin-flop transition tron hopping and yielding a high resistivity. When the Mn
are of practical significance in bulk applications of mag- spins are partially aligned by applying a large magnetic
netism. However, the metamagnetic transition is an field, the hopping probability is enhanced, and the resist-
ivity decreases dramatically. At an optimum temperature
(near Tc), a resistivity decrease by a factor of 105 to 106 has
Direction of applied field:
been observed at a field of 4 MA/m, a result that has led
the effect to be known as colossal magnetoresistance
H =0 H = moderate H = high (CMR). The effect is colossal at low temperatures and for
K = low
only a small temperature range, and it requires very large
fields to be applied, so it has not proven useful for engi-
neering applications at present.
3.12. Superparamagnetism
orientation of the magnetization will lead to zero sponta- layers might be built up in this way. The ferromagnetic
neous magnetization and a response to an applied field layers couple with each other by the RKKY interaction
that is analogous to the local moments of a normal para- through the paramagnetic metal, so, depending on the
magnetic material. The effect is seen, for example, in Co thickness of the paramagnetic layer, the interlayer cou-
particles smaller than about 7.5 nm. The moment of a Co pling may be antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic. For ex-
sphere of diameter 7.5 nm is roughly 20,000 times larger ample, a film consisting of 100 repeats of 1.0-nm-thick Co
than the moment of single Co atom, so the effect is called adjacent to 0.6–nm-thick Cu exhibits an antiferromagnet-
superparamagnetism. While superparamagnetism is not ic state at zero field; even though each Co layer is indi-
technologically useful itself, it does represent an impor- vidually ferromagnetic, alternate layers have oppositely
tant limitation to the particle size of future magnetic re- directed magnetizations. When a moderate field H is ap-
cording media, and is therefore being intensively plied, the magnetizations of all of the layers align with the
investigated. external field, producing a metamagnetic transition.
Baibich et al. [9] discovered the most interesting aspect
of the metamagnetic transition in metallic multilayers:
3.13. Thin Films
the effect it has on the resistivity of the sample. The
Thin films of magnetic materials behave exactly like bulk aligned state has a greatly reduced resistivity compared
magnetic materials in most respects, albeit in profoundly to the antialigned state. The magnetoresistance ratio [R(H
different regimes for some parameters. For example, thin ¼ 0)—R(H ¼ Hs)]/R(H ¼ Hs) can be as high as B100% de-
films have a demagnetization factor normal to the film and pending on the choice of materials. This is far greater than
essentially zero demagnetization factor in the plane of the the highest normal magnetoresistance observed in any
film. Thus it is generally very hard to magnetize a thin material at room temperature; hence the name giant mag-
film normal to the plane but fairly easy to move the mag- netoresistance. It is attributed to spin-dependent scatter-
netization in the plane. A simple consideration such as ing of electrons, which is enhanced when magnetizations
this can have wide-ranging implications, from an in- of adjacent layers are antialigned. This effect is crucial for
creased FMR frequency to gross effects on the structure the highest-performance magnetic disk read heads being
of domain walls (i.e., the transition from conventional currently designed (vide infra) [10].
Bloch walls to Néel walls as the film thickness is de-
creased below about 100 nm). Thin films also tend to have
stresses that are extremely high compared to stresses in 4. MAGNETIC MATERIALS USED IN APPLICATIONS
bulk materials—500 MPa values are not uncommon.
These stresses couple to the magnetostriction of the ma- Useful magnetic materials are often divided into three
terial to create a stress anisotropy that can strongly in- categories:
fluence the magnetic behavior.
Thin films are used in a wide variety of applications,
*
Soft magnets, in which the magnetization is readily
the most important of which are as media in hard disks changed with an external field, thereby providing a
and magnetooptic disks, miniature electromagnets in flux-multiplying effect
hard-disk write heads, and magnetoresistive sensors in *
Hard magnets (permanent magnets), which have
hard-disk read heads. high coercive fields and therefore resist demagneti-
Thin films inherently possess a unique direction, the zation by stray fields including their own
growth direction. This is usually the normal, although it *
Magnet recording media, which combine aspects of
can be oblique if the incident atomic flux used to grow the softness and hardness
film arrives from an oblique angle. For some materials the
growth direction directly leads to a large intrinsic uniaxial
4.1. Soft Magnetic Materials
anisotropy. For example, in amorphous Tb–Fe one might
expect that there would be no anisotropy at all. Instead, Soft magnetic materials are used in applications such as
films grown with the incident Tb and Fe atoms arriving transformers and inductors. An obvious example would be
essentially perpendicular to the substrate exhibit a large the iron, known as ‘‘electrical steel,’’ used in transformers
intrinsic uniaxial anisotropy oriented along the normal, for inexpensive power supplies. At frequencies above
and with a sense that leads to a perpendicular easy axis. about 10 kHz, eddy currents limit the use of metallic mag-
The anisotropy is sufficient to overcome demagnetization, netic materials, so high-resistivity ferrites such as (Mn,
so domains form in which the magnetization is oriented Zn)Fe2O4 are used.
perpendicular to the film. Such materials are used in
magnetooptic recording (vide infra) [8]. 4.1.1. Permeability. An important property of soft mag-
Some behaviors seen in thin films are either absent or netic materials is their relative permeability, nominally
not commonly observed in bulk magnetic materials. An defined by mr ¼ B/m0H. Actually, since the B(H) curve is
important example is the phenomenon of so-called giant neither linear nor single-valued, a large number of useful
magnetoresistance in thin-film multilayers. These multi- permeability parameters can be defined, such as the ini-
layers are typically formed by sequentially depositing tial permeability, the maximum permeability, and the an-
metallic ferromagnetic and paramagnetic layers, each hysteretic permeability. For simplicity, we will consider
B1–3 nm thick, using sputtering or evaporation in only the initial
small-signal permeability, defined as
a high-vacuum chamber. Between two and a hundred mð0Þ @B=@H H ¼ 0 . Values from m(0) ¼ 10 (high-frequency
2420 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
ferrites) to m(0) ¼ 10,000 (low-frequency inductors) are At these frequencies, metallic ferromagnets cannot be
typically encountered in applications. used as the desirable lamination thickness would be pro-
hibitively small. Fortunately at such high frequencies, the
4.1.2. Power Devices. Probably the main use of mag- energy that must be stored in the transformer or inductor
netic materials at present, on a weight basis, is in power is correspondingly small for a given power capacity (EBP/
transformers. These can range from huge transformers o, where E is the maximum stored energy, P is the max-
used in substations, to miniature transformers used to imum power, and o is the angular frequency). Therefore,
convert line voltage to a level suitable for small consumer the cost of the magnetic part need not dominate, especially
devices, to small ferrite transformers used in switching considering the cost of the electronics involved, so the use
power supplies. of relatively expensive but very high resistivity ferrites is
Low-frequency power applications almost inevitably feasible. In most cases an (Mn,Zn)Fe2O4 spinel ferrite is
employ low Si percentage Fe–Si alloys known as ‘‘silicon chosen as a compromise between saturation flux density,
iron’’ or ‘‘electrical steel.’’ This is because Fe is by far the losses, resistivity, and cost. At the highest frequencies,
cheapest magnetic material available. The coercive field of (Ni,Zn)Fe2O4 may prove useful, as it has a higher resist-
pure Fe is typically about 80 A/m. The addition of a small ivity and therefore is less susceptible to eddy-current
amount of Si to Fe lowers the anisotropy, resulting in low- losses.
er losses and a coercive force of about 40 A/m. It also sub- Motors and generators inevitably employ iron or silicon
stantially increases the resistivity, which decreases eddy iron to act as a flux concentrator. The armature and stator
currents. Eddy currents in transformers are usually fur- are commonly constructed of grain-oriented silicon iron,
ther reduced by lamination (i.e., using a stack of Fe–Si although small motors often employ nonoriented silicon
plates, each electrically insulated by a coating layer, rath- iron or metallic glass materials. As in transformers, the
er than a single thick piece). The laminations are ar- ferromagnetic parts must be laminated to reduce eddy-
ranged so that eddy currents are interrupted by the current losses.
presence of the insulator and forced to circulate only with-
in each lamination (i.e., so that any AC magnetic flux is 4.1.3. Inductors. Small-signal transformers and induc-
perpendicular to the normal). Properly designed, the tors are used in a variety of circuit applications, as in im-
thickness of each plate should be smaller than a skin pedance-matching and isolation transformers, antennas,
depth d, given by d ¼ (2r/om)1/2, where r is resistivity, o is and chokes. Signal-level devices do not have to carry sub-
the angular frequency of the AC magnetic field, and m is stantial power, so they can be small and the cost of mate-
the permeability. Note that the permeability can also be rials can easily be outweighed by performance
frequency-dependent. considerations. Thus a wider variety of magnetic materi-
Improved varieties of silicon iron are prepared using als is used in these devices.
specific sequences of forging (rolling) and annealing to ob- At audiofrequencies and below, transformers and in-
tain a grain-oriented microstructure. In such materials ductors were once commonly used for signal applications.
the crystallographic orientation of individual grains is For example, long-distance analog telephone circuits were
forced to be aligned over the entire piece. The advantage balanced by the periodic addition of loading coils—induc-
is that materials with lower losses are obtained, although tors designed to match the large distributed capacitance of
the material is also somewhat more expensive. At present, phonelines. A common choice for the magnetic core in
most power transformers utilize grain-oriented silicon those coils was Permalloy (Ni80Fe20) or a related alloy, and
iron. the cores were formed by rolling a long tape into a toroidal
The highest-performance materials for low-frequency core. However, in modern telecommunication systems the
transformer applications are the metallic glasses, amor- analog signals are quickly converted to digital signals at
phous alloys of Fe and Co with one or more metalloid ad- the central exchange and then transmitted by the fiber-
ditions (usually B, C, Si, and P). These materials can have optic, satellite, or microwave relay. The need for loading
losses that are 10 times smaller than silicon iron and co- coils is minimal. Similarly, the function of audiofrequency
ercive fields below 0.5 A/m. But the saturation flux density impedance-matching transformers and other inductive
is generally B1.5 T, and the materials are substantially electronic components has largely been displaced by
more expensive than silicon iron. These negative aspects more elaborate but much cheaper integrated circuit de-
of metallic glasses have precluded their widespread use. signs. Low-frequency magnetics are used in modem isola-
Power supplies with low weight and volume are highly tion transformers to provide DC electrical isolation with
desirable for some electronic applications, and this can be audio coupling; these are made with either laminated me-
achieved with the design called ‘‘switching’’ power sup- tallic or solid ferrite cores.
plies. An additional benefit is circuit versatility and flex- At RF frequencies (50 kHz–50 MHz) magnetic cores are
ibility, while the main tradeoffs are increased cost and widely used; for example, in antennas, RF transformers,
design complexity. A switching power supply uses power chokes, and resonant circuits. The usual choices for mag-
electronics [typically metal oxide semiconductor field-ef- netic cores are the spinels (Mn,Zn)Fe2O4 (up to about
fect transistors (MOSFETs)] to chop and rectify power at 1 MHz) and (Ni,Zn)Fe2O4 (up to about 10–50 MHz). The
high frequency, a power transformer or inductor to change manganese zinc ferrites are cheaper but have a resistivity
the voltage, and control electronics to synchronize and typically less than 1000 O cm. Eddy current losses limit
control the system. The frequencies used range from about their usefulness at high frequencies. The initial perme-
50 kHz to a present upper limit of 1 MHz. ability is roughly 1000–3000. Nickel zinc ferrites can have
MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2421
resistivities as high as 105 O cm and initial permeabilities densities and frequencies increased, an inevitable move
on the order of 1000. Their upper frequency limit is dic- was made to ferrite materials. Ferrite heads are made
tated by the need to avoid FMR losses. Material designed from cast pieces that are carefully polished to form a pre-
for operation above about 10 MHz typically is prepared cise airgap and then are assembled with the driving coil.
with moderate porosity to inhibit domain-wall motion and As recording densities have increased, media with higher
losses associated with domain-wall resonance. The perme- coercivities are necessary, so head materials with high
ability mechanism then is limited to that of coherent ro- saturation magnetization are needed. Unfortunately this
tation of the spins, which implies a much smaller value is where the ferrites are most deficient, with maximum
(mcBMs/HkB10–100). BsB0.6 T. One approach to obtain improved performance
Above about 50 MHz, magnetic materials are not com- is to add a thin film of relatively high Bs material (such as
monly used in transformers and inductors, as Snoek’s law Permalloy, Bs ¼ 0.9–1.1 T) on the inside edge of the gap of
demands that the permeability be uselessly small in order each piece. The thin film acts as a flux concentrator and
for the FMR frequency to be sufficiently greater than the increases the fringing field significantly. This approach is
frequency of operation. Snoek’s law can be circumvented called the metal-in-gap (MIG) design.
by the use of materials with a large biaxial anisotropy The highest-performance recording heads are con-
(e.g., the hexagonal magentoplumbite-type ferrites) or by structed using thin films and photolithography. They
using thin films with a high saturation magnetization. At have the advantage of great precision in layout, leading
present, however, those approaches are not commercially to extremely narrow pole tips, precise gap widths, and
important. precise placement of the driving coils. Permalloy and re-
lated alloys are most commonly used at present, but soft
amorphous alloys such as Co0.85Nb0.08Zr0.7 offer signifi-
4.1.4. Write Heads. An important application of soft cant improvements with BsB50% greater than Permalloy.
magnetic materials is in the recording heads used in The resistivity of the amorphous alloys is in the range
tape and disk systems. Write heads essentially consist of rB100 mO cm, about fivefold higher than Permalloy,
an electromagnet with a toroidal magnetic core and a very which reduces eddy-current losses, allowing recording at
small airgap (B100 nm to 300 nm). The flux that extends higher frequencies. Further advantage can be obtained by
from the airgap, called the ‘‘fringing field,’’ is used to mag- using the recently developed nanocrystalline (grain size
netize the magnetic medium passing nearby (see Fig. 9). B1–5 nm) alloys such as Fe0.92Ta0.05N0.03, which have ex-
In tape and floppy-disk systems the magnetic medium is tremely high BsB2.0 T and also have resistivities in the
in actual contact with the head, while in hard-disk sys- range of 100–150 mO cm. These materials are being vig-
tems the head flies aerodynamically over the spinning orously developed for future generations of high-perfor-
medium at a height of 25–75 nm. The maximum magnetic mance recording, especially hard-disk drives.
field available for magnetizing the medium is proportional
to the saturation magnetization of the head material. 4.1.5. Read Heads. The same magnetic structure that
Originally the magnetic recording heads were made is used for magnetic recording can also be used for reading
from laminated metal alloys, such as Permalloy or Sen- the recorded signal. The passage of recorded domains
dust (an alloy of Fe, Si, and Al notable for being magnet- across the gap of the recording head will induce a small
ically soft and physically very hard), but as recording voltage on the driving coil, which is amplified and pro-
cessed. Indeed, this inductive read head is the simplest
and cheapest approach to magnetic recording. However,
Signal the signal level is very low and limits the performance of
hard-disk drives. The present generation of hard disk
drives uses a separate magnetic structure (incorporated
in a single read/write head) for reading the recorded mag-
netic signal. The sensor in this device is a magnetoresis-
tive thin film made of Permalloy and biased with a DC
current. External flux from the recording medium couples
to the Permalloy film, rotating the magnetization with re-
spect to the fixed direction of the DC current. This changes
the resistance of the Permalloy [the so-called conventional
or anisotropic magnetoresistance effect (AMR)] and there-
fore the voltage developed across the device. The AMR ef-
fect is relatively small, about 5%, but is sufficient to
deliver signal superior to that of an inductive head.
Superior performance can be obtained by incorporating
materials that exhibit giant magnetoresistance. These can
have responses that are about 10-fold higher than AMR
Direction of tape or disk motion materials. So-called spin valves employ the same physical
Figure 9. Schematic of a magnetic recording head. Recording is principle as GMR (namely, spin-dependent scattering) in a
accomplished using the magnetic fringing field (i.e., the field that more highly controlled and responsive magnetic structure.
leaks from the gap). The higher signal output of spin valve read heads, in
2422 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
conjunction with careful redesign of the entire magnetic less optimum geometries, the available flux density can be
recording system (including media, head structure, elec- greatly reduced, as determined by magnetostatics. For ar-
tronics, signal processing, etc.), can lead to substantial in- bitrary-shaped parts, the usual approach is to employ fi-
crease in recording density. nite-element numerical calculations to infer the flux
distribution.
4.1.6. Shields. Soft magnetic materials are also used to In general, where the design figure of merit is the flux
make magnetic shields, typically used to protect electronic available per unit volume of magnetic material, the cor-
components from magnetic interference or to contain the responding figure of merit for the magnetic material is the
external field around a component that generates mag- energy product (BH)max [i.e., the largest value measured
netic flux. An example of the former are shields for cath- at any point in the second quadrant (positive B, negative
ode-ray tubes, such as computer monitors, while an H) of the B–H curve]. This is only a crude way to evaluate
example of the latter are shields for speakers, such as the usefulness of a material; nevertheless it is indicative
‘‘multimedia’’ speakers intended for placement close to a and is commonly quoted by permanent magnet manufac-
(unshielded) monitor. These shields are usually formed turers. Four main types of permanent magnet materials
from Permalloy and related alloys. Often ‘‘Mumetal’’ is are commonly used:
specified for these applications—this originally designated
a particular Fe–Ni–Cu alloy but it is now used generically *
Alnico, a class of Fe–Al–Ni–Co–Cu alloys. The prop-
to refer to many high-permeability alloys. Note that RF erties of this material are entirely dependent on com-
shields (unlike DC magnetic shields) rely on eddy current plex metallurgical processing and microstructural
screening and use high-conductivity paramagnetic metals control. Commonly used Alinco materials have
such as Cu. (BH)max ¼ 50 103 J/m3.
A related application is the use of materials that absorb *
Barium ferrite, typically BaO (Fe2O3)6, is the stan-
RF energy. These are typically lossy ferrites and are used dard ‘‘ceramic’’ magnetic material. The typical value
in the form of beads threaded on wires, where it is desired (BH)max ¼ 25 103 J/m3 is smaller than that of Alni-
to suppress high-frequency signals. Manganese–zinc fer- co, but the material is both lower density and cheaper
rites are generally used for this purpose, although nickel– to produce than Alnico and has almost entirely re-
zinc is used to obtain the highest cutoff frequencies. Lossy placed Alnico in highly cost-sensitive applications.
ferrites can also be used as an antiradar coating on mil- The high value of (BH)max in this and the following
itary aircraft. materials is due to the very high intrinsic anisotropy.
*
Sm–Co is the standard high-performance ‘‘rare earth’’
permanent magnet, with (BH)max ¼ 160 103 J/m3.
4.2. Hard (Permanent) Magnets The major disadvantage of this material is its cost.
Permanent magnets are used in a wide variety of appli- *
Nd–Fe–B, a more recent material, has an even higher
cations where a static magnetic field is desired. The dom- value for (BH)max ¼ 320 103 J/m3 than Sm–Co, and
inant uses are in speakers and DC motors and as holding it value is less expensive. The major disadvantage of
magnets. The field available from a given permanent mag- this material in some applications is that the Tc is
net depends on the physical configuration but is limited to somewhat low, TcB1501C.
Bs, the saturation flux density in the optimum case. Spe-
cifically, for a toroidal part with a small airgap (see Loudspeakers have long been a dominant application
Fig. 10), the flux density in the gap will be Bs. For Fe for permanent magnetic materials. The permanent mag-
this is Bs ¼ 2.15 T, while for Fe0.6Co0.4 it is Bs ¼ 2.43 T [11, net is used to establish a magnetic field in an annular re-
p. 190], the highest value for any known bulk material. In gion in which the voice coil is mounted. When a current is
driven through the voice coil, an axial force is produced, in
accordance with the Lorentz relation, F ¼ ev B, where F
is the force on an electron, e is the charge on an electron,
and v is the velocity of the electron. Motion of the voice coil
Yoke is coupled to a speaker cone to move the air efficiently and
thereby produce sound waves.
The energy product of a magnetic material is a good
figure of merit for speaker applications, since for a given
design, a higher-energy product will result in a higher flux
density in the annular gap. Most loudspeakers are low-
Permanent priced components, so the cost of the magnetic material is
magnet
the other key factor. For this reason, barium ferrite is the
dominant material used. In some applications, such as
Air gap high-performance earphones, the amount of magnetic ma-
Figure 10. Airgap in magnetic circuits. The gray regions repre- terial is small so materials cost is less critical. In the past,
sent permanent magnet material, with the direction of magneti- Sm–Co magnets have been used for these applications,
zation shown. The hatched region represents soft magnetic though Nd–Fe–B magnets are now clearly the best overall
material, which is used to complete the magnetic circuit. choice.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2423
The materials used for permanent magnets inevitably 60–100 kA/m, and the saturation magnetization is about
cost more than silicon iron, so large motors and generators 1000 kA/m.
always use soft magnetic materials wound with coils to For many years it was expected that magnetic bubble
create the required magnetic field. In small motors, the memory might find a role for data storage in computers.
economics are dominated by the cost of fabrication; the However, bubble memory is slow and expensive compared
small coils and fine tolerances needed for electromagnet to hard disks and semiconductor random-access memory
motors outweigh the added cost of permanent magnetic (RAM). Its only advantages are that it is mechanically
materials. A vast number of small DC motors are produced more robust than a hard-disk system, and it is more ra-
for a very wide range of applications, from clock motors to diation resistant than semiconductor RAM. Therefore, the
the dozens of motors in modern automobiles used to drive only present use for bubble memory is in certain military
windows, locks, seats, windshield wipers, and so on. applications.
An economically important use of permanent magnets Bubble memories store data in cylindrical domains,
is in the low-tech application of holding magnets. These perpendicular to the surface, that are generated in liq-
range from decorative magnets for holding notes to a re- uid-phase epitaxy (LPE) grown garnet films. The films are
frigerator door to functional magnets for holding and seal- designed to have a large uniaxial anisotropy perpendicu-
ing the refrigerator door shut to strong magnetic chucks lar to the film plane and are chosen to meet a number of
for holding ferrous materials for machine-forming opera- other criteria. The bubbles are moved around using a
tions. In almost all cases cost is paramount, and barium rotating external magnetic field created by a miniature
ferrite is used. For some applications the ferrite powder is electromagnet, and they are detected using a magnetore-
mixed with a polymer precursor, formed into a tape, and sistance bridge.
polymerized to form a flexible magnet, albeit with reduced Finally, there is magnetooptic recording. In this scheme
net flux density and therefore reduced holding power. data are stored on a plastic disk coated with an amorphous
metallic thin film such as Tb0.2Fe0.8 or similar composi-
tions doped with Dy and Co. They have a large uniaxial
anisotropy, with an easy axis perpendicular to the plane of
4.3. Magnetic Recording Media—Intermediate between Soft
the film, so as with the garnet films designed for magnetic
and Hard
bubble applications, cylindrical domains are stable. Data
Magnetic recording is a huge business, dominated by the are written by focusing a laser on the desired spot, which
hard disks and floppy disks pervasive in personal comput- heats the films above its Tc, B100–1501C. If the film is
ers and by tape recording—audio, video, instrumentation, exposed to a moderate magnetic field while it cools, the
digital data storage, and so on. The media used in record- heated region will magnetize in the direction of the ap-
ing are magnetic materials that must have a relatively plied field. Thus alternating regions of, say, north-up and
high coercive force so that they do not spontaneously de- south-up can be written. The data are read with the same
magnetize and lose information. But the coercive force laser at lower power to avoid heating, using a polarizer to
cannot be much greater than about 100 kA/m because the detect Faraday rotation (i.e., rotation of the polarization of
leakage flux from the recording head is limited and must light when it interacts with a magnetic material). This ef-
nevertheless be sufficient to saturate the medium. fect is known as Kerr rotation when it occurs on reflection
The standard material used in tape and floppy-disk from a metallic magnetic surface. The Kerr rotation in a
media is gamma iron oxide, g–Fe2O3. It is moderately ex- magnetic material is in the opposite sense for regions
pensive to prepare (compared to conventional ferrites) be- magnetized north-up versus south-up. The maximum
cause extremely reproducible and controllable properties Kerr rotation in Tb–Fe films is rather small, B0.21, which
are required. Acicular (needle-shaped) particles B50 nm gives a low signal/noise ratio and correspondingly low
in diameter are prepared in order to obtain good recording data rate.
characteristics. The coercivity of most tapes is about 20– The data density in magnetooptic recording is compa-
30 kA/m. More recent high-performance formulations use rable to that of a conventional CD-ROM but has the great
cobalt-modified g-Fe2O3, which has a thin cobalt-rich re- advantage of being endlessly rewriteable. Magnetooptic
gion on the surface of the particles. This material has an drives are slower for writing data and more expensive
increased coercivity of about 50 kA/m and is routinely than conventional hard drives, but they confer the advan-
used for videotape. In the past, CrO2 was used as a tage of cheap removable media and good archiveability
high-performance medium because it has a higher Ms and have found a small but significant market niche.
than g-Fe2O3 and can be prepared with a coercivity as
high as 80 kA/m. However, it has a low Tc (only 1301C) and
is relatively expensive, so it has been displaced by cobalt- 4.4. Miscellaneous
modified g-Fe2O3. Along with the three conventional classes of applications
Hard disks used in digital recording are aluminum for magnetic materials, there are a wide variety of spe-
platters coated with paramagnetic Ni–P or Cr and then cialized applications, too numerous to list exhaustively.
a recording medium such as Co–Cr. An extremely thin
layer of C is usually then deposited along with an even
smaller amount of lubricating fluid, in order to avoid cat- 4.4.1. Nonreciprocal Materials. Some of the most inter-
astrophic head contact with the medium (‘‘head crashes’’). esting magnetic devices are based on the nonreciprocal
The coercivity of hard-disk media is in the range propagation of UHF signals in insulating magnetic
2424 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
materials. The behavior is formally identical to the small choosing a microwave magnetic material is in balancing
optical Faraday rotation observed in some nonferromag- these conflicting requirements.
netic materials, but the effect in ferrites can be very large
and is commonly used in microwave applications (e.g., in
isolators and circulators). 4.4.2. Ferrofluids. Ferrofluids are liquid suspensions of
The nonreciprocal phenomena are due to interaction of magnetic particles coated to avoid agglomeration. Typi-
the incident radiation with the precessing electron spin(- cally the liquid is a hydrocarbon or silicon, and the mag-
see Magnetic resonance). A particularly straightforward netic particles are ferrites, but a wide range of
case arises when the incident microwaves are circularly combinations is possible. The behavior of ferrofluids is
polarized with a propagation vector parallel to the easy unique and scientifically interesting, and ferrofluids are
axis of the magnetic material and at a frequency equal to commercially used for such diverse applications as gas-
the natural precession frequency of the electron spins. tight seals for rotary shafts, heat transfer agents for loud-
Then, if the sense of the circular polarization is the same speaker voice coils, and damping systems.
as that of the electron spin precession, energy is readily
transferred to the spins and dissipated as loss. If the sense
is opposite (corresponding to propagation in the opposite BIBLIOGRAPHY
direction), then there is little interaction and the loss is
minimized. It is easy to imagine an isolator based on the 1. Plato, in The Dialogs of Plato, transl. B. Jowett, Great Books
directionality of this phenomenon, although the practical of the Western World, Vol. 7, Benton, Chicago, 1952, p. 144.
design of this and other nonreciprocal microwave devices 2. W. Gilbert, De Magnete, transl. P. F. Mottelay, Dover, Mineola,
can be very complex. In general, a moderately large ex- NY, 1958.
ternal biasing magnet is required to set the FMR frequen- 3. J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley, New York;
cy equal to the operating frequency (a larger field is 1962.
required for a higher operating frequency). 4. R. L. Carlin, Magnetochemistry, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Three classes of materials dominate the magnetic ma- 1986, p. 3.
terials used for microwave applications—the figure of 5. E. H. Brandt, Science 243:349–355 (1989); Physics World
merit for microwave devices is usually proportional to 10(4):23–24 (1997).
1/DH, where DH is the FMR linewidth: 6. K. Binder and A. P. Young, Spin glasses: Experimental facts,
theoretical concepts, and open questions, Rev. Mod. Phys.
58:801–976 (1986).
1. The garnet structure ferrites exhibit the highest 7. A. P. Ramirez, Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci. 24:453–480 (1994).
performance available because they have the lowest 8. R. B. van Dover et al., Intrinsic anisotropy of Tb—Fe films
FMR linewidths. A typical value for polycrystalline prepared by magnetron co-sputtering, J. Appl. Phys. 57:3897–
ceramic yttrium iron garnet (YIG) is DH ¼ 4000 A/m. 3899 (1985).
Single crystals with linewidths as low as 40 A/m 9. M. N. Baibich et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 61:2472–2475 (1988).
have been reported. Single crystals are relatively 10. S. S. P. Parkin, Giant magnetoresistance in magnetic nano-
expensive but are usually the bets choice at low fre- structures, Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci. 25:357–388 (1995).
quencies. 11. R. M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, Van Nostrand, New York,
2. The spinel ferrites are useful in a number of cases. 1951.
Nickel zinc ferrite is particularly useful at high pow-
ers because it has a higher Tc than garnets, and it is
often used in the range above 10 GHz. Manganese– FURTHER READING
magnesium ferrites are used in the range of 5–
10 GHz because their lower saturation magnetiza- R. M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, Van Nostrand, New York, 1951.
tion allows biasing at lower field. F. N. Bradley, Materials for Magnetic Functions, Hayden, New
3. The Z-type hexagonal ferrites have a hard axis nor- York, 1971.
mal to the basal plane, so the need for external bi- F. Brailsford, Physical Principles of Magnetism, Van Nostrand,
asing is reduced. They require expensive processing New York, 1966.
to produce oriented, high-quality ceramics. They are P. Campbell, Permanent Magnetic Materials and Their Applica-
most useful for mm-wave applications. tions, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 1994.
C. W. Chen, Soft Magnetic Materials, North Holland, Amsterdam,
1977; reprinted by Dover, New York, 1986.
In general, the key issues in developing materials for S. Chikazumi and S. H. Charap, Physics of Magnetism, Krieger,
microwave applications are related to processing and mi- Malabar, FL, 1964.
cro-structure control rather than exploring new composi- B. D. Cullity, Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Addison-Wesley,
tions. Small grain size is important to minimize losses Reading, MA, 1972.
form domain-wall resonance, to maximize the resistivity, D. Jiles, Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Chapman & Hall,
and to make stronger materials that resist the thermal London, 1991.
stresses caused by high-power operation. Obtaining a high M. M. Schieber, Experimental Magnetochemistry, Wiley, New
density is always important, but densification usually is York, 1967.
accompanied by grain growth. The art of designing or J. Smit, H. P. J. Wijn, Ferrites, Wiley, New York, 1959.
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2425
where e and h are the RF electric and magnetic fields and We now assume that the magnetic medium is magne-
b is the RF magnetic induction field. In Eq. (1) e denotes tized to saturation either by an externally applied mag-
the permittivity and the time dependence of the RF quan- netic field, an internal anisotropy field, or both. Let the
tities is assumed to be exp(jot). For a linear isotropic me- saturation magnetization be denoted as MS. We separate
dium, one may define a constant m, the permeability, so the DC and the RF components of M and H as follows:
that b and h are linearly proportional to each other:
M ¼ M 0 þ m; H ¼ H0 þ h ð8Þ
b ¼ mh ð2Þ
Here, capital letters denote DC quantities, and small let-
This equation holds true if the medium is diamagnetic ters denote RF quantities. Under small-signal assump-
(mom0) or paramagnetic (m4m0). Here m0 denotes the per- tions, jmj{jM 0 j Ms , jhj{jH 0 j, Eq. (7) can be linearized
meability of vacuum. For a ferromagnetic or a ferrimag- to yield
netic medium the relationship between b and h is neither
linear nor isotropic. However, under small-signal approx-
@m H0
imations the linear relationship between b and h may be ¼ gm0 MS ez h m ð9Þ
@t MS
assumed, provided the scalar permeability needs to be re-
placed by a tensor. Thus, Eq. (2) becomes
where we have assumed H0, and hence M0, to be along the
z axis whose unit vector is denoted as ez. From Eqs. (3) and
b ¼ lh ¼ m þ h ð3Þ (9), we derive, assuming again the exp(jot) time depen-
dence
where m denotes the RF magnetization field and l is
called the Polder permeability tensor [1]. 0 1
m jk 0
In a magnetic substance the net magnetic dipole mo- B C
ment per volume, or the magnetization vector, denoted as l ¼ m0 B
@ jk m 0C
A ð10Þ
M, is nonzero as a result of spontaneous magnetization of 0 0 1
the material. Denote the angular momentum per volume
of the medium to be J. The time rate change of angular The Polder tensor elements m and k are given as
momentum can be equated with the applied torque, and
this implies oz om
m¼1þ ð11Þ
o2z o2
@J
¼ m0 M H ð4Þ
@t oom
k¼ ð12Þ
o2z o2
where H denotes the internal magnetic field within the
volume. From both classical mechanics and quantum me- and oz and om are defined as
chanics, the relationship between J and M is linear, which
can be expressed as oz ¼ jgjH0 ð13Þ
where g is the gyromagnetic ratio, which can be written as Equations (1), (3), and (10) sufficiently describe the gen-
eral behavior of a linear magnetic microwave device.
gjej
g¼ ð6Þ
2me 1.2. Effective Fields
In Eq. (7) the magnetic field H is the internal field effec-
where g is the Lande g factor and e and me are charge and tively experienced by electron spins in the magnetic me-
mass of an electron, respectively. Classically, g ¼ 1 for or- dium. In other words, an effective field is defined if there
bital angular momentum, and g ¼ 2 for spin angular mo- exist a coupling between the magnetization motion of the
mentum. Quantum-mechanically, g can take a noninteger medium and the other physical field quantities. The cou-
value between 1 and 2 due to the interaction between the pling energy density is denoted as w(M, @M/@xi), which
spin and the orbital motion of the electron [2]. However, may show dependence on the magnetization M, the mag-
for magnetic transition metal ions, Fe, Co, and Ni, the or- netic strains @M=@xj , or both. For example, the externally
bital motion of 3d electrons is normally quenched and applied magnetic field Ha can be associated with the Zee-
hence gE2. This implies g ¼ 1.76 107 rad (s Oe) 1 man energy density w ¼ H a . M. For other couplings the
(reciprocal seconds-oersteds). Combining Eqs. (4) and (5), resultant effective fields can be derived from the following
we derive, therefore, the following constitution equation Lagrangian equations [3,4]:
for a magnetic medium:
@w X3
@ @w
@M ðH eff Þi ¼ þ ; i ¼ 1; 2; 3 ð15Þ
¼ gm0 M H ð7Þ @Mi j¼1
@x j @ð@M i =@xj Þ
@t
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2427
The associated energy flux is where ai, i ¼ 1,2,3, is the directional cosine of the magne-
tization vector M with respect to the ith cubic axis and K1
X
3
@w @Mj and K2 are the associated anisotropy constants [5].
si ¼ ; i ¼ 1; 2; 3 ð16Þ Using Eq. (15), the magnetoelastic field can be derived
j¼1
@ð@Mj =@xi Þ @t
from the following magnetoelastic energy density
where M0 denotes the DC component of the magnetization where DH denotes the ferromagnetic resonance (FMR)
vector expressed in Eq. (8). For the limiting case of a thin linewidth. The Gilbert damping term is identical to the
flat ferrite slab lying on the x–y plane, Eq. (19) becomes Landau–Lifshitz form in first order, and is introduced into
the equation of motion, Eq. (7), phenomenologically to ac-
H D ¼ M . ez ez ð20Þ count for the damping torque experienced by electron
spins undergoing precessional motion. Equation (26) de-
scribes very well the measured magnetic loss of a mag-
The definition for HA in the list immediately following
netic microwave device, provided that the applied RF
Eq. (18) denotes the effective field associated with a uni-
frequency is not too far away from the frequency at which
axial anisotropy. For other anisotropy fields HA can be de-
DH was measured. However, the physical meaning of the
rived from Eq. (15) using the appropriate energy density of
Gilbert damping, as related to the relaxation processes in
the anisotropy. For example, the corresponding energy
the medium, is lacking, as in contrast to the other dam-
density for a cubic anisotropy is
ping forms, such as the Bloch–Bloembergen damping [1].
Finally, we have to specify the boundary conditions on
wA ¼ K1 ða21 a22 þ a22 a23 þ a23 a21 Þ þ K2 a21 a21 a21 þ ð21Þ m in the presence of an exchange field of HE appearing in
2428 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
.)
ng
netic coupling, and A is smaller than 0 for ferrimagnetic
o
led EM mod
(L
and for antiferromagnetic couplings. The spatial boundary
ve
)
s.
wa
conditions on m can be derived from the equation of n
ra
tic
motion, Eq. (7), which requires that the quantity (T
as
ve
Weakly Coup
El
wa
@M tic
as
3
m0 AM ð27Þ El (2)
@n
1 2
n denotes the outward direction normal to the surface of
the boundary. The time boundary condition is derived
from the energy conservation law. Thus, from Eq. (16) (1), (2), (3): Strongly coupled EM modes
we require the outward energy flux (1):k = 0 (Circular polarization)
(2):k = /2 (Elliptic polarization)
@M @M
m0 A . ð28Þ k1(~0.1cm−1) k1(~106 cm−1)
@n @t
Retarted Magnetostatic wave Spin wave
to be continuous across the material boundaries. However, zone zone zone
instead of Eq. (28), it is popular in the literature to use the k
following spin-pinning condition at the material bound- Figure 1. Dispersion curves of the coupled photon–magnon
aries: modes. The k space has been divided in three zones for retarded,
magnetostatic, and spin-wave modes. Phonon dispersion curves
@M are also shown in the figure.
¼0 ð29Þ
@t
Since A is a microscopic quantity and at the boundary whose thickness determines the spectrum of the resultant
layers the environment there is quite different from that of magnetostatic waves prevailing in the device structure.
the bulk, the spin-pinning condition, Eq. (29), might be The last region is for k4k2 (E106 cm 1), which is called
more realistic than the one representing the macroscopic the spin-wave zone. In this region the dispersion curves
average, Eq. (28). grow proportional to k2, as dictated by the effective ex-
change field, HE, defined following Eq. (18). Although not
many practical microwave devices are designed in this re-
1.3. Dispersion Curves for Bulk Modes
gion, the spectrum of spin waves is important in the sense
Equations (1), (3), and (10) can now be solved for a bulk that the normal spin precessional motion will break up
ferrite medium for plane-wave solutions. The resultant into spin waves at the onset of instability when a magnetic
dispersion relation, o versus k ( ¼ 2p/l), is shown in Fig. 1. microwave device is driven beyond a high power thresh-
Here, k is the wavenumber and l is the wavelength. In old. The quadratic dependence of the spin-wave dispersion
Fig. 1 the k space is conventionally divided into three gives rise to an effective mass for magnons, m ¼ h %
zones. For the small-k region, kok1 (E0.1 cm 1), electron d(2Aom) 1, where h% denotes Planck’s constant.
spin motion is strongly coupled with the RF electromag- For a given wave propagation direction k, Eqs. (1), (3),
netic fields so that the full set of Maxwell equations is re- and (10) imply two plane-wave solutions. Similar to the
quired to solve the dispersion relations. This region is plane-wave solutions in an isotropic medium, the three
called the ‘‘retarded zone,’’ and most magnetic microwave vectors, e, b, and k for each mode in an anisotropic mag-
devices other than single-crystal YIG films making use of netic medium, are still mutually perpendicular to each
bulk ferrite materials are operational in this region, for other. However, unlike the isotropic case, the two modes in
example, circulators, isolators, phase shifters, and reso- the magnetic medium are nondegenerate, possessing dif-
nators. The next region consists of intermediate k values, ferent effective permeabilities and polarizations. Because
k1 (E0.1 cm 1) okok2 (E106 cm 1), known as the mag- of the wrong sense in polarization, one mode is weakly
netostatic-wave zone. In this region o{kðem0 Þ1=2 and coupled to the photon waves, and hence its dispersion
hence the displacement current, oee, can be ignored in curve represents little departure from that of the (uncou-
Maxwell equations: pled) photon modes. This dispersion curve is shown in
Fig. 1 as a straight (short) dashed line in the retarded
rh 0 ð30Þ zone. The other mode couples strongly to the photon
waves, giving rise to distortion of the dispersion curves
This equation is called the magnetostatic approximation. in the retarded zone.
A magnetostatic wave device usually require the use of a For the strongly coupled mode two branches show up,
high-quality single-crystal magnetic film such as YIG depending on whether the bias magnetic field is applied
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2429
above or below FMR. These two branches are shown in Layer thickness = d
Fig. 1 as bottom and top curves, respectively (bias above
FMR is referred to in the literature as the condition that 1= z 3 = [z(z + m)]1/2
the bias field is larger than that required by FMR; bias 3= z + m s = z + 0.5 m
below FMR means the reverse. According to this conven-
3
tion, in Fig. 1 the bias-below FMR condition corresponds
to the top curve, curve 3, and the bias-above FMR condi- k = /2 k = 0
MSBVW MSSW
s
tion corresponds to the bottom curves, curves 1 and 2). The
top branch, curve 3 in Fig. 1, lies entirely in the retarded
2
zone and shows very little variation with respect to the
wave propagation directions; that is, the propagation of
strongly coupled electromagnetic waves biased below
FMR is nearly isotropic in the magnetic medium. Howev-
er, the bottom branch, curves 1 and 2, depends strongly on
1
the wave propagation directions. When k is parallel to the
z axis, the dispersion curve is shown as curve 1 in Fig. 1,
and when k is perpendicular to the z axis, the dispersion MSFVW k= 0 k= /2
curve is shown as curve 2. For other propagation direc-
tions, the dispersion curves are distributed between these
Finite curvature (2/d) Curvature negligible
two curves, and for this reason, the region bounded by
curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 1 is usually referred to as the spin- k
wave manifold. In the literature curve 1 is known as the Figure 2. Dispersion curves of magnetostatic waves in a mag-
Kittel mode and curve 2, the Voigt mode. A Kittel mode netic layer. The MSFVW is shown as a heavy dotted line, rising
possess a right-hand circular polarization, whereas a from o1 to o2 as k increases from 0 to N. The MSBVW and MSSW
Voigt mode is associated with an elliptic polarization. In are shown hatched depending on the propagation direction of the
Fig. 1 yk denotes the angle between k and the z axis, which magnetostatic waves. yk denotes the angle between the wave
is designated as the applied field direction, and o1, o2, and propagation direction and the applied field direction.
o3 are given as
For MSSW the dispersion falls within the forbidden bands when atoms are brought together to form a periodic
area of the bulk modes extending from o2 to o3 (see Figs. 1 lattice [9,10].
and 2). MSSW dispersions increase as k increases, reach- Finally, let us discuss the propagation loss of a delay
ing limiting values at large k. The propagation of MSSW is line. When an observer is traveling with the wave down
anisotropic, and the largest dispersion occurs at yk ¼ p/2, the delay line for a delay time t ¼ td, the electric field is
which gives rise to a limiting frequency os ¼ oz þ 0.5 om,
known as the Damon–Eshbach frequency. The most pop- e ¼ e0 exp½2pjðf þ jDf Þtd ð41Þ
ularly used MSSW is for yk ¼ p/2, which requires the
MSSW to propagate transverse to the applied field direc- where e0 denotes the initial amplitude at t ¼ 0. This im-
tion and results in the widest frequency band for MSSW plies that the propagation loss in dB is
device applications.
In Fig. 2 MSFVW and MSBVW are shown only for the a ¼ 40pðlog10 eÞDf td ð42Þ
lowest-order volume modes. Higher-order volume waves
are also possible. A high-order volume wave, which as- In Eq. (41) f and Df respectively denote the real and the
sumes additional nodal points along the thickness of the imaginary parts of frequency. Df can be related to the line-
magnetic layer, will converge to the same frequency as the width measured with a resonator consisting of the delay
lower-order waves at large k, except that the curvature of line of a finite length but weakly coupled to by an external
the dispersion curve is reduced. In general magnetostatic feeder line circuit. Thus, we have
waves are generated in single-crystal YIG films epitaxial-
ly grown on gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) substrates. Df ¼ Dfm þ Dfd þ Dfc ð43Þ
Very often, a dielectric superstrate, for example, alumina,
is covered on top of the YIG film to facilitate the excitation where Dfm, Dfd, and Dfc denote, respectively, contributions
of magnetostatic waves. For these situations the disper- from magnetic loss, dielectric loss, and conductor loss. As
sion diagram of Fig. 2 remains unchanged. However, when discussed in deriving Eq. (26), Dfm may be identified as half
a metal ground plane is placed on top of the superstrate the FMR linewidth multiplied by a volume filling factor Fm
shown in Fig. 3, the dispersion of MSSW, but not MSFVW denoting the volume ratio of the ferrite material relative to
and MSBVW, will change. The influence of a metal plane the total volume enclosing the resonating cavity:
is that the MSSW dispersion curve will grow in a convex
manner, increasing initially from o2 at k ¼ 0 to a maxi- Fm jgjm0 DH
mum value less than o3 followed by decreasing to os as k Dfm ¼ ð44Þ
2
goes to infinity. When a second metal ground plane is add-
ed to the bottom side of the GGG substrate shown in Fig. The other two linewidths (Dfd and Dfc) can be estimated in
3, the propagation of MSSW becomes even nonreciprocal; a similar manner dealing with a dielectric lossy cavity, for
that is, the dispersion curve is different depending on example, [11]. If we assume that magnetic loss dominates
whether the wave propagation is along the þ k or the - k and approximate FmE1, Eqs. (42) and (44) imply
direction. In Fig. 3 magnetostatic waves may be excited by
using a microstrip line, consisting of only the top ground a 76:4td DH ð45Þ
plane; or a stripline, consisting of both the top and the
bottom ground planes. For a multilayered system contain-
where td is in microseconds and DH is in oersteds. Equa-
ing alternating magnetic and dielectric layers, the bulk
tion (45) was originally derived by Vittoria and Wilsey [12]
and the surface modes form a band structure in almost the
for an MSW delay line. However, since delay time is mea-
same way that atomic energy levels crowded into energy
sured as group delay, td expressed in Eqs. (41), (42), and
(45) will be multiplied by a factor vg/vk, where vg denotes
the group velocity ( ¼ do/dk) and vk denotes the phase ve-
Microstrip feed Stripline feed locity ( ¼ o/k) for wave propagation.
Top ground plane Metal strip 1.6. Spin-Wave Instabilities and Their Route to Chaos
In Fig. 1 the high-k regime where the wave dispersion
Dielectric superstrate curves show k2 dependence is called the spin-wave zone.
Although spin waves may not be directly exploited for de-
GGG substrate
vice applications, they are important to influence device
performances especially at high power, because they are
intimately related to instabilities when a ferrite is exces-
sively excited invoking nonlinearity. The quantized spin-
YIG film Bottom ground plane wave particles are called magnons, which interact with
Figure 3. Magnetostatic wave excitation configuration. The YIG the quantized electromagnetic-wave particles, or photons,
film is deposited on top of the GGG substrate. A superstrate can through the nonlinear terms in the equation of motion
be used to provide microstrip excitation configuration. A bottom [Eq. (7) or (61)]. Instabilities occur if energy transfer from
ground plane can also be deposited on the GGG substrate to pro- the photon modes to the magnon modes, or among magnon
vide stripline excitation configuration. modes themselves, becomes unstable [13], rendering
2432 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
unpredictability resembling the turbulencelike behavior where the subscripts SA and RS stand for subsidiary ab-
of chaos [14,15]. sorption (first-order instability) and resonance saturation
The concept of spin waves was first introduced by Bloch (second-order instability), respectively. In Eqs. (47) and
in 1930 to explain the thermodynamic properties of ferro- (48) DH is the FMR linewidth
magnets at low temperatures [16]. Suhl renewed the in-
terest in spin waves and explained the saturation effects oDH ¼ jgjm0 DHk ð49Þ
observed in ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) experiments
[13]. As just stated, the spectrum of spin waves shown in
and DHk is the linewidth of the spin wave that is intro-
Fig. 1 has proved to play a dominant role in the relaxation
duced phenomenologically to parametrize the energy
processes observed at high power. When an RF field is ap-
transfer rate from the spin wave mk to lattice vibration.
plied, it drives the spins into precessional motion, which in
Thus, once excited, a spin wave will decay according to the
turn couples with spin-wave propagation, dumping energy
following equation
into lattice vibration via spin–spin and spin–lattice relax-
ation processes. The coupling to spin waves must originate
from the nonlinear terms in the equation of motion, mk ðtÞ ¼ mk ð0Þ expðoDH tÞ ð50Þ
Eq. (7). The quadratic interaction comes from h m and
the cubic interaction from either hm . m or mm . m, in- assuming that it does not couple to other magnetic modes.
ducing the so-called first-order and second-order spin- In addition to Suhl’s instabilities, Morgenthaler [17]
wave instabilities, respectively. For a spin wave compo- and Schloemann [18] found that spin waves could also be
nent, mk, it induces two h fields, denoted as hE, from the parametrically excited by an RF field applied parallel to
definition for HE following Eq. (18), and the dipolar field, the static field, known as parallel pumping, as in contrast
hd, from Eq. (23). These two h fields then feed back and to the transverse RF field configuration assumed by FMR
couple nonlinearly with the original mk field to generate measurements. Similar to Suhl’s first-order instability,
instability if a threshold power is reached. The m . m term parallel pumping can impose an instability that occurs
arises from the constraint that the magnitude of M needs at a spin-wave frequency equal to half the frequency of the
to be a constant (equal to MS); that is, in Eq. (8) the lon- RF pumping signal ok ¼ o/2. The threshold for parallel
gitudinal component M0 is replaced by pumping instability is
m.m
M0 1 MS ð46Þ 2DHk o
2Ms2 hth
PP ¼ ð51Þ
om sin2 yk
As a consequence, the DC demagnetizing field, if not zero,
will add cubic nonlinearity to the equation of motion, giv- which compare closely in magnitude to hth SA , the threshold
ing rise to adverse effects in influencing the spin-wave in- for Suhl’s first-order instability shown in Eq. (47). In Eq.
stability. (51) the subscript PP denotes parallel pumping.
Under FMR measurements, the experiments showed a Parallel pumping excites spin waves via the cubic in-
subsidiary absorption at high excitation power that occurs teraction term hm . m. However, in contrast to perpendic-
at a DC field less than that required by the resonance ular pumping assumed by Suhl’s instabilities, parallel
condition. Also, as the input power increases, the reso- pumping requires no involvement of the Kittel uniform
nance absorption peak broadened accordingly rendering mode and the pumped photon energy or electromagnetic
premature saturation of the main resonance. Suhl [13] energy is directly imparted to the creation of two spin-
showed that the subsidiary peak arises from a spontane- wave magnons of opposite wavevectors 7k, called Cooper
ous transfer of energy from the uniform precessional mo- pair magnons. For the case of perpendicular pumping, the
tion of spins to spin waves of half the resonance frequency, pump signal is to first induce the Kittel uniform mode fol-
ok ¼ o/2. This instability is caused by the first-order (qua- lowed by conversion into either a single magnon at wave-
dratic) interaction between the dipolar field hd and the vector k or Cooper pair magnons at 7k for the first-order
spin wave mk. The second instability responsible for the and the second-order processes, respectively. In Eqs. (47),
broadened and declined saturation of the main resonance (48), and (51), yk denotes the angle between the wavevec-
peak comes from a catastrophic energy transfer from the tor k and the z axis ez. From these three equations, min-
uniform precessional motion of spins to spin waves of the imum threshold pump fields occur when yk equals 0, p/4,
same frequency ok ¼ o. This instability is brought about and p/2 for resonance saturation, subsidiary absorption,
by the second-order (cubic) interaction between the ex- and parallel pumping instabilities, respectively. These en-
change field hE and the spin waves, mk and mk. The re- ergy transfer diagrams are shown schematically in Fig. 4,
sultant input field thresholds for these two instabilities in which the spin-wave band is redrawn from Fig. 1 with
are, respectively [17] the retarded zone omitted, but extended in both 7k di-
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rections. In Fig. 4 the Kittel uniform mode is also shown,
2DHk whose frequency is
hth
SA ¼ ðo oz Þ2 þ o2DH ð47Þ
om sin 2yk
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi o0 ¼ gf½Ha þ HA þ 4pMs
2DHk ð52Þ
hth ¼ DH ð48Þ
RS
M cos 2yk ðNx Nz Þ½Ha þ HA þ 4pMs ðNy Nz Þ1=2
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2433
on
k = /2
on
ot
ot
Ph
Ph
k = /2
/4 0
o o
0 k
k
−k 0 +k −k 0 +k
(k = 0.5 o; p = o) (k = o = p)
(a)
on
ot
Ph
p k = /2
0
k
which can be derived by using the linearized equation such as water dripping from a leaking faucet has been
Eq. (9) assuming the following dipole field for the uniform shown to show similarities with other irrelevant chaotic
precessional mode processes such as stretching and folding a plane (Héno
attractor) or kneading a piece of dough (Lorentz attractor).
hd ¼ N D m ð53Þ Universal rules have thus been developed that govern the
intrinsic structure of a chaotic system or a random process
in a manner analogous to the scaling rules developed by
see Eqs. (19) and (23). Note that in Fig. 4 Kittel uniform using the renormalization group theory for phase transi-
mode is not excited during parallel pumping, since the tions observed in condensed-matter physics.
former requires transverse components of the RF magne- Research in chaos has resulted in a common language
tization field that are not able to be supplied by the latter. suitable for the description of chaotic systems or random
In Fig. 4 the wavy arrows indicate photon transitions, and processes. This language applies to the universal struc-
solid arrows indicate magnon transitions; only the critical ture of the limiting curves traced out by trajectories of a
transitions are illustrated in Fig. 4, giving rise to mini- dynamic system or process embedded in state space. With
mum values in the pumping field responsible for the onset dissipation these trajectories will, after a transient period,
of instabilities. settle into limiting curves or cycles called attractors. If the
The turbulencelike behavior of magnetic excitations af- system or the process is regular with its response predict-
ter spin-wave instabilities have set in and their routes to able, state space trajectories will remain converged and
chaos have been studied using the generic numerical anal- confined all the time and the dimension of the resultant
ysis [14,15]. The responses of a nonlinear system, such as attractor will necessarily be an integer, for example, given
spins in a ferromagnet, can be totally unpredictable, due by a circle, a torus, or another configuration. However,
to amplification of errors made in the initial states. Such when chaos or turbulence launches, nearby trajectories in
an error amplification mechanism, which is characterized state space diverge and the attractor shows strange be-
by Lyapunov exponents for trajectories in state space dur- havior, thereby called strange attractors. For a strange at-
ing time evolvement, renders randomness to the system’s tractor, its dimension is not an integer and its appearance
response leading to the violation of the causality principle; shows repeated resemblance after it has been continuous-
namely, the connection between the past and the future of ly magnified, a scenario implied by a fractal. A similar
the system is lost after a short transient period. However, fractal structure can be attributed to the strange basin
in more recent decades, researches have found regulari- boundaries separating the domains for different attrac-
ties in irregular systems and randomness appears to have tors settled in the state space of a chaotic system or
a deterministic underpinning; even the random events process.
2434 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
The usefulness of the language developed for describ- 2. FERRITE JUNCTION CIRCULATORS
ing chaos are twofold:
A circulator is defined as a device with ports arranged such
1. It allows a general erratic time-sequenced data or that energy entering a port is coupled to that of an adja-
dynamically fluctuating picture to be categorized, cent port but not to that of the remaining ports. A ferrite
according to the appearance of the associated attrac- junction circulator has become a versatile microwave de-
tors and/or basin boundaries in state space, analo- vice because, in addition to its use as a circulator, it also
gous to the fact that phase transitions are classified can be used as an isolator or as a switch. Depending on the
according to their order in transformation. As such, bias field direction onto the junction area, either upward or
routes to chaos can be visualized, and only a few downward, the output ports operate in turn each time an
routes have been found available for general random input port is selected, either clockwise or counterclockwise,
processes or phenomena to follow, including frequen- respectively, so that the junction is said to provide the cir-
cy-doubling bifurcation, intermittence, and crises. culation operation. The three-port version of the ferrite
Similarly, thousands of kinds of phase transitions junction circulator, usually called the Y-junction circulator,
take place in the physical world, but only a few is most commonly used. It can be realized by feeding the
transformation orders are generally deduced for junction with three joining transmission lines, including
phase transitions. Universal scaling rules are con- waveguides, striplines, microstrips, CPWs (coplanar wave-
cluded for both the chaotic/random systems and for guides), and slotlines. The waveguide version is usually an
the phase transition systems, which describes the H-plane junction, although an E-plane junction circulator
rate at which instabilities or critical phenomena are can also be created. The stripline ferrite junction circulator
approached by the change in system-pumping pa- is usually made with coaxial connectors facilitating its use
rameters or order parameters, respectively. as a discrete component at the UHF, microwave, and mil-
limeter-wave frequencies.
2. From the dimension or the size of the resultant at-
Early experimenters found that waveguide T junctions
tractors and/or the basin boundaries in state space,
having a transversely magnetized ferrite slab suitably
it is possible to determine the degree of randomness
placed in the junction could, with proper matching and
or agitation inherent in the chaotic system or pro-
adjustment of the magnetic field, be changed into circula-
cess under study, enabling extraction of the maxi-
tors. The bandwidth of such devices was very narrow. Re-
mum amount of information out of irregularity: the
finements producing better symmetry were found to
larger the entropy or the information content of the
broaden the bandwidth so that useful devices were ob-
system or the process, the more complicated and in-
tained. The first commercial microwave circulator ap-
volved structure will be implied by the strangeness
peared in the early 1950s, while a full theoretical
of the attractors and/or the basin boundaries. When
account of its operation was not published until 1962 by
the nature of randomness is better known, which is
Bosma [19,20].
clearly described in terms of the language of chaos,
The stripline Y-junction ferrite circulator consists of
weather prediction and broadcast in the future, say,
two ferrite disks filling the space between a metallic cen-
can then be much more reliable although still per-
ter disk and two conducting ground planes. The static
haps unable to yield 100% accuracy.
magnetic field is applied parallel to the axis of the ferrite
disks. In Bosma’s theory TEM Voigt modes were assumed
It has been shown that spin-wave instabilities result- propagating clockwise/counterclockwise in the region be-
ing from parametric transverse and parallel pumping dis- tween the two conductor planes possessing no variation
play chaotic dynamics characterized by the universal along the applied field direction [19,20]. Magnetic wall
routes such as period-doubling bifurcation [14] and sub- boundary conditions were assumed by Bosma at the fer-
harmonic generation [15]. In general, when the pumping rite disk periphery not adjacent to the circulator ports.
field was increased beyond a threshold value [e.g., see Impedance boundary conditions were then imposed on the
Eq. (47), (48), or (51)], modulation in self-oscillation of the periphery areas defined by the circulator ports. Under
ferrite spin system set in at a low frequency; the ampli- these assumptions the RF magnetic field inside a 2D fer-
tude of this low-frequency modulation oscillation grew rite junction can be solved analytically, involving Bessel
steadily with pumping power until frequency doubling bi- functions of the first kind to be cast in the series form. The
furcation occurred before leading to a full-scale chaotic circulation conditions were then postulated by Bosma, re-
state. For parallel pumping subharmonic generation sulting in two real equations allowing for determination of
routes were also observed from windows of the Fe- two circulator design parameters. Bosma chose the radius
igenbaum scenario [15]. Strange attractors associated of the junction R and the dielectric constant of the match-
with computer-generated time sequences from the nonlin- ing dielectric material surrounding the junction ed as the
ear coupled spin-wave modes, or the so-called two-mode two independent parameters [19,20]. Therefore, at the
model, showed fractal scenarios common to a generic cha- circulation frequency the junction will yield 0 dB inser-
otic system. A scaling parameter d ¼ 4.675 was found for tion loss and infinite isolation with all the input electro-
perpendicular pumping, which is close to the Feigenbaum magnetic energy dumped into the output port without
universal value, indicating the success in adopting the attenuation. Note that a circulation condition can be for-
chaotic language in describing the unstable dynamics of mulated only with respect to an ideal lossless junction
the nonlinear spin-wave system [14]. with perfect impedance matching at all ports.
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2435
Fay and Comstock [21] presented a practical model for excitations are shown as standing waves in an isotropic
the operation of a Y-junction circulator. In their treatment junction (Fig. 5a), and in a ferrite junction at circulation
the circulator circuit is approximated by a pair of slightly (Fig. 5b); the junction assumes a thin-disk geometry of a
detuned RCL resonators connected in parallel to account negligible aspect (thickness to diameter) ratio whose pe-
for the two counterrotating dipole modes of the ferrite riphery is defined by the magnetic wall boundary condi-
disks in the presence of a bias field. Participation from tions. In Fig. 5 solid curves with arrows depict RF
high orders has thus been ignored. At circulation the two magnetic field lines, and crosses and dots represent elec-
dipole modes are nondegenerate, and the splitting be- tric lines entering and exiting the junction area, respec-
tween their (detuned) resonant frequencies Df is propor- tively. For an isotropic junction the input field will excite a
tional to the resultant gyrotropy p ¼ k/m of the junction symmetric field pattern with respect to the output and the
circuit. Here, k and m are the off-diagonal and diagonal isolated ports attaining an equal intensity (Fig. 5a). En-
elements of the Polder tensor of the ferrite material, re- ergy entering the input port, which has been shown with
spectively [Eqs. (11) and (12)]. Fay and Comstock have the most field intensity, will split in two equal halves
shown that it is imperative to incorporate moderate p of reaching the output and isolated ports undergoing recip-
the ferrite material to obtain broadband operation of the rocal operation. However, for a ferrite junction biased at
circulator junction [21]. circulation the dipole pattern of Fig. 5a is rotated 301
Fay and Comstock have also proposed RF field patterns counterclockwise such that the input and the output ports
responsible for the circulation operation of a ferrite junc- are at an equal field intensity; the isolated port is aver-
tion [21]. This is shown in Fig. 5, where dipole-mode aged to zero, since an equal number of positive and neg-
ative electric field lines appears at the isolated port (Fig.
5b). Thus, electromagnetic energy entering the input port
Output feeds the output port directly, leaving behind the isolated
port essentially electronically insulated. The circulator
operation is nonreciprocal in the sense that the circula-
tion action takes place in a cyclic order among the three
circulator ports, 1-2, 2-3, 3-1, and so forth.
The continuous ‘‘frequency tracking’’ conditions for the
operation of a broadband junction circulator were first re-
ported by Wu and Rosenbaum [22], whose design requires
the junction to operate below FMR with the magnetization
Input
magnetized slightly above saturation. The other design
parameters postulated by Wu and Rosenbaum are as fol-
lows:
ed ¼ ef ð55Þ
Isolated
(a)
oRðm0 meff ef Þ1=2 ¼ 1:82 ð56Þ
Output
where y is half the port suspension angle, ef (ed) is the
permittivity of the ferrite (dielectric matching) material,
meff ( ¼ 0.556) is the effective permeability of the ferrite
junction, R is the junction radius, m0 is the permeability of
air, and o is the angular frequency (at the center of the
transmission band). Equation (55) implies that the ferrite
and the dielectric-matching material, also called the di-
electric-matching ‘‘sleeve,’’ are characterized by the same
Input
dielectric constant. Thus, the junction and the sleeve can
be conveniently fabricated using the same piece of ferrite,
which needs to be magnetized slightly above saturation so
as to avoid domain wall loss. As such, there is no need to
separately fabricate a dielectric-matching sleeve sur-
rounding the ferrite junction thereby reducing the fabri-
cation costs. The thickness of the junction is not specified
Isolated
by the design, whose value is based on matching of the
(b)
circulator port impedance:
Figure 5. Field pattern for dipole excitations in an isotropic
junction (a) and in a ferrite junction at circulation (b). Solid lines 1=2
meff
represent magnetic field lines; crosses/dots, electric lines entering Zin ¼ ð57Þ
and exiting the plane of the drawings. ef
2436 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
The Wu–Rosenbaum circulator design provides an octave crystal YIG and lithium ferrite, since these materials
bandwidth extending from om to 2om [22]. Here, om ¼ have shown the lowest DH values at the X-band and at
|g|m0MS and g is the gyromagnetic ratio and MS, the sat- the Ka -band frequencies, respectively.
uration magnetization [Eq. (14)]. The second issue relates to nonlinear coupling of elec-
Schloemann and Blight [23] have improved the Wu– tromagnetic signals at high power. This gives rise to in-
Rosenbaum circulator performance [22] by extending the termodulation noise. In a ferrite junction intermodulation
transmission band at a lower frequency limit. Schloemann noise grows quickly with power, identified as clicking nois-
and Blight were able to calculate the junction response in es in a telephone line, which must be minimized, if not
the FMR region where the effective permeability becomes totally eliminated, to ensure quality communication. In
a negative number [22]. To proceed, they employed the the following we argue how intermodulation noise can be
modified Bessel functions of the first kind to account for minimized in a semiquantitative manner. Let the power
the evanescent modes excited during FMR. They also be applied to the input port of a circulator junction as
claimed that the measured bandwidth by Wu and Rot-
henbaum was narrower than that calculated, due to the P ¼ i2 Zin ð58aÞ
nonuniform magnetic bias field accidentally introduced
with the measurement. To prove their assertion, Schloem- ¼ h2 w2 Zin ð58bÞ
ann and Blight [23] fabricated two semispherical domes
2
using the same ferrite material as in the junction to cover h
the junction from above and below so as to ensure a uni- ¼ Ms2 4R2 sin2 yZin ð58cÞ
Ms
form demagnetizing field within the junction area. By so
2
doing, they successfully measured a 3:1 bandwidth for a m
crystal YIG (yttrium iron garnet) junction circulator (2.8– ¼ Ms2 jmeff 1j2 4R2 sin2 yZin ð58dÞ
Ms
10.2 GHz) and for a crystal lithium ferrite junction circu-
lator (5.8–18 GHz) [23]. ¼ Ms2 jmeff 1j2 d2m 4R2 sin2 yZin ð58eÞ
All ferrite circulators are functional utilizing the non-
reciprocal property for wave propagation in ferrites, pro- where i denotes the RF current flowing into the input port
viding low insertion loss and high isolation over a broad of impedance Zin, h is the transverse RF magnetic field at
frequency band. The bandwidth is proportional to the in- the junction edge adjacent to the input port, w is the width
verse of the Q value of the cavity resonator formed by the of the input port, R is the radius of the junction, y is half
circulator junction, namely, the region of the ferrite bound the port suspension angle, meff is the effective permeability
by metal boundaries at top and bottom and by a magnetic of the junction defined by
wall at periphery. Typically the bandwidth is about 5–15%
of the center frequency, depending on the deployed sus- m
meff ¼ 1 þ ð59Þ
pension angle of the ports, unless the frequency-tracking h
conditions are enforced as postulated by Wu and Rose-
nbaum [22]. The circulator junction is a low-Q device, and dm denotes the excursion angle of the magnetization
since the three coupling ports bestow the junction an open vector away from the DC bias field direction, or the devi-
structure, allowing electromagnetic waves to leak from ation or inclination angle of the precessional motion of
the junction area; the larger the port suspension angle, electron spins in the ferrite junction around the DC bias
the broader the transmission bandwidth that will result. field direction
It is thus desirable to adopt the Wu–Rosenbaum param-
m
eters [Eqs. (54)–(56)] to achieve the broadest transmission dm ð60Þ
band, unless the circulator operation is attempted at high Ms
power (or if one attempts to minimize the junction size as
discussed later). where dm measures the extent that linear approximation
To design a circulator junction at high power we must of magnetic excitation remains valid inside the ferrite
consider the following issues: heat production, intermod- junction. In other words, if dm is large, linear approxima-
ulation, spin-wave generation, and thermal stability. tion no longer holds true and nonlinear effects become no-
There are two kinds of magnetic loss. The first kind is as- ticeable. As a general rule, the onset of nonlinearity, or
sociated with magnetic domain wall motion, and the sec- intermodulation coupling, is given by
ond kind relates to the intrinsic magnetic relaxation
processes underlying the magnon–phonon interactions. dm 0:1 rad ð61Þ
To eliminate magnetic loss of the first kind, the ferrite
junction needs to be magnetically biased well above satu- beyond which nonlinear effects set in, giving rise to ap-
ration. This eliminates residual domains existent with a preciable amount of intermodulation noise. In Eq. (58e) dm
barely magnetized ferrite junction, thereby reducing heat. denotes the excursion angle of the magnetization vector
For this reason, a power circulator circuit should be biased near the input port. However, the circulation mode as-
well above FMR. The second kind of magnetic loss is char- sumes mostly the dipole mode, which implies the largest
acterized by a material parameter called FMR linewidth magnetic excitation near the input and the output ports
(DH) Eq. (26). To minimize magnetic loss of the second (see Fig. 5). As such, the threshold condition of Eq. (61),
kind, one prefers to employ low-loss ferrites such as which was derived at the input port, can be applied within
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2437
a multiplication constant (E0.6) over the whole junction Cubic interaction in ferrites
area, denoting the worst situation invoking the nonlinear
interaction. Thus, we define the following parameter F
denoting the figure of merit of a power circulator design
Signal amplitude
characteristic of the amount of intermodulation noise as
1=2
F ¼ 4pMs R sin y Zin ð62Þ
− 0 + t
P / F 2 d2m ð63Þ
(Time-domain:ferrimagnetic echo)
Signal amplitude
ifested by dm under a given power excitation P.
Alternatively, the circulator junction problem at high
power can be solved quantitatively, as proposed in [24]. By
keeping high-order terms up to the third power of small-
field quantities in Eq. (4), Eq. (9) becomes
1 dm 2ft-f2 f1 f2 2f2-f1
¼ ez ½Hin m f
g dt ð64Þ (Time-domain: Intermodulation)
Ms h ðhz þ 4pNz mz Þm þ mz h Figure 6. Nonlinear (cubic) coupling in an echo line and in a
ferrite junction expressed in time domain and in frequency do-
where main, giving rise to ferrimagnetic echo signals and intermodula-
tion signals, respectively.
m.m
mz ¼ M s M z ð65Þ
2Ms will be generated. This suggests the following bias config-
uration, which is thought to be effective in reducing in-
denotes the z component of the RF magnetization vector termodulation noise. As shown in Fig. 7, the two ferrite
that has been neglected in Eq. (9) under the first-order junctions implied by a stripline circulator are clamped
approximation [see Eq. (49)]. In Eq. (64) Hin is the internal
DC field given by
Ferrite (same 4 Ms)
Hin ¼ H0 4pNz Ms ð66Þ
between two cylindrical ferrite poles, which are placed 4MS 4MS
outside the respective ground planes of the stripline cir-
cuit having the same saturation magnetization as the
junction material and the same cross-sectional area as
the junction geometry. While these two ferrite poles have
no effect whatsoever in influencing the RF performance of Q R
the circulator junctions, they are effective in reducing the
DC demagnetizing field within the junction areas so that
4pNz in Eq. (64) becomes nearly zero, thereby minimizing
T T
intermodulation noise. Here we assume the thickness of
the clamping ferrite poles to be much greater than the di- 4MS 4MS
ameter of the junctions. In Fig. 7 a magnetic yoke (pro-
viding magnetic flux closure contour) and condensers
(providing magnetic focusing) are used so as to facilitate
the bias of the circulator junction circuit incorporating
clamping ferrite poles. P N
We must point out here that the same ferrite clamping
technique has been used by the ferrimagnetic echo exper-
iments that reduced the demagnetizing field within an
T T
echo line such that an echo gain larger than unity can be
realized [25,26]. More detail on ferrimagnetic echo ampli- Figure 8. Temperature-dependent magnetization curves: Q type
fication can be found in Section 7. The additional advan- is normally observed for magnetic metals and alloys, and R type
tage associated with the magnetic bias configuration of for ferrites; both of them show normal temperature dependence. P
Fig. 7 is that it is effective in inhibiting the onset of spin- type and N type occur for some ferrites that show positive slopes
wave instabilities occurring within the ferrite junction, at certain temperature ranges near room temperatures; they are
termed temperature-compensated ferrites.
thereby stabilizing its operation at high power. It is known
that the demagnetizing field term in Eq. (64) can adverse-
ly affect the spin-wave instabilities at high power [13] and
hence must be minimized; see discussion following Eq. temperature, the ferrite is then called a temperature-com-
(46). This constitutes the third issue, namely, that a ferrite pensated ferrite, which provides advantages when the fer-
junction to be applied at high power necessitates spin- rite is used at high power.
wave stabilization. Furthermore, besides minimizing When applied at high power, the axial component of the
spin-waves, reducing the content of magnetostatic surface magnetization vector decreases, since the spin’s preces-
waves (MSSWs) is also necessary. We know that surface sional motion dictates the magnetization vector to deviate
waves are inherent to a guiding structure possessing 2D or incline farther away from the direction of the DC bias
discontinuities in magnetic or dielectric quantities [8]. In field: the more the power applies, the further the deviation
the microstrip geometry surface waves always exist whose or inclination will result [Eq. (60)] in addition to more heat
modal spectrum depends on the thickness and the dielec- generated in the junction area. This causes the tempera-
tric constant of the substrate material; the thicker the ture of the junction to rise. However, for a P- or a N- type
substrate and the larger the dielectric constant, the more ferrite, the temperature rise is accompanied by an in-
surface modes will appear [8]. Analogously, one expects crease in saturation magnetization, which compensates
MSSWs to abound in a thick ferrite junction showing high for the decrease in its axial component expressed in Eq.
saturation magnetization. This situation should be avoid- (46), ensuring that the circulation conditions do not drift
ed if high power is attempted. Also, a thin ferrite junction away as a result of thermal heating, thereby stabilizing
facilitates heat removal via conduction so that it favors the circulator operation at high power. It is thus clear that
high-power applications. temperature-compensated ferrites are preferred when a
The fourth issue on power circulator operation con- circulator junction is to be applied at high power.
cerns thermal stability. Figure 8 shows four types of mag- The size of a ferrite junction can be considerably re-
netization curves exhibited by magnetic materials with duced if the junction is biased above FMR providing di-
qualitatively different temperature dependence. The Q rectly 50 O impedance at the junction ports. The
type represents the normal temperature dependence usu- advantage of using the bias-below FMR configuration is
ally observed for metals and alloys. Almost all ferrites that it is then possible to realize the frequency-tracking
(e.g., Mn-Zn ferrite, Ni-Zn ferrite, Co ferrite) and garnets conditions so as to enable the broadband operation of a
show the R-type temperature dependence. P-type and ferrite junction [22,23]. However, the drawback is that, to
N-type temperature dependence were observed for some invoke a bias-below FMR configuration, the junction ac-
concentration ranges of Ni-Mn-Ti, Ni-Al, and Mn-Fe-Cr quires a large area, since the junction is then character-
ferrites and for garnets in general [27]. In Fig. 8 Q and R ized by a relative permeability value considerably smaller
types always show a negative slope for their magnetiza- than unity (E0.556). In order to reduce the junction size,
tion curves. However, for P and N types the magnetization the junction has to be biased above FMR, utilizing an ef-
curves are possible to show a positive slope at certain fective permeability value appreciably larger than unity
temperature ranges. If positive slopes occur near room (E5–6). Furthermore, if the circulator design directly
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2439
provides 50 O impedance at junction ports, there is no planes are not shown in Fig. 9. In the presence of a ver-
need for transformers, resulting in miniaturization of the tically applied bias magnetic field, wave propagation along
circulator circuit at low frequencies. By using these two the stripline is nonreciprocal: highly transmitting along
techniques Hotech has fabricated 5-mm circulator junc- one direction, but highly attenuating along the other di-
tions at the ISM (industrial–scientific–medical) band pro- rection. Thus, the RF magnetic field pattern shown as
viding 15% bandwidth in transmission. The ISM band dashed curves in Fig. 7 displaces toward the edge of the
includes the frequency ranging from 902 to 928 MHz and stripline in the presence of the bias magnetic field, which
from 2.4 to 2.48 GHz, which do not require a FCC (U.S. is either shifting away from the dissipation pad (top
Federal Communications Commission) license. Even drawing), or onto the dissipation pad (bottom drawing),
smaller circulator junctions are currently attempted by resulting in little attenuation, or heavy attenuation, re-
Hotech incorporating high-dielectric materials so that spectively. Hynes [28] has shown the operation of an edge-
miniaturized UHF circulators in the order of 1 mm can mode isolator providing a 3–1 transmission band, which is
be potentially fabricated in the future. about the same bandwidth measured by Schloemann and
A conventional Y-junction circulator utilizes a low-Q Blight in 1986 wherein the frequency-tracking conditions
resonator that causes the standing modes to couple in and were enforced employing the conventional (standing-
out electromagnetic energy in a nonreciprocal manner mode) resonator-type circulator junctions [24].
[21]. To admit ultrabroadband operation of a circulator Edge-mode traveling-wave operation can also be real-
junction, one must abandon the conventional standing- ized by three-port junction geometry. In Fig. 10, three ad-
mode picture to allow for traveling waves. Broadband two- joining ports exhibiting a three fold symmetry rather than
port isolators using the traveling displacement modes or two aligning ports are shown depositing on top of a trian-
edge modes were first reported by Hines in 1961 [28]. In gularly shaped ferrite substrate. Again, a similar superst-
Fig. 9 a stripline is fabricated on top of a ferrite substrate rate covers the substrate on top and two ground planes are
and a dissipation pad, such as a thin layer of poor con- applied at their respective outer surfaces. Superstrate and
ductor, is deposited at one side of the substrate next to the ground planes are not shown in Fig. 10. To operate, a bias
stripline circuit. The superstrate, which consists of the
same ferrite material, stacks above the substrate, and
ground planes are attached to the substrate and superst- Edge-mode circulator Edge-mode coupling
rate at their outer surfaces. Superstrate and ground port 1 to port 2
Po
rt 3
rt 2
Port 2
Po
ad
H
h
np
atio
H h
sip
h
Dis
(ferrite)
(ferrite)
Port 1 Port 1
Non-reciprocal
Wave-propagation Edge-mode de-coupling
port 1 to port 3
Edge-mode/displacement mode
backward wave-propagation
h
Port 2
Po
rt 3
rt 2
Pad
Po
H
n
atio
H
h
sip
h
Dis
(ferrite)
Port 1 (ferrite)
Port 1
Figure 9. Operation of edge-mode isolator. In the presence of a
bias magnetic field, the RF magnetic field pattern is shifted to- Figure 10. Operation of edge-mode circulator. In the presence of
ward the edge of a stripline fabricated using ferrite materials de- a bias magnetic field, the RF magnetic field pattern shifts toward
posited with dissipation pad at one side. As such, propagation of the edge of a stripline fabricated with ferrite materials, which
electromagnetic waves along the stripline is nonreciprocal, trans- couples strongly to one joining line (top) but decouples to the other
mitting along one direction, top, but attenuating along the other joining line (bottom), resulting in circulation action over a broad-
direction, bottom. band.
2440 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
magnetic field is applied along the junction thickness di- Ultra broadband edge-mode circulator
rection inducing the displacement modes or the edge
Coupling zone changes
modes to propagate in a manner analogous to Hines’ iso-
adaptively with
lator circuit shown in Fig. 9. As a consequence, edge modes wavelength
couple strongly between ports 1 and 2, due to overlapping
of their respective propagation electromagnetic waves
with phase coherency, but decouple also strongly between
ports 1 and 3 due to lack of the required wave overlapping.
This results in the desired circulator operation in which
3
Po
electromagnetic signals entering port 1 can exit only from
rt
Po
rt 2
port 2, and so forth. In comparison to Fig. 9, the dissipa-
tion pad is not needed by Fig. 10; rather, the wave prop-
agation direction, or the circulation direction, is dictated
h
H 1
by the coupling/decoupling mechanism imposed by the 2
ports. In Fig. 10 the dashed curves depict schematically
the RF magnetic field pattern illustrating the coupling 3
and decoupling of the propagation waves in ports. h
In order to broaden the transmission band of an edge- 4
mode circulator, it is necessary to enforce phase coherency 5
for wave propagation between the input and the output Port 1
ports across a broad frequency range; that is, phase co-
herency needs to be maintained over a wavelength dis-
tance denoted as l in Fig. 10. Therefore, high-frequency
signals couple more strongly near the center of the junc- Figure 11. Operation of edge-mode circulator employing a com-
tion and low-frequency signals, near the side edge of the posite substrate/superstrate structure containing five triangular-
ly shaped shells labeled as m1 to m5. The magnetization is
junction. Since the operation of a ferrite device requires
increased from the side edge m5 toward center m1 to accommodate
the magnetization to scale with frequency [this ratio is the phase-matching requirement to achieve ultrabroadband cir-
known as gyromagnetic ratio; see Eq. (13)], one expects an culator operation.
ultrabroadband edge-mode circulator to occur if the ferrite
junction shows different magnetizations scaled with the the isolated port being connected with a matched dummy
propagation wavelengths: large at the center but small at load. However, due to the asymmetric arrangement of the
the side edge. This ultrabroadband circulator geometry is ports, high-order harmonics are effectively suppressed,
shown in Fig. 11, in which a composite substrate is illus- resulting in broad stopband operation as desired. Broad
trated consisting of five triangular shells of different fer- stopband operation revealing a 10–1 bandwidth has been
rite materials, labeled as m1 to m5, respectively, whose
saturation magnetization decreases from center to edge
progressively. In Fig. 11 the metal strip has been tapered
accordingly from edge to center to accommodate the Isolated
change in saturation magnetization, assuming that the
ferrite materials are characterized by the same dielectric
constant. Again, a similar geometry is assumed by the su-
perstrate. Initial studies on circulators of Fig. 11 have
shown a 10–1 transmission band. A U.S. utility patent ap-
plication for ultrabroadband edge-mode circulator opera-
tion has been filed by Hotech.
An asymmetric circulator junction can be used as a
broad stopband filter [29,30]. Broad stopband filters are
required by radome applications protecting the receiver
circuits from high-power incidence over a broad frequency
band. The traditional filters utilizing coupled resonators
can hardly provide the broad stopband operation, since
high-order harmonics will inevitably appear at high-order
harmonic frequencies. By using an asymmetric ferrite
junction it is possible to induce the broad stopband oper-
ation. This is seen in Fig. 12, where an asymmetric ferrite Input Output
junction is shown similar to that in Fig. 5 except that the
Figure 12. Dipole field pattern for an asymmetric ferrite junc-
cyclic symmetry has been removed. Instead, the input and tion excited at circulation. The field pattern still shows symmetry
the output ports still show the left–right (image) symme- between the input and the output ports so that energy entering
try so as to allow the circulation conditions to occur. As the input port is dumped into the output port, with the isolated
shown in Fig. 12, at circulation, electromagnetic energy port essentially electronically insulated from the input port.
enters the input port and exits from the output port, with Asymmetric junction will provide a broad stopband.
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2441
measured by using an asymmetric circulator junction Important device applications for M-type hexaferrites in-
[29,30]. clude circulators and isolators, wherein the easy axes co-
When biased above FMR, a three-port ferrite junction incide with the thickness direction of the substrates so as
normally shows a transmission band no broader than 15% to eliminate, or at least reduce, the bias field requirement
of its center frequency. However, this bandwidth can be at high frequencies. Using M-type hexagonal ferrites, bar-
increased if additional tuning ports are added to the junc- ium–strontium magnetoplumbites, a practical self-biasing
tion geometry. This is shown in Fig. 13, where three tun- stripline circulator, has been fabricated at 37 GHz, exhib-
ing ports, called tuning ‘‘stubs,’’ have been added to the iting 1 dB insertion loss and 15 dB isolation [32].
junction circuit still exhibiting the threefold symmetry of The performance of a circulator junction can be numer-
the ports. This allows the circulation conditions to occur as ically simulated by assuming a 2D geometry [33–35].
usual. However, the added three tuning stubs are effective Dielectric loss can be accounted for by assuming a com-
in broadening the bandwidth if their length and imped- plex permittivity for the ferrite junction
ance have been properly designed. It has been shown [31]
that the added capacitance from the tuning stubs in jsf
Fig. 13 has broadened the bandwidth to 30% of its center e ¼ e0 er ð1 j tan dÞ ð67Þ
o
frequency when biased above FMR.
Difficulty in using a ferrite substrate is that the bias and magnetic loss due to domain-wall motion by a complex
magnetic field is required to have a magnitude of at least permeability
several thousand oersteds to effectively change the per-
meability of the substrate at X-band frequencies, [e.g., see m ¼ m0 ðm 0 þ jm 0 0 Þ ð68Þ
Eq. (13)]. In order to reduce this bias field requirement, it
is desirable to utilize the internal anisotropy field associ- where tan d denotes the dielectric loss tangent, sf the con-
ated with a hexaferrite material to substitute, at least ductivity, and er the dielectric constant, and m0 and m00 are
partially, the external field. In a ferrite material exhibit- the real and imaginary parts of permeability, respectively.
ing hexagonal symmetry the internal crystalline anisot- Magnetic loss due to the intrinsic relaxation processes can
ropy field can be as high as 50 kOe, admitting device be included by modifying the bias field to include an imag-
applications even beyond 100 GHz [27]. For a hexaferrite inary part proportional to the FMR linewidth DH
material crystalline anisotropy causes the energy of mag- [Eq. (26)]. Conductor loss due to imperfect metal bound-
netization direction along the c axis to differ from energies aries of the ground planes and the stripline central con-
in the directions lying on the ab plane. For an M-type ductor patch can be modeled by using the mean-field
hexaferrite the c axis is an easy axis, and the magnetiza- theory [36]; that is, the metal boundaries are withdrawn
tion vector favors alignment along the c axis. This implies a distance dc into the interior of the imperfect metal bulk
that in an M-type hexaferrite the crystalline anisotropy with the recessed volume to be filled by air [36]. Here dc
behaves like an external field aligning the magnetization denotes the (complex) skin depth
along the c axis [see the definition for HA below Eq. (18)].
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
dc ¼ ð1 þ jÞ ð69Þ
Isolated
om0 s
3. LUMPED-ELEMENT CIRCULATORS
Tuning stub
Figure 13. Three additional tuning ports, called tuning stubs, The linear dimension of a distributed-element microwave
are added to a three-port circulator junction. By carefully design- device is comparable to the wavelength of the RF signal
ing the width and length of the tuning stubs, the added capaci- propagating in the device, for example, a ferrite junction
tances from the tuning ports can effectively broaden the circulator. At UHF/VHF frequencies the size of a distrib-
transmission band. uted-element device sometimes turns out to be too bulky
2442 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
40 Calculation
Scattering parameter (dB)
20
S11 S21
0
−20
S31
−40
20 25 30 35 40
Frequency (GHz)
S12 S21
log MAG log MAG
REF 0.0 dB REF 0.0 dB
10.0 dB/ 1 10.0 dB/
1 −33.889 dB −6.1719 dB
hp
c Measurement
Marker 1
Scattering parameter (dB)
31.95 GHz
0
1
1
2
kth strip not necessarily a constant, for example, for the 4. HEXAFERRITE WITH EASY PLANE
interwoven strips shown in Fig. 15. The kth strip is de-
fined by the area Sk. In Eq. (72) dw is the width element, For a Y-type hexaferrite the c axis turns out to be a hard
and vector r connects the source point of the current to the axis and the magnetization vector tends to lie in the ab
observer point. Combining Eqs. (70) and (72), we obtain plane, which is termed the ‘‘easy plane’’. While it is
the following equation thought M-type hexaferrite is appropriate for circulator
and isolator applications requiring out-of-plane magnetic
X
3 bias, Y-type hexaferrite is adequate as the substrate ma-
Dvi ¼ Zik ik ð73Þ terial for microwave tunable filters because of its large
k¼1 magnetization and in-plane anisotropy, as well as the ease
in use—the demagnetizing field is negligible along the
where the interport impedance Zik is given as transverse directions of a planar device [41]. Also, elimi-
nation of the external magnets represents a significant
Z Z step toward more compact circuit design, allowing for
jom0 dw00
Zik ¼ da 0 integration of the device with future semiconductor cir-
4p Ai Sk W k
cuitries.
m½d‘00 ðr 0 r00 Þen jk½d‘00 ðr 0 r00 Þ . ðez en Þ The effective field associated with an easy plane can be
jr 0 r00 j3 derived from using Eqs. (15) and (21). However, this would
ð74Þ result in a magnetization–orientation–dependent effective
field, as first demonstrated by Schloemann et al. [42],
which is in contrast to the conventional concept of a mag-
The interport impedance of a cyclic three-port lumped-cir-
netic field [see Eq. (85)]. In the following we define a mean
cuit element circulator can then be written as
effective field characteristic of the anisotropy of an easy
0 1 plane from an operational point of view. The precessional
1 a þ jb a jb motion of the magnetization vector is depicted in Fig. 16
B C
Z ¼ joLB a þ jb C for both cases of an easy axis (top) and an easy plane (bot-
@ a jb 1 A ð75Þ
tom). For an easy axis the magnetization vector undergoes
a þ jb a jb 1 a uniform precessional motion around the easy axis, ex-
periencing a uniform torque exerted by the anisotropy, re-
where sulting in a constant angular velocity. This is shown in a
polar plot at the top of Fig. 17, where the loci of the an-
Z Z gular velocity o traces a circle. However, for the case of an
mm0 dw00 ½ðd‘00 ðr 0 r00 Þen
L¼ da 0 ð76Þ easy plane (Fig. 16, bottom), the precessional motion of the
4p A1 S1 W 1 jr 0 r00 j3
magnetization vector is not uniform. The anisotropy field
Z Z exerts no torque at all on the magnetization vector at
1 mm0 dw00 ½ðd‘00 ðr 0 r00 Þen points A and A0 lying on the easy plane, and a maximum
a¼ da 0 ð77Þ
L 4p A1 S2 W 2 jr 0 r00 j3
Z Z
1 km0 dw00 ½ðd‘00 ðr 0 r00 Þ ðez en Þ
b¼ da 0 Easy axis: Circular precession
L 4p A1 S2 W 2 jr 0 r00 j3 B′
ð78Þ A′ A
B
and
We note that the gyromagnetic component of the interport Easy plane: Elliptical precession
inductance is nonreciprocal under port exchange. This A
renders the circulation action for the circulator device. B
Once the interport impedance matrix is known [Eq. (75)], B′
the circuit of Fig. 15 can then be fully analyzed by using A′
Kirchhoff ’s law as performed by a classical circuit. Or, one
can follow the route adopted by Bosma [19,20] to solve the
circulation conditions for a given lumped-element circula- Torque exists only outside easy plane
tor circuit. Literature on lumped-element circulators is Figure 16. Precessional motion of the magnetization vector
cited in Refs. 39 and 40. around an easy axis (top) and an easy plane (bottom).
2444 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
We derive, therefore
B′
Z 2p 1
g dy
Hi ¼ ð82Þ
2p 0 oðyÞ
pe
Y-type
bility studies and spinwave linewidth measurements are
Y-ty
discussed in further Refs. 43–46.
Effective
M-type
Y-type
Ho tems are becoming increasingly important today for both
the defense and the commercial applications. For example,
in the collision avoidance industries, low-profile conformal
Y-ty
resonator (rather than the aforementioned traveling rotational motion, as shown in Fig. 19. A rotary joint is
waves excited inside a nonreciprocal ferrite phase shift- used to isolate the rotational motion of the coax cable from
er), has generally shown an insertion loss less than 0.5 dB, the coax launcher, which serves as the entrance for the
and an even smaller insertion loss, say, less than 0.1 dB, input signal.
can be obtained if the circulator operates over a narrow A prototype phase shifter device, whose schematic is
frequency band. This implies that phase shifts obtained shown in Fig. 19, has been fabricated and tested by Ho-
from using a nonreciprocal ferrite resonator can poten- tech. The resonator used garnet G1010 (Trans-Tech, Ad-
tially show low insertion loss, if the coupling impedance amstown, MD) biased by a magnet located under the
has been well matched at the input/output ports. resonator (Fig. 19). The bias field was measured to be
Depending on the speed requirement, the output phase 1050 kOe, and the resonant mode was identified as the 1 þ
from the ferrite resonator can be coupled out using switch- mode at 3.78 GHz (clockwise rotating dipole mode). The
es of various kinds, including mechanical switches, optical measured transmission phases, as well as amplitudes, are
switches, electronic switches, or electromechanical switch- shown in Fig. 20 at the resonant frequency, as a function of
es. A mechanical switch might be slow, but it is neverthe- the rotating arm positions, normalized with respect to
less cost-effective. Electronic switches can be fabricated those values when the rotating arm is located along the
using semiconductor junctions located in close proximity output port direction (Fig. 19). From Fig. 20 it is seen that
to the resonator ports to be integrated with the other
phased-array elements. Microelectromechanical switches
(MEMSs) provide high isolation between ports. Optical/
superconducting switches are fast devices, and a response
time shorter than 1 nsec can be readily achieved.
Phase shifters using ferrite resonators are narrowband
devices whose bandwidth is typically 5% of the transmis-
sion frequencies. However, one is allowed to vary the bias
field magnitude so as to alter the resonant mode of the
resonator, resulting in continuous tuning of the transmis-
sion frequency. In this sense, phase shifters using ferrite
resonators are operational as broadband devices. Howev-
er, if broadband transmission is not a requirement, the
resonator can be fabricated using a self-biasing hexafer- 0
rite so that the need for external bias is eliminated. Also,
the fabrication of a phase shifter utilizing a ferrite reso-
nator is cost-effective, since, once it is fabricated, there is
no need for individual tuning for performance adjustment,
because the transmission amplitude is a constant, as im- 1
Output
plied by the resonator’s circular geometry. Phase shifters
using ferrite resonators can be fabricated over all the mi-
crowave bands, from UHF to millimeter-wave frequencies.
Figure 19 shows an example that a ferrite-ring reso-
nator serves to provide phase shifts invoking a rotating
arm as the coupling mechanism. Unlike the other elec-
tronic/optical/MEMS coupling mechanisms, a rotating Ring-shape
arm gives continuous change in phase shift angles. In Substrate magnet
Fig. 19 a hole is drilled with the ferrite substrate that
constitutes the central hole of the ring resonator, as shown
in Fig. 19. In Fig. 19 port 0 is not fixed in position, and is
allowed to rotate around an axis at the center of the res-
onator, contacting loosely, but coupling tightly to, the in- Gear
ner periphery of the ring patch of the conductor circuit of
Rotary joint
the resonator. Air is used as the substrate material for
port 0 so as to facilitate the mechanical motion of the ro- Motor
tating arm intended there. The other end of port 0 is con- Gear
nected to the central conductor of a coaxial cable, which Image plane
penetrates through the ground plane of the resonator from Ground plane Input
below, protruding into the hole region formed by the fer-
rite resonator, joining port 0 and making a 901 angle at the
Figure 19. An example of microwave phase shifter construction
point of joint. This forms a rotating arm, consisting of port using a nonreciprocal ferrite resonator. Due to the removed de-
0 and the central conductor of the coax cable, shaped as generacy in wave propagation, the phase of the resonant mode
the letter ‘‘L’’ but upside down. Via a gear assembly, can thus been uniquely determined. The resonant mode is coupled
the coax cable, and hence the rotating arm, is loaded out via the use of a rotating arm driven by a stepped motor to
into a step motor that drives the rotating arm to perform select the output phase via mechanical means.
2448 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
0 0
−90 −5
−180 −10
0 90 180 270 360
Rotating arm position (degree)
Figure 20. Transmission phase and amplitude at the resonant
frequency plotted as a function of the rotating arm position. The
measured phase and amplitude values have been normalized with
those when the rotating arm is located at the 01 position, that is,
when the arm is pointing toward the output port shown in Fig. 15. Figure 21. Novel ferrite phase shifter allowing for 512 phase
values subject to frequency tuning capability. Isotropic symmetry
of the device circuit ensures the phase shifting function to be
uniform independent of the derived phase values.
the output phase from the phase shifter follows exactly the
rotating arm position. Note that in Fig. 20, the measured
transmission amplitudes of the phase shifter fluctuate
slightly, to an extent of about 72 dB, due to the imperfec- 6. MAGNETOSTATIC WAVES AND YIG FILM DEVICES
tion impressed with device fabrication (the rotating arm
was fabricated a bit off center). The measured bandwidth There exists an ever-increasing demand for signal pro-
of the phase shifter was about 5% of the center transmis- cessing devices that can be used for radar detection, elec-
sion frequency, as expected. The minimum insertion loss tronics communication, and instrumentation applications.
was measured to be 0.33 dB when the rotating arm was At UHF frequencies surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices
located pointing along a 901 angle (see Fig. 20). have been widely used, providing phase shifting, time de-
Instead of adopting mechanical means, the phase of the laying, and other analog signal processing functions. How-
resonant modes excited with the ferrite ring resonator of ever, at higher frequencies (42 GHz), SAW devices are
Fig. 19 can also be coupled in and out using switches, as inefficient because of device fabrication and increased in-
shown in Fig. 21. Although the construction of a mechan- sertion loss. At microwave or even millimeter-wave fre-
ical rotating arm is cost-effective (Fig. (19)), its operation quencies signal processing devices have been largely
is slow, in the order of milliseconds, suffering from poten- achieved utilizing the newly developed magnetostatic
tial problems such as worn-out materials and hence me- wave (MSW) technology providing similar functional per-
chanical breakdown. By using electronic switches, the formance as SAW devices. Additional advantages include
phase shifter becomes more reliable and its response lower insertion loss, large bandwidth up to 1 GHz, ease of
time greatly improves, in the order of microseconds for fabrication, frequency tuning, dispersion shaping, and
semiconductor junctions or MEMSs, and nanoseconds for nonlinear operation.
superconducting or optical switches. The phase shifter, In contrast to SAWs, MSWs are very disperse and can
circuit shown in Fig. 21 consists of 64/8 switches at the be controlled readily by means of an external magnetic
inner/outer ports capable of providing 512 discrete phase field. In principle, three basic types of MSWs are distin-
angles in operation, if both the inner and outer port guished: forward volume MSW (MSFVW), backward vol-
switches are under selection at the same time . Most im- ume MSW (MSBVW), and surface MSW (MSSW). An
portantly, the input/output ports are all symmetric with MSFVW is excited in the ferrite material, usually a YIG
respect to one another, ensuring the transmission ampli- film, magnetized perpendicularly to the film plane. An
tude from the phase shifter to be uniform and independent MSBVW is excited in a YIG film and the magnetization
of the angle in phase shifting. By applying a magnetic field direction is in the film plane along the wave propagation
perpendicular to the ring plane, one can vary the effective direction. An MSSW is also associated with a transverse
permeability of the ferrite resonator, resulting in tuning in magnetization, but the wave propagation is perpendicular
the transmission frequencies. The tuning range of an oc- to the direction of magnetization. For detailed discussions
tave band can be readily obtained from UHF to beyond about excitation and dispersion trends of these three
Ka-band frequencies. A U.S. patent for the shifter circuit types of MSWs, see text discussion following Fig. 2. All
shown in Fig. 21 is currently pending (Hotech, 2004). three types of MSWs can be effective used in fabricating
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2449
microwave devices, such as delay lines, tunable filters, However, the simplest way to avoid MSW interference is
phase shifters, resonators, noise suppressers, and ampli- to cut the YIG edges into angles other than 901 such that
tude correctors. the reflected beam is directed away from the active area of
In order to reduce wave propagation loss, high-quality the MSW device [49]. Among the many MSW applications
single-crystal yttrium iron garnet (YIG) films are usually discussed in this section, we will briefly discuss the oper-
used for the fabrication of MSW devices. When YIG single- ation of MSW delay lines, filters, directional couplers, and
crystal films are epitaxially grown on gandolinium galli- resonators. Other nonlinear and magnetooptic MSW de-
um garnet (GGG) substrates, the ferromagnetic resonance vices will be discussed in Sections 7 and 9, respectively.
(FMR) linewidth DH can be as narrow as 0.3 Oe at 9 GHz
and 0.6 Oe at 20 GHz. Using Eq. (45), the propagation loss 6.1. MSW Delay Lines
in an MSW delay line is 23 and 46 dB per ms at 9 and
Figure 22 shows the commonly used flip-over configura-
20 GHz, respectively. Therefore, for a typical delay-line
tion for MSW delay lines. Microstrip lines serving as the
application, the propagation loss requiring 200 ns delay
transmitter and receiver for MSWs are fabricated using
will be, respectively, 4.6 and 9.2 dB at 9 and 20 GHz. This
photolithographic technique on top of a dielectric superst-
compares very favorably with other kinds of delay lines
rate such as alumina, sapphire, fused silica, or duroid
such as a coaxial cable; at 9 GHz, a 200-ns coaxial cable
material. The high-quality crystal YIG film epitaxially
would require a length of 50 m long, resulting in 30 dB loss
grown on GGG substrate is brought in contact with the
in propagation.
transducers via a spacer layer and the overall dielectric–
MSWs are excited within YIG films using either mi-
spacer–YIG–GGG assembly is placed between the poles of
crostrips or striplines as the transducer circuits. The guid-
the biasing magnet. The biasing magnetic field can be di-
ed electromagnetic modes of the transducers couple with
rected either on the YIG film plane parallel to or perpen-
the intrinsic excitations of the YIG films to launch mag-
dicular to the microstrip lines, or perpendicular to the YIG
netostatic waves traveling down from the input to the
film plane, to provide MSBVW, MSSW, or MSFVW delay-
output transducers to perform the signal processing func-
line operation, respectively. Therefore, due to the coupling
tions. In addition to straight microstrip/stripline trans-
between the electromagnetic waves (EMWs) induced by
ducers, meander lines, gratings, and interdigital and
the microstrip lines and the MSWs, the microstrip trans-
unidirectional transducers can also be used to couple in
mitter will excite MSWs that travel down the delay-line
and out the MSW signals. Transducers involving short-
structure to be picked up by the microstrip receiver. Let-
circuited and open-circuited microstrip lines are common-
ting the distance between the transmitter and the receiver
ly used for broadband MSW device applications. The
be D, the time delay for this device is
entire MSSW, MSFVW, or MSBVW frequency band can
be excited by using a narrow (10-mm) microstrip transduc- D
er. For narrowband devices, meander lines and gratings td ¼ ð96Þ
vg
can be used. These transducers can be designed with
50–75 O input impedance over broad frequency bands, where vg ¼ do/dk denotes the group delay velocity of
and matching circuits can be used to reduce mismatch MSWs.
losses. Delay-line elements exhibiting a linear dependence of
In order to reduce spurious reflection of MSWs from the the delay time td on frequency are key components in
YIG film edges, MSW terminations or absorbers need to be pulse compression radar, microscan receiver, and Fourier
utilized. These terminations can appear in the form of fer- transform systems. In general td is highly dispersive, de-
rite powders, or iron/permalloy rods, or even recording pending nonlinearly on frequency. There exists various
tapes, or GaAs thin films may be placed at the YIG edges. methods that allows td to show linear dependence on
Ground plane
Microstrip Microstrip
transmitter receiver
(Propagating MSW)
(EMW) (EMW)
Figure 22. Schematic showing the MSW de-
lay-line configuration. Microstrip transducers
are used to couple in and out the MSWs. De-
GGG substrate pending on the direction of the bias magnetic
field, all types of MSWs can be excited and de-
YIG film Alumina superstrate tected using the present circuit configuration.
2450 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
6.2. MSW Filters Figure 23. Microstrip circuit showing the geometry for multiel-
ement grating transducers used for excitation and receiving
Filtering of electronic signals is performed as a frequency- MSWs over a narrow frequency band for tunable filter applica-
selective process realized in the frequency domain. In tions.
principle, any delay-line configuration can be viewed as
a frequency filter structure provided that the following
features are emphasized: low insertion loss occurring at
the passband and high attenuation occurring at the stop- (Top view)
bands. The filter characteristics can be feasibly obtained Power out Power out
by controlling the transducer dimensions and the YIG/
ground-plane separation. While short-circuited straight
microstrip lines are generally used as transducers for a
broadband filter, multielement grating transducers, such MSW
as those shown in Fig. 23, are used to synthesize narrow-
band filters. As such, narrowband filters of bandwidth
30 MHz tunable from 3 to 7 GHz have been successfully
demonstrated [54]. Similarly, by carefully adjusting the
width of the short-circuited microstrip transducer and the
YIG film thickness, a broadband filter tunable from 0.3 to
12 GHz with stopband rejection better than 45 dB has
Power in Dielectric Power out
been shown [55]. The advantage of using a MSW filter is
that the passband can be tuned by varying the strength of spacer
Ground plane
the bias magnetic field. Multi-strip
transducer GGG
6.3. MSW Directional Couplers
Figure 24 shows the schematic of an MSW directional GGG
coupler, with which two YIG films are deployed face to
face, separated by a dielectric spacer. Ground planes are Ground plane YIG Film
deposited on the outer sides of the GGG substrates and (Side view)
two multistrip lines are used as transducers, coupling in
Figure 24. Schematic showing the MSW directional coupler con-
and out microwave energy though exchange of MSWs. By figuration. Microstrip multistrip transducers are used to couple in
careful design of the microstrip line spacing as well as the and out the MSWs. All types of MSWs are possible depending on
dimensions of the dielectric spacer, the characteristic of a the bias field direction. The coupling coefficient between the input
directional coupler can be obtained. Operation at full pow- and output ports can be varied by changing the strength of the
er coupling is possible [56]; hence, the directional coupler bias magnetic field.
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2451
can be equivalently used as a bandpass filter. Also, by resonance condition. To avoid this drawback, a new con-
varying the bias field strength the power transferring co- figuration that involves two cavities coupled by MSFVWs
efficient of the directional coupler can be consequently ad- has been proposed [58], as shown in Fig. 26. Each cavity
justed. consists of two etched-groove gratings and a single micro-
strip transducer. The two cavities are placed at a 901 angle
6.4. MSW Resonators and are coupled by a 451 obliquely oriented gratings ca-
pable of deflecting the incident MSW beam by a 901 angle.
Although the MSW bandpass filters discussed above are
The resonators reported by Castera and Hartemann [58]
useful for many applications, occasionally, considerable
exhibited insertion losses between 20 and 32 dB and a
signal selectivity may be required over as narrow a pass-
loaded Q value of 290–1570 over a tuning range of
band width as possible. For example, tunable MSW reso-
2–11 GHz.
nators can be used as the frequency-selective elements in
The resonator structures discussed so far involve re-
tunable oscillator circuits in the microwave frequency
flection surfaces or mirrors, which is complex in the sense
bands. MSSW resonators can be constructed by placing
that they require groove or metal-strip arrays to be fabri-
reflective metal gratings at the edges of the resonating
cated on the YIG film surface. To avoid this complexity, it
cavity. Alternatively, grooves may be cut on the YIG film
is also possible to directly use the straight edges of the YIG
surface using wet etching or ion bombardment to form an
film to form a MSW cavity resonator. Figure 27 shows
MSSW cavity. This is shown in Fig. 25, in which two ar-
such a straight-edge resonator (SER) device, where the
rays of straight grooves are etched parallel to but on the
YIG/GGG resonator, which is of a rectangular shape cut
two sides of the microstrip transducer lines, and, MSSWs,
by a dicing saw, is place on top of the dielectric substrate
once generated, bounce back and forth indefinitely be-
coupled in and out by the short-circuited microstrip trans-
tween these two groove arrays at resonance. As reported
ducers on both sides of the resonator. Depending on the
by Castera [57], MSSW resonators fabricated in this man-
bias field direction, both MSSW and MSFVW SERs can be
ner have shown a tuning capability between 2 and 5 GHz,
constructed. Thus, MSSWs propagate along the surface of
exhibiting a loaded Q of 500 and an off-resonance rejection
the YIG film and are reflected back onto the surface at the
level of 15 dB.
straight edges. A standing-wave pattern results and a
For MSFVWs the bias magnetic field is perpendicular
high-Q resonance is obtained. In this manner a MSSW
to the YIG film plane, and hence the propagation of
SER has been reported [59], exhibiting an insertion loss of
MSFVWs is isotropic in all directions in the film plane.
3.1 dB and a sideband suppression level better than 20 dB
As such, the MSSW resonator shown in Fig. 25 is not
tunable from 1 to 22 GHz.
suitable for MSFVW applications; it will result in poor off-
Finally, we consider the MSW structure of Fig. 28,
resonance isolation, since at off resonance the propagation
which depicts a one-port resonator circuit. The circuit of
of MSFVWs at slightly tilted angles may still satisfy the
Fig. 28 can be fabricated using photolithographic tech-
nique, and, hence, cutting of reflective grooves on the YIG
film is avoided. In Fig. 28 MSWs are excited within the
(Top view) metal window coupled in and out via the microstrip trans-
Power out ducer. In order to form total reflection of the MSWs at the
window boundary, and hence to achieve a high Q value,
the geometry of the resonator needs to be carefully de-
signed. The circuit of Fig. 28 allows for operation for all
HE types of MSWs, and simple MSW resonators can be con-
structed.
(Top view)
Power out
Reflecting
ve g
oo tin
grooves
s
gr flec
De
VW
SF
M
Power in
HE
Reflecting
grooves
YIG
Ground Metal Film
plane strip
Figure 26. Schematic showing the configuration of
an MSFVW resonator. Two cavities are placed at a
901 angle, and are coupled via MSFVWs passing GGG
through an obliquely oriented groove grating array.
The bias field is applied perpendicular to the YIG
film plane. (Side view)
and stripline configurations [60]. We will discuss here the into lattice vibration, and hence dissipated as heat. Thus,
limiter operation using a single-crystal YIG film arranged when Pin is given as a function of frequency, as shown at
in the configuration shown in Fig. 3 of Section 1, except the bottom left of Fig. 29, the excess power of Pin Pth will
that a meander line is normally used instead of a straight be removed by the limiter and the resultant output char-
microstrip line. Also, a thick YIG film is preferred, because acteristic will be as shown at the top right of Fig. 29.We
it implies an abundant spin-wave spectrum allowing the note that Fig. 29 shows only an idealized operation. In re-
guided electromagnetic waves to react sufficiently with ality, the Ps level shown in the Pout/Pin diagram is not a
spin waves to induce instability at high power. All types of constant; it increases slightly with Pin when Pin exceeds
ferrite frequency-selective limiters operate analogously; Pth. As such, instead of showing chopped-head peaks, the
when a transmission line is loaded with a ferrite element, output will consist of rounded-head transmission peaks in
the transmitted power cannot exceed a threshold value the Pout/Pin diagram shown in Fig. 29.
beyond which catastrophic energy transfer occurs be- As an example, in Ref. 61 a 57-mm-thick YIG film was
tween the guided RF electromagnetic fields and the spin coupled to a 25-mm-wide microstrip meander line of char-
precessional motion. This phenomenon has been discussed acteristic impedance 50 O fabricated on a high-dielectric-
in Section 1, and it is generally known as the Suhl spin- constant substrate. This limiter, which operated in the 2–
wave instability [13]. Parallel pumping instability is irrel- 4 GHz range showed a limiting range of 25 dB, a threshold
evant, since it requires the RF magnetic field to be applied input power level of 0 dBm, and a small-signal loss of 7 dB.
parallel to the applied DC field direction, and this is not The upper frequency limit was not sharply defined, since
the case here. the limiting power decreased with increasing frequency,
Figure 29 depicts a simple picture explaining the op- but operation up to 8 GHz is possible with this device.
eration of frequency-selective power limiter. As shown at The failure of the limiter device reported by Stizer and
the top left of Fig. 29, the relationship between the input Goldie [61] to operate at high frequencies can be explained
power Pin and the output power Pout is roughly linear only in terms of the onset condition giving rise to Suhl’s spin-
when Pin is smaller than Pth, the threshold power. When wave instabilities. As discussed in Section 1, Suhl’s first-
Pin is larger than Pth, we observe that Pout becomes grad- order instability occurs for spin waves possessing a fre-
ually saturated at Ps, and the excess power, Pin Pout, quency equal to half the applied RF frequency. Thus,
couples into spin-wave motion to be ultimately converted above 8 GHz, the instability will occur in spin waves of
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2453
(Top view)
Power out
Ps
Pout
Pout
Pth
MSW Pin f
Power in
Pin
YIG Film
Dielectric substrate f
Figure 29. Power transmitted through a nonlinear frequency-
Ground plane
selective limiter. Input power spectrum is shown at the bottom
(Side view) left, and the output power spectrum is shown at the top right. The
relationship between the input and the output powers is shown at
Figure 27. Schematic showing the configuration of a two-port the top left.
MSW straight-edge resonator. The bias field can be applied per-
pendicular to the microstrip transducers in the YIG film plane, or
perpendicular to the YIG film plane for MSFVW or MSSW oper- frequencies exceeding 4 GHz, which are located above the
ation, respectively. spin-wave manifold extending the frequency range from 2
to 4 GHz. The second-order spin wave instability, which
involves spin waves of the same frequency as the applied
(Top view) RF signals, has a higher threshold and is not used in fre-
Power in/out quency-selective power limiters. Thus, a power limiter is
operational only when half the applied frequency falls
within the spin-wave manifold region bounded by the two
frequencies o1 and o2 shown in Fig. 1. Since o1 and o2 can
be tuned by varying the applied field strength, the limiter
is therefore termed a frequency-selective device.
Pout
power limiter circuit will couple most efficiently with spin
waves, whereas a signal-to-noise enhancer will avoid this
by operating at a frequency o so that o/2 is located well
f
beyond the spin-wave manifold region. On the contrary, a
signal-to-noise enhancer will couple tightly with magne-
tostatic waves, for example, MSSW, while for a power lim-
iter this is seldom the case. As a result, meander lines are
Pin
commonly used in power limiter circuits.
Ps
Let us examine the configuration of Fig. 3. Here we as-
sume that the biasing magnetic field is applied parallel to
f
the microstrip direction such that MSSWs are excited
propagating perpendicular to the strip. Since the genera- Figure 31. The input power spectrum, bottom, and the output
tion of MSSW in this configuration is very efficient, the power spectrum, top, applied to and transmitted from a signal-to-
noise enhancer, respectively.
input RF power is almost entirely consumed for the gen-
eration of MSSWs at low input-power levels. However, as
the input power increases, the amplitudes of MSSWs in- input power level Pin. In reality Ps will increase slightly
crease accordingly until reaching saturation beyond which with Pin when saturation is approached. As an example,
no more conversion into MSSWs is appreciable. Figure 30 Adam and Stizer [62] show a signal-to-noise enhancer de-
shows that PMSSW increases with the input power Pin lin- vice centered at 3.3 GHz with a bandwidth of 800 MHz
early in the initial region but saturates at large Pin. The that exhibited 16 dB less attenuation when the input pow-
functional dependence of PMSSW is similar to that of the er increased from 6 to þ 10 dBm.
output power from a limiter device shown in Fig. 29. The
output power from the signal-to-noise enhancer is 7.3. Amplitude Correctors
Pin PMSSW, which is shown as the heavy line in Fig. 30.
Thus, from Fig. 30 we conclude that low-intensity signals For signal processing at microwave frequencies broadband
will be damped more by the generation of MSSWs than amplifiers are needed whose characteristics are desired to
high-intensity signals. show linear dependence on the amplitude of the input sig-
The top diagram in Fig. 31 shows the power spectrum nals. However, for most power amplifiers including micro-
output from a signal-to-noise enhancer device based on wave traveling-wave tubes (TWTs), the amplification is
the input spectrum shown at the bottom of the figure. It is deteriorated at high power, resulting in reduced power
seen in Fig. 30 that noises, appearing at low power levels, amplification for high-power input signals. One possible
are damped out, leaving alone the high-level signals with way to resolve this problem is to compensate the input
improved signal-to-noise ratio. Again, Fig. 30 shows an power with a corrector that attenuates more input power
idealized situation in which Ps does not depend on the at low input power levels. This is exactly the same char-
acteristic that we have discussed for a signal-to-noise en-
hancer, and, hence, it can be equally used as an amplitude
corrector device. It was shown [63] that an amplitude cor-
rector operated at 3 GHz with low and high signal sup-
pression level of 4.2 and 1 dB, respectively, and the
threshold power level was 100 mW. This device was
equipped with an O-type TWT operating from 2.5 to
3.6 GHz, and corrected output characteristics have thus
been obtained.
t
ou
Pout
P
=
renewed interest in the use of ferrimagnetic echoing noise observed in a ferrite circulator junction [24]. As
devices. shown at bottom of Fig. 6, two RF signals at adjacent fre-
Among many nonlinear systems capable of producing quencies f1 and f2 will couple each other to form intermod-
an echoed signal (e.g., cyclotron echo, plasma echo, molec- ulation noises at frequencies 2f1 f2 and 2 f2 f1.
ular echo, phonon echo, and spin echo), only ferrimagnetic Intermodulation signals grow rapidly with power, which
echo can show amplification. This feature renders the may be identified as clicking noises in a telephone line.
ferrimagnetic echo phenomena in a very unique position Actually, both the echoing signals and the intermodula-
for device applications. Ferrimagnetic echo is concerned tion noises are generated through the same cubic interac-
mainly with the reservoir of the electron spin system pro- tion terms in the equation of motion, Eq. (64). The only
vided by a YIG crystal that is nearly the perfect medium difference is that echo is a phenomenon in the time do-
for signal storage. Thus, in view of the extremely narrow main, whereas intermodulation is manifested in the fre-
FMR linewidth (0.3 Oe at X band) the damping action ac- quency domain. While the DC demagnetizing field has
companying the spin motion in the YIG crystal is very been shown to have adverse effects in influencing the echo
small; once the spins are put in motion, they will continue gain in the time domain, it has also been demonstrated
the motion indefinitely in time exhibiting very little at- that the same demagnetizing field will enhance the inter-
tenuation. The lifetime of the magnons in a YIG crystal is modulation level in a circulator junction [24]. Therefore,
very long, usually exceeding 1 ms. Ferrimagnetic echo sig- the DC demagnetizing field needs to be suppressed or
nals are shown at the top of Fig. 6 in conjunction with in- minimized in nonlinear studies of ferrites applied at high
termodulation signals shown at bottom that are induced power concerning the phenomena of spin-wave instabili-
by a ferrite junction when excited at high power. We imag- ties, the echo gain, and the intermodulation noise.
ine that at the time instant t ¼ t a signal pulse is applied
to the YIG crystal setting the spins in precessional motion.
Before the spin motion damps out, a pump pulse is applied 8. MAGNETIC SOLITONS
at the time instant t ¼ 0, which is so intense that nonlinear
interaction is aroused in the spin system. Due to the (odd) It is widely recognized that the study of nonlinear equa-
cubic nature of the interaction, the process of time conju- tions and their solutions is of great importance in many
gation is recalled, which reverses the timescale for the areas of physics. Of particular importance are nonlinear
stored signal such that the spins begin to precess in the wave equations that admit large-amplitude solitary wave
opposite direction. As a consequence, at time t ¼ t ( 1 ms) or soliton solutions that retain their shape during propa-
the original signal pulse recovers, which appears as the gation. Such solutions have received considerable atten-
image, or replica, of the original signal echoed back by the tion by elementary particle physicists since they may be
pump pulse (see Fig. 6, the top diagram). regarded as extended particle-like solutions of nonlinear
However, we must emphasize that if the cubic interac- field equations. The study of solitary waves has proved
tion is local in nature, no amplification is possible for the fruitful in many areas of condensed-matter physics as
echoed signals, as occurs in the other nonlinear systems well, for example, in theories of Bloch walls that separate
involving only isolated echoing sites. For ferrimagnetic domains in magnetic materials [3], structural phase tran-
echo the nonlinear interaction is brought about by the sitions [67], liquid helium 3He [68], 2D fluxons in Joseph-
dipolar field interacting with the nonlocal spin waves son weak-link junction [69], and low-temperature charge
showing a long-range dependence (this nonlocal interac- density wave condensates [70]. Engineering applications
tion can be described in terms of a Green function whose prefer solitonlike wavepackets or pulses to be formed in
kernel shows a 1/r dependence [25,26], see Eq. (100) materials allowing the carried information to be transmit-
below). As such, the echoed signal can show amplification, ted over long distance without experiencing much atten-
receiving power from the pump pulse not only to duplicate uation and dispersion, such as for the study of optical [71]
the signal waveform to result in an echo but also to am- and microwave [72] magnetic envelope solitons. In this
plify the echoed signal to high intensity. The amplification section Bloch wall solitons and magnetic microwave en-
gain can be as large as 100, as measured experimentally velope solitons, referred to in general as magnetic solitons,
[64] and calculated theoretically [25,26]. are briefly introduced.
Ferrimagnetic echo experiments are carried out using The first documented observation of the solitary wave
crystal YIG bulk or thin-film materials in the presence of a was made in 1834 by the Scottish scientist John Scott
high-magnetic-field gradient (E1 kOe/cm). In order to ob- Russell [73]. While observing the movement of a canal
tain high amplification gain, the YIG material needs to be barge, Scott Russell noticed a novel type of water wave on
clamped between two polycrystalline poles to effectively the surface of the canal, in the form of a long bell-shaped
suppress the demagnetizing field. Theoretically it has wave that emerged and traveled down the channel—it did
been demonstrated that the DC demagnetizing field has not cause rippling of the water, instead it remained stable
adverse effect in reducing the echo gain to zero [25,26]. and localized without change of waveform and diminution
This result is consistent with Suhl’s finding [13] that the of speed over a distance about 2 miles in propagation. This
DC demagnetizing field is apt to enhance spin-wave in- type of water wave is now known as KdV solitons, short-
stability resulting in subsidiary absorption during micro- ened for Kortweg and de Vries, who first successfully dem-
wave resonance measurements. onstrated the underlying mathematical solutions in 1895.
Finally, we want to point out the similarities between The other two well-known soliton systems are associated
the ferrimagnetic echo signals and the intermodulation with the sine Gordon and the nonlinear Schrödinger
2456 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
equations, describing the kinetics and dynamics of mag- axis, and Ry and Rz are the y and z components of the dis-
netic Bloch walls and microwave magnetic envelope soli- placement fields. In Eq. (97) f, G, and B are dimensionless
tons, respectively, discussed in the section. parameters characterizing the magnitudes of the other
In a nonlinear system that admits soliton-like solu- coupling terms, including the external driving force (the
tions, two kinds of elementary exciations are possible: (1) Zeeman field), the Gilbert damping term, and the magne-
particles with a finite amplitude in excitation called sol- toelastic constant of the medium, respectively. Here, x de-
iton/antisoliton, or bright/dark solitons, which possesses a notes the direction normal to the Bloch wall surface. In
finite mass; and (2) massless particles, with an infinites- Eq. (97) the right-hand-side (RHS) terms may be treated
imal excitation amplitude, called quasiparticles. Exam- as perturbations to the left-hand-side (LHS) terms, which
ples of solitons/antisolitons are electrons/positrons, and so renders the original sine-Gordon equation, describing and
forth, and quasiparticles are phonons, magnons, photons. defining the unperturbed profile, kinetics, and dynamics
Solitons and anti-solitons are topological entities, some- of magnetic Bloch wall solitons/anti-solitons. Namely, the
times called ‘‘kinks’’, whose waveform shapes are self-bal- first term is associated with the kinetic energy of a sine-
anced so that dispersion imposed by the wave equation Gordon soliton (of a unified mass or inertia), and the sec-
cancels exactly the nonlinear contribution from the am- ond and the third terms are potential energies, arising
plitude of wave excitation. Thus, solitons and antisolitons from the uniaxial anisotropy, and the normalized ex-
carry shape integrity along with their motion, retaining change interaction, respectively. The effects of external
their respective waveform shapes after the collision pro- magnetic driving f, the Gilbert damping G, and the mag-
cesses, similar to those massive particles observed in the netoelastic coupling B in influencing the soliton’s profile
physical world. Furthermore, like particles and antiparti- and its subsequent motion can thus be calculated [3]. A
cles, a soliton can collide with an antisoliton, resulting in stability analysis on the mobility of a Bloch wall soliton/
pair annihilation, ending up with radiations in the form of anti-soliton has also been performed in Ref. 3, discussed in
massless particles. Although losses can be readily added to conjunction with Slonzewski’s formula, which assumed
the system, they will not affect the waveform shapes of the low-magnetization limits.
solitons and antisolitons. Rather, the added loss terms in
the equation of motion can merely introduce damping
forces impeding the particles’ mobility in their kinetic mo- 8.2. Magnetic Microwave Envelope Soliton
tion. At a given temperature the thermodynamic quanti- In the absence of an externally applied RF signal field the
ties of the system, which describe the equilibrium states of resultant equation of motion up to the third order in RF
solitons/antisolitons and the massless particles, can all be magnetization m is, from Eq. (9)
calculated, and phase transition can result at a Currie
temperature in a manner analogous to that induced by
dm m.m 2A l dm
soft-phonon/displacive modes, as described in Ref. 67. The ¼ gez Ho m Ms hd r2 m þ ;
dt 2MS MS g dt
following section describes domain wall solitons and mi-
crowave envelope solitons. ð98Þ
8.1. Magnetic Bloch Wall Soliton where H0 denotes the externally applied DC magnetic
field normalized with respect to Ms, the saturation mag-
A Bloch wall defines a magnetic transition layer that sep- netization, and A and l denote the exchange stiffness and
arates two magnetic domains of opposite magnetization. Gilbert damping constant introduced following Eq. (18),
That is, inside a magnetic Bloch wall the magnetization respectively; the nonlinear term comes from Eq. (46) as-
vector reverses its direction undergoing 1801 in-plane ro- suming large excursion angle of the magnetization vector
tation in a manner so as to minimize the total free energy away from the z axis, the applied field direction. In Eq.
imposed by the uniaxial anisotropy and the exchange (98) hd denotes the dipole field induced by the rf-magne-
terms defined for HA and HE, respectively, following Eq. tization m, all normalized with respect to Ms. Assuming
(18). Besides Bloch walls, the process of magnetization re- the magnetostatic limit, the relationship between hd and
versal can also take place by assuming 1801 out-of-plane m is specified by Eq. (24). Or
rotation, giving rise to Neel walls, which are not discussed
in this section. After applying the Lagrangian equation
utilizing the energy densities given by Eq. (15), one ob- hd ¼ ð1=m0 ÞrCr . m ð99Þ
tains the following equation governing the dynamic mo-
tion of a magnetic Bloch wall [3] where the Green function operator C is defined, upon op-
eration on a regular function f(r) as
@2 C @2 C C @C
2
þ sin C 2 ¼ f sin G Z
@t @x 2 @t 1
ð97Þ Cf ðrÞ ¼ d3 r 0 f ðr 0 Þ ð100Þ
2
C @ Ry 2
C @ Rz all space jr r 0 j
þ B cos þ sin
2 @x@t 2 @x@t
which represents the nonlocal effect characteristics of a
where c denotes twice the azimuthal angle of the magne- dipole field [25,26]. However, if one insists on a local ap-
tization vector swinging away from the easy axis, the z proximation enforcing the dipole field to be equal to the rf
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2457
o ¼ o0 þ O ð104Þ
TM
and per the wavevector selection rule
MSW
k ¼ k0 þ K ð105Þ
10. ANTIREFLECTION LAYERS AND ABSORBING LAYERS minimal, since at microwave and/or millimeter frequen-
cies a practical layer system should be thin enough com-
To date microwave or millimeter-wave antireflection lay- pared to the wavelength of the waves propagating in air.
ers and absorbing layers are almost exclusively used for The design is in general not a trivial problem, and efficient
radome design applications. Because of the highly classi- computer algorithms are needed.
fied nature of this topic, not much data have been pub- Once an optimal multilayer system is determined, the
lished in the literature. In this section we discuss only the remaining task is to synthesize it using real materials.
concepts that lead to the construction of microwave or Unfortunately, nature does not provide general materials
millimeter-wave antireflection and absorbing layers. No covering the whole range of electromagnetic parameters.
explicit design parameters are given here. By definition, Instead, artificial materials need to be developed. The first
an antireflection/absorbing layer is placed on top of a sub- kind of artificial materials include particle composites
strate such that an incident microwave or millimeter- where dielectric particles [87], metal-shelled particles
wave beam will be totally transmitted/absorbed when [88], ferrite particles [89,90], and graphite powders are
passing across the layer without causing reflection. The embedded in a matrix epoxy such that the effective per-
layer should be functional over a frequency range as broad mittivity, permeability, and/or conductivity of the compos-
as possible to be independent of the incident angle and ite can be controlled over the desired frequency band by
polarization of the incident beam. adjusting the mixing faction of the particles.
To realize the design of an antireflection layer, we con- The second class of artificial materials is quite new; it
sider first the case of normal incidence of the incident involves periodic patterns of metal strips or grooves (sur-
beam. According to the transmission-line theory, one con- face relief gratings) to be fabricated on top of a layer sur-
cludes immediately that the first-order solution would re- face. In fact, when electromagnetic waves interact with
quire the layer to behave like a quarter-wave transformer. periodic structures much finer than the wavelength, they
This implies that the layer shall possess a thickness equal do not diffract, but instead reflect and transmit as if they
to one quarter the wavelength with a characteristic im- were encountering a nonstructured medium. Effective
pedance field theory describes the interaction between electromag-
netic waves and such subwavelength structures by repre-
ZL ¼ ðZ0 ZS Þ1=2 ð106Þ senting a region of subwavelength heterogeneity in terms
of a homogeneous material possessing a single set of ef-
where fective electromagnetic parameters: permittivity, perme-
1=2 ability, and conductivity [91]. Actually, the antireflection
m0 structures consisting of surface relief gratings can be
Z0 ¼ ð107Þ
e0 found on the cornea of certain night-flying moths, and
the first scientists to investigate antireflection-structured
1=2
mS surfaces for application in the visible or near-infrared
ZS ¼ ð108Þ portion of the spectrum worked to replicate moth eye sur-
eS
faces [92].
where Z0 (ZS) is the characteristic impedance of air (sub- Antireflection means establishing a resonant structure
strate) and e0 (eS) and m0 (mS) are the permittivity and per- on the substrate surface that is able to ‘‘capture’’ the in-
meability of air (substrate), respectively. When broader cident electromagnetic signal forming standing modes so
bandwidth is desired, higher-order solutions are required, as to dissipate the captured energy, converting it into heat
and this results in a multilayer system with progressively before it reaches the substrate. In this sense an antire-
changing electromagnetic parameters matching the im- flection layer is a sheet of absorbent. Two kinds of reso-
pedance difference between air and substrate. nant structures are possible. Standing modes can be
For an absorbing layer design the air impedance can formed along the propagation direction, or the longitudi-
also be matched by a multilayer system with progressively nal direction, of the signal by constructing a quarter-wave
increasing damping parameters such that the series of the transformer [Eq. (106)] or a transformer of high order, as
layers satisfies the transformer matching requirement. discussed previously. Alternatively, standing modes can be
Thus, we use the same impedance transformer theory for formed along the transverse directions. For example, met-
the design of absorbing layers, except that the impedances al patches or meshes of a diameter equal to one-half the
of the layers are now complex numbers, since the permit- wavelength of the incident electromagnetic waves can be
tivity and permeability of the layers are complex numbers. deployed in front of the substrate surface accompanied by
As such, the incident wave damps out when it passes an dissipation layer responsible for wave damping. Mul-
through the layer system before arriving at the substrate. tiple antireflection layers can be stacked together to joint-
When oblique-angle incidence is considered, the imped- ly capture and damp a broadband signal, thereby realizing
ance transformer theory can be generalized using the the broadband operation.
transfer matrix technique [41,86]. The present problem
is to determine an optimal layer system design allowing
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2462 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING protons to precess coherently, and the sum of all the mag-
netic moments of the precessing protons is detected as an
ANDREW WEBB induced voltage in a tuned detector coil. Spatial informa-
University of Illinois at tion is encoded into an image using magnetic field gradi-
Urbana–Champaign ents [1,2]. These impose a three-dimensional linear
Urbana, Illinois variation in the magnetic field present within the patient.
As a result of these variations, the precessional frequen-
cies of the protons depend on their position within the
1. INTRODUCTION body. The frequency and phase of the precessing magne-
tization are detected by the RF coil, and the analog signal
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the major ra- is digitized. An inverse two-dimensional Fourier trans-
diological diagnostic modalities in the clinic. More than 20 form is performed to convert the time-domain signal into
million exams per year are carried out in the United the spatial domain to produce the image. By varying data
States alone. A large number of academic and commercial acquisition parameters, differential contrast between soft
laboratories are involved in the development of new hard- tissues can be introduced into the image. Figure 2 shows a
ware, data processing algorithms and applications. Stud- block diagram of an MRI system. Many of the subsystems
ies can be performed on size scales ranging from humans are described in detail later in this article.
to single neurons. One factor linking many of the most
recent developments in MRI is the trend towards higher
static magnetic fields. Higher fields provide many bene- 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES
fits, which will be outlined in this article, but also present
considerable challenges in engineering design. Since the For this article, only proton MRI will be considered, al-
‘‘operating frequency’’ of the system and associated hard- though useful spatial information from other nuclei such
ware is proportional to the strength of the static magnetic as 23Na, 19F, and 31P can also be obtained. In proton MRI
field, high-frequency analysis of system design, as well as the signal comes essentially from the protons in water,
the interactions between electromagnetic radiation and with a minor component from those in fat. From a quan-
the human body are increasingly important areas of re- tum mechanical standpoint, the proton possesses two nu-
search. As shown in Fig. 1, MRI now spans almost the clear energy levels, which correspond to the z component
entire radiofrequency spectrum. of the magnetic moment of the proton being aligned either
The MRI signal arises from protons in the body, pri- parallel or antiparallel to the applied static magnetic field,
marily water but also lipid. The patient is placed inside a as shown in Fig. 3.
superconducting magnet, which produces a static mag- The energy gap between the two energy levels is given
netic field several tens of thousands times stronger than by
Earth’s magnetic field. Each proton, which is a charged
particle with angular momentum, can be considered as
ghB0
acting as a small magnet. The protons align in two con- DE ¼ ð1Þ
2p
figurations, with their magnetic fields aligned either par-
allel or antiparallel to the direction of the large static
magnetic field, with slightly more found in the parallel In order to stimulate transitions between the two energy
state. The protons precess around the direction of the levels, an oscillating magnetic field must be applied at a
static magnetic field, analogously to a spinning gyroscope frequency o, such that
under the influence of gravity. The frequency of precession
is proportional to the strength of the static magnetic field. ho ghB0
¼ ) o ¼ gB0 ð2Þ
Application of a weak radiofrequency (RF) field causes the 2p 2p
4.7T 17.6T
Superconducting magnet
Gradient coils
RF coil
Gradient
amplifiers
Transmit/
Frequency RF Preamp
receive
synthesizer amp
switch
Demodulator
Waveform generator
timing boards
Quadrature
mixer
The Boltzmann equation can be used to calculate the rel- axis of the magnetic field, keeping a constant angle be-
ative number of protons in each energy level tween m and B0, at an angular frequency given by
Nantiparallel DE ghB0 o ¼ gB0 ð6Þ
¼ exp ¼ exp ð3Þ
Nparallel kT 2pkT
where B0 is universally used to represent B0. Classical
where k is the Boltzmann coefficient with a value of 1.38 mechanics, therefore, shows that the effect of placing a
10 23 J/K and T is the temperature measured in proton in a magnetic field is that it precesses around the
degrees Kelvin. Applying the approximation e xE1 x, axis of that field, at a frequency that is proportional to the
we can calculate the net magnetization of the object as strength of the magnetic field. This frequency is termed
the Larmor frequency.
gh g2 h2 B0 Ns
M0 ¼ ðNparallel Nantiparallel Þ ¼ ð4Þ
4p 16p2 kT 2.1. Application of a Radiofrequency Pulse
Therefore, the higher the static magnetic field B0, the Although all of the protons precess around B0, they are
greater is the equilibrium magnetization, and, as will be randomly oriented around a cone, as shown in Fig. 4, and
seen later, the higher the MRI signal. It is also useful to therefore the net magnetization is aligned along the þ z
consider, from a classical description, the motion of the axis, that is, there is no transverse component. In order to
individual magnetic moments. As derived in the previous create a transverse component, an oscillating electromag-
section, the proton magnetic moment m is aligned at an netic field (B1), linearly polarized in the x direction, is
angle of 54.71 to the axis of the external magnetic field B0. applied.
This magnetic field attempts to align the proton magnetic
moment parallel to the direction of B0, and this action 1
B1 ¼ x^ B10 cos ot ¼ B10 ðx^ cos ot y^ sin otÞ
creates a torque C, given by 2
ð7Þ
1
C ¼ m B0 ¼ iN jmjjB0 j sin y ð5Þ þ B10 ðx^ cos ot þ y^ sin otÞ
2
where iN is a unit vector normal to both m and B0. The where B10 is the magnitude of the magnetic field. The
result of the torque is that the proton precesses around the right-hand side of Eq. (7) shows that the B1 field consists
2464 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
of the sum of two rotating magnetic fields, one rotating ends of the loop. The induced voltage E is proportional to
clockwise and the other anticlockwise. It can be shown the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
that only the clockwise rotating field interacts with the (df/dt):
nuclear spins. Application of the B1 field at the Larmor
frequency rotates the net magnetization M0 toward the y df
E/ ð9Þ
axis, creating a component of magnetization My, given by dt
z z
y y
B1,x B1,x
TR
TR
TE
90° TE
RF 180°
90°
Gslice RF
Gslice
Gfreq
Gphase
Gphase
Gfreq
ky y
and the slice gradient tips protons within a thickness Do/ where T2 is the spin–spin relaxation time, including the
gGslice, where Do is the frequency bandwidth of the pulse, effects of magnetic field inhomogeneity. For a spin–echo
into the transverse plane. Protons outside this slice are imaging sequence, the corresponding expression is
not excited. Application of the phase encoding gradient
Gphase, denoted as the y direction here, imparts a spatially Iðx; yÞ / rðx; yÞð1 eTR=T1 ÞeTE=T2 ð23Þ
dependent phase shift into the signal. During signal ac-
quisition, the frequency encoding gradient (x direction)
The times TR (repetition time) and TE (echo time) within
generates a spatially dependent precessional frequency in
the imaging sequence can be chosen to give different con-
the acquired signal. Overall, ignoring relaxation effects,
trasts in the image. For example, Fig. 7 shows the effects of
the detected signal is given by
increasing the TE on a simple brain scan.
Z Z The ability to produce many different contrast charac-
sðGy ; tpe ; Gx ; tÞ / rðx; yÞejgGx xt ejgGy ytpe dx dy ð18Þ teristics in images is one of the major advantages of MRI
slice slice as a clinical diagnostic technique. Clinical applications
include brain scanning (for tumors, hematomas, astro-
where r(x,y) is the spatially dependent proton density, cytomas, etc.), musculoskeletal (shoulder, knee, etc.), car-
specifically, the number of protons at a given x,y coordi- diac, and liver/kidney imaging. Contrast agents such as
nate. Using the k-space formalism [4], this signal can be gadolinium DTPA and superparamagnetic iron oxide are
expressed as often used to highlight pathological features from
surrounding healthy tissue [5]. Detailed descriptions of
Z Z
clinical MRI can be found in Ref. 6.
Sðkx ; ky Þ / rðx; yÞ ej2pkx x ej2pky y dx dy ð19Þ
slice slice
3. HARDWARE DESIGN
where the two variables kx and ky are defined as
The major hardware components of an MRI system are
g g the magnet, magnetic field gradients, and RF coil, in ad-
kx ¼ Gx t; ky ¼ Gy tpe ð20Þ
2p 2p dition to the receiver. The first three components involve
similar analytical methods [7,8] to design, respectively, a
This representation of the acquired data is particularly homogenous DC static magnetic field, linear spatially de-
useful since the image can simply be reconstructed by an pendent rapidly switched magnetic fields, and high-
inverse two-dimensional Fourier transform. frequency (60–750 MHz) resonators producing a uniform
magnetic field.
Z 1 Z 1
rðx; yÞ ¼ Sðkx ; ky Þe þ j2pðkx x þ ky yÞ dkx dky ð21Þ
1 1
3.1. Superconducting Magnets Slight errors in positioning the wires can lead to sig-
nificant variations in the field uniformity, in which case
For all imaging studies performed at field strengths above
the Bz field is given by the complete solution to Laplace’
B0.5 T, a superconducting magnet is required. For fields
equation. Additional coils of wire are added in series with
below this, permanent magnets can be used. In either case
the main coil as superconducting correction coils. After the
the critical factors in magnet design are high homogeneity
magnet has been energized by passing current into the
of the field [o1 part per million (ppm) over the sample],
major filament windings, the current can be changed in
and a high degree of temporal stability(o50 Hz drift per
these correction coils to improve the homogeneity. Fine
hour). Almost all clinical superconducting magnets have a
tuning is performed by using a series of independently
cylindrical bore, approximately 1 m in diameter, which
wired coils at room temperature, termed ‘‘shim coils.’’ The
encloses the magnetic field gradients, radiofrequency coil,
operator can adjust the current in these coils for each
and patient, as shown in Fig. 1. In order to create high
clinical examination, and so the magnet homogeneity can
static magnetic fields, it is necessary for the superconduc-
be optimized for individual patients.
tor to carry a large current, and this capability is pos-
A strong magnetic field is also present outside the mag-
sessed only by certain alloys, particularly those made from
net, and this can interfere with any electronic equipment
niobium–titanium. Below a critical temperature (9 K) and
nearby. Machines with moving parts, such as induction
critical magnetic field (10 T), once current has been fed
motors, or any object with metallic elements must be
into such an alloy, this current will run through the wire
placed outside the fringe field; this creates an effective
with constant magnitude essentially indefinitely. The su-
‘‘deadspace’’ around the magnet. In many clinical and
perconducting alloy is formed into multistrand filaments
academic institutions space is limited, and so a reduction
and interspersed within a conducting matrix. This ar-
in the extent of the ‘‘stray’’ field is highly desirable.
rangement can support a much higher critical current
‘‘Active shielding’’ of a magnet uses secondary windings,
than a single, large-diameter superconducting wire. The
placed outside the primary magnet windings, with the
superconducting coils shown in Fig. 8 are housed in a
current traveling in the opposite direction, in order to
stainless-steel can containing liquid helium at a temper-
minimize the fringe field. Clearly, the presence of these
ature of 4.2 K. This inner container is surrounded by a
secondary windings also reduces the field within the
series of radiation shields and vacuum vessels to minimize
patient, and so an increased current is now needed
heat transfer to the liquid helium. Liquid nitrogen is used
in the primary windings. The alternative method of ‘‘pas-
to cool the outside of the vacuum chamber and the radi-
sive magnet shielding’’ incorporates iron plates into the
ation shields. Since heat transfer cannot be completely
magnet exterior. The disadvantage of this method of
eliminated, liquid nitrogen and liquid helium must be re-
shielding is that the mass of the magnet is increased sig-
plenished on a regular basis.
nificantly.
The exact placement of the superconducting filaments
within the magnet is designed to give the maximum field
homogeneity over the patient. The basic design consists of
3.2. Magnetic Field Gradient Coils
a number of wire helices, or solenoids, of different diam-
eters and separations, each wound along the major axis of Three separate ‘‘gradient coils’’ are required to encode the
the magnet. A typical layout is shown in Fig. 8. x, y, and z dimensions of the sample. The requirements for
For a single loop of wire, the field can be expressed as gradient coil design are that the gradients are as linear as
possible over the region being imaged, that they are effi-
1 n
X cient in terms of producing high gradients per unit cur-
r
Bz ðr; yÞ ¼ Bn Pn ðcos yÞ ð24Þ rent, and that they have fast switching times for use in
n¼0
r0
rapid imaging sequences. Copper is used as the conductor,
with chilled-water cooling to remove the heat generated by
where r0 is half the length of the region of interest and Pn the current. Since the gradient coils fit directly inside the
(cos y) is the standard Legendre polynomial of degree n. bore of the cylindrical superconducting magnet, the geo-
The design problem is to determine the optimum number, metric design is usually also cylindrical. The simplest con-
spacing, and diameter of wire loops such that the Bn co- figuration for a coil producing a gradient in the z direction
efficients are zero up to the maximum order. The larger is a ‘‘Maxwell pair,’’ shown in Fig. 9a, which consists of two
the number of current-carrying elements that are present, separate loops of multiple turns of wire, each loop con-
the higher the order of the harmonics that can be mini- taining equal currents I flowing in opposite directions. In
mized; however, one constraint is the total length of the order to estimate the distance between the two loops that
magnet. maximizes the linearity of the gradient, the value of Bz is
z
Figure 8. Schematic of the layout of the su-
perconducing wires to produce a homoge-
neous magnetic field Bz within the patient.
2468 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
the field inside the cylinder is given by doubly degenerate (the highest-frequency one produces a
homogeneous transverse B1 field), and there is a single
X
1 mode at the lowest frequency. Since the birdcage coil has
Bðr; fÞ ¼ r^ mrm1 ðAm cos mf þ Bm sin mfÞ two orthogonal, degenerate homogeneous modes, it can be
m¼1
ð31Þ operated in quadrature; that is, it can produce a circularly
X
1 polarized B1 field. This reduces the power required for RF
þ f^ mr m1
ðAm sin mf Bm cos mfÞ transmission by a factor
pffiffiffi of 2, and increases the image SNR
m¼1 also by a factor of 2. Practical implementation simply
involves splitting the transmitter pulse through a quad-
By applying boundary conditions at the cylinder surface rature hybrid, the two outputs of which are connected to
(considering the B1 field created outside the cylinder), all the coil at feedpoints that are physically 901 apart.
the Bm coefficients must be zero, and the only nonzero Am Impedance matching of the coil must be performed in
coefficient is given by A1 ¼ m0J0/2. Therefore order to ensure maximum power transmission and effi-
cient reception. Since amplifier outputs, transmission ca-
m0 J0 ^ sin fÞ ¼ x^ m0 J0 bles, and preamplifier input impedances are almost
Bðr; fÞ ¼ ðr^ cos f f ð32Þ
2 2 exclusively 50 O, this is the impedance to which the coil
is matched at the Larmor frequency. A balanced imped-
This shows that a perfectly uniform B1 field, directed ance-matching network should be used to reduce electric
along the x direction, is produced by a sinusoidal current field losses in the sample, and the most common is a stan-
along the surface of a cylinder of infinite length. Of course, dard pi-matching network, with variable capacitors to ad-
this configuration cannot be realized in practice, but the just for different sample-dependent loads. Often, baluns or
basic tenet of coil design is to approximate this sinusoidal cabletraps are used to reduce currents traveling on the
surface current. The most common such realization is outside of the transmission cable connecting to the coil.
called the ‘‘birdcage’’ resonator [9], which is shown in Noise in MRI originates from the sample and also the
Fig. 10. The resonator is usually constructed in a high- RF coil. Coil losses are linearly dependent on the operat-
pass configuration, with a series of equidistantly spaced ing frequency, and sample losses in human patients in-
‘‘rungs’’ and two ‘‘end rings.’’ crease as the square of the operating frequency. In
The birdcage coil has multiple resonant modes. For an general, at low frequencies coil losses are dominant,
n-rung highpass birdcage the highest-frequency mode is whereas at high frequencies sample losses are the domi-
the so-called end-ring mode, the next n 2 modes are each nant factor. In all cases it is desirable to minimize the loss
Ik−1 Ik Ik+1
Mk,k Mk+1,k+1
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 10. (a) Highpass birdcage coil; (b) equivalent circuit model for the highpass birdcage in-
cluding the mutual inductance between individual loops; (c) photograph of a 12-leg birdcage coil for
a 1.5-T system.
2470 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
MRI coil
Baluns
0 90
Hybrid coupler
in out
Tx/Rx switch
D1 Preamplifier
RF
transmitter
/4
D2 D3 D4
outputs. These pass through lowpass filters, the cutoff fre- bit phase resolution). A DDS chip typically consists of an
quency of which depends on the particular data acquisition address counter, a lookup table for production of the sine
parameters used in the image. After final amplification, wave at the frequency of interest, and a digital-to-analog
the signal is digitized, typically with a resolution of 16 bits. converter. Although such chips are currently limited in
the highest frequency that can be produced, the image
frequency output can potentially be used for such appli-
3.6. Direct Digital Synthesis and Digital Detection cations.
The rapid spread of digital transmission and reception in
the communication industry has recently been mirrored in
4. ADVANCED TOPICS
the design of MRI systems, in particular the receiver. Us-
ing digital filters, for example, enables a much better filter
4.1. Parallel Imaging
shape than for the analog case. In addition, the data can
be oversampled many times, which provides a higher SNR One of the major limitations of MRI, particularly in
in the reconstructed image. Direct digital synthesis (DDS) comparison with computed tomography and ultrasonic
has the advantage of faster frequency- and phase-contin- imaging, is the relatively slow data acquisition. The fun-
uous switching than does its analog counterpart. A com- damental limits on imaging speed are the time required
plete DDS unit is available on-chip (e.g., the AD9854 from for current switching in the gradient coils, and the rela-
Analog Devices, with 48 bit frequency resolution and 14 tively large number of phase encoding steps (typically
Demodulator
90°
LPF
cosIFt Figure 13. A schematic of the second stage of
the receiver chain and analog-to-digital (A/D)
LPF conversion, where o0 is the Larmor frequency,
(A/D)2
oIF the intermediate frequency, and LPF a low-
Mixer pass filter.
2472 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
2p
l ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð37Þ
2
o m0 e0 er jom0 s FURTHER READING
wavelength:
l ¼ c=f ð1Þ
1. ELF SHIELDING VERSUS HIGH-FREQUENCY SHIELDING in which H is the magnetic field strength with units of
amperes per meter and m is the permeability of the medi-
Electric and magnetic fields radiate away from a source at um. By definition of the vector cross-product, the force on
the speed of light c. In the time it takes a source alternat- a moving charge is at right angles to both the velocity
ing with frequency f to complete one full cycle, these fields vector and the magnetic field vector. Lorentz forces pro-
have traveled a distance l, known as the electromagnetic duce torque in generators and motors and focus electron
beams in imaging devices.
Unwanted, or stray magnetic fields deflect electron
beams in the same imaging devices, often causing inter-
ference problems. Sources that use, distribute, or produce
alternating currents, like the 60 Hz currents in a power
system, produce magnetic fields that are time-varying at
the same frequency.
Magnetic fields are vector fields with magnitude and
Figure 2. Examples of open shield geometries: (a) flat plate direction that vary with position relative to their sources.
shield, (b) inverted channel shield. This spatial variation or field structure depends on the
MAGNETIC SHIELDING 2475
s ¼ jBj=jB0 j ð3Þ
3.1. Flux Shunting the ratio of permeability in any medium to the permeabil-
ity of free space, mr ¼ m/m0. Nonferrous materials have a
An externally applied magnetic field induces magnetiza-
relative permeability of one, and ferromagnetic materials
tion in ferromagnetic materials. (All materials have mag-
have relative permeabilities much greater than one, rang-
netic properties, but in most materials these properties
ing from hundreds to hundreds of thousands. In these
are insignificant. Only ferromagnetic materials have
materials, permeability is not constant but varies with the
properties that provide shielding of magnetic fields.) Mag-
applied field H.
netization is the result of electrons acting as magnetic
The nonlinear properties of a ferromagnetic material
sources at the atomic level. In most matter, these sources
can be seen by plotting flux density B, as the applied field
cancel one another, but electrons in atoms with unfilled
H is cycled. Figure 7 shows a generic B–H plot that illus-
inner shells make a net contribution, giving the atoms a
trates hysteresis. When the applied field is decreased from
magnetic moment [6]. These atoms spontaneously align
a maximum, the flux density does not return along the
into groups called domains. Without an external field, do-
same curve, and plotting one full cycle forms a hysteretic
mains are randomly oriented and cancel each other. When
loop. A whole family of hysteretic loops exists for any fer-
an external field is applied, the Lorentz forces align some
romagnetic material as the amplitude of field strength H
of the domains in the same direction, and together, the
is varied. The area of a hysteretic loop represents the en-
domains act as a macroscopic magnetic field source. A fa-
ergy required to rotate magnetic domains through one cy-
miliar magnetic field source is a bar magnet, which ex-
cle. Known as hysteretic losses, this energy is dissipated as
hibits permanent magnetization even without an applied
heat in the shield material.
field. Unlike a permanent magnet, most of the magneti-
For effective flux-shunting shielding, the flux density in
zation in ferromagnetic shielding materials goes away
a magnetic material should follow the applied field closely.
when the external field is removed.
However, it is obvious from the hysteretic loop of Fig. 7
Basic ferromagnetic elements are iron, nickel, and co-
that B does not track H. B lags H, as seen by the fact that
balt, and the most typical ferromagnetic shielding mate-
there is a residual flux density (nonzero B) when H has
rials are either iron-based or nickel-based alloys (metals).
returned to zero and that B does not return to zero until H
Less common as shielding materials are ferrites such as
increases in the opposite direction. Thus, soft ferromag-
iron oxide.
netic materials with narrow hysteretic loops are best for
Induced magnetization in ferromagnetic materials acts
shielding, in contrast to hard ferromagnetic materials
as a secondary magnetic field source, producing fields that
with wide hysteretic loops, typically used as permanent
add vectorially to the existing fields and change the spa-
magnets and in applications such as data storage.
tial distribution of magnetic fields in some region of space.
Hysteretic curves illustrating ‘‘soft’’ and ‘‘hard’’ ferromag-
The term flux shunting comes from the fact that a ferro-
netic materials are shown in Fig. 8.
magnetic shield alters the path of flux lines so that they
At very low field levels relative permeability starts at
appear to be shunted through the shield and away from
some initial value (initial permeability) increases to a
the shielded region, as shown by the example in Fig. 6.
maximum as the applied field is increased, and then de-
Flux-shunting shielding is often described in terms of
creases, approaching a relative permeability of one as the
magnetic circuits as providing a low-reluctance path for
material saturates, as shown in Fig. 9. Saturation occurs
magnetic flux.
because there is a limit to the magnetization that can be
Permeability m is a measure of the induced magnetiza-
induced in any magnetic material. In Fig. 7, the decreas-
tion in a material. Thus, permeability is the key property
ing slope at the top and bottom of the curves occurs as the
for flux-shunting shielding. The constitutive law
limit of total magnetization is reached. When a material
B ¼ mH ð5Þ saturates, it cannot provide additional shielding.
For shielding alternating magnetic fields via flux
relates magnetic flux density B to the magnetic field shunting, the key property is AC permeability, DB/DH
strength H. More typically used, relative permeability is through one cycle. Although Fig. 7 shows a hysteresis
Figure 6. Example of the flux-shunting mechanism. The region Figure 7. Typical B–H curves showing how nonlinear properties
inside a ferromagnetic duct is shielded from an external, hori- of ferromagnetic materials result in a hysteretic loop as the ap-
zontal magnetic field. plied field H is cycled.
MAGNETIC SHIELDING 2477
In some cases, a double layer shield is used to avoid current shielding improves with increasing frequency.
saturation of the layer closest to the field source where the Thus, at higher frequencies, magnetic fields are more eas-
fields are strongest. For example, a steel material might be ily shielded via the induced-current mechanism. In the
used as the first shield layer, whereas a high-performance limit of infinite conductivity or infinite frequency, flux
nickel alloy is used as the second layer. The steel lowers lines do not penetrate the shield as shown in Fig. 13.
the field enough that the nickel alloy layer is not saturat- In a conducting shield, the magnetic field and induced-
ed. Saturation flux densities of typical shield materials are current magnitudes decrease exponentially in the direc-
listed in Table 1. tion of the shield’s thickness with a decay length called the
skin depth d
3.2. Induced-Current Mechanism sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
Time-varying magnetic flux passing through a shield ma- d¼ ð9Þ
terial induces an electric field in the material according to pf sm
Faraday’s law:
which involves not only frequency f and conductivity s but
@B also permeability m because it affects the flux density,
rE¼ ð7Þ which induces the circulating currents. Because of expo-
@t
nential decay, shield enclosures with thickness on the or-
In electrically conducting materials, the induced electric der of a skin depth or thicker provide good shielding. For
field results in circulating currents, or eddy currents, in shield thicknesses much less than a skin depth, the in-
the shield according to the constitutive relationship duced current densities are constant across a shield thick-
ness. However, significant shielding can still be obtained
J ¼ sE ð8Þ from thin conducting shields in some situations where the
shield is sized properly. In these cases the shielding is a
where J is the current density, s is the material conduc- result of induced currents flowing over large loops.
tivity, and E is the electric field induced according to The shielding factor equation for a nonferrous, con-
Eq. (7). The fields from these induced currents oppose ducting, spherical shield with radius a, thickness D, and
the impinging fields, providing field reductions. Figure 12 conductivity s provides insight into how these parameters
shows a flat plate in a uniform field. Induced-current affect the induced-current mechanism:
shielding appears to exclude flux lines from the shield,
providing field reductions adjacent to the shield on both 1
s ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi ð10Þ
sides. Because the induced currents are proportional to 2pf m0 saD 2
the time rate of change of the magnetic fields, induced- 1þ
3
decreases) with increasing frequency f, increasing shield perform like a single-layer shield made with a material
thickness, and increasing shield radius. The effect of with enhanced properties.
shield radius is opposite to that for flux shunting shield-
ing, and although flux shunting shields static fields, the
induced-current mechanism does not. In general, induced- 4. SHIELDING MATERIALS
current shielding is more effective for larger source shield
configurations whereas flux shunting is more effective for Basic magnetic field shielding materials can be grouped in
smaller shield configurations. two main categories: ferromagnetic materials and high-
conductivity materials. For DC magnetic fields, ferromag-
3.3. Combined Shielding Mechanisms netic materials are the only option. They provide shielding
through the flux shunting mechanism. For AC magnetic
Until now, the shielding mechanisms have been discussed fields, both ferromagnetic and high-conductivity materials
separately. Equations (6) and (10) are the shielding factor may be useful as shielding materials, and both shielding
equations for flux shunting and induced-current shielding mechanisms operate to an extent determined by the ma-
alone. In many shields, both mechanisms are involved. For terial properties, operating frequency, and shield configu-
example, most ferromagnetic materials, being metals, also ration.
have significant conductivity in addition to high perme- The practical high-conductivity materials are those
ability. Or a shield might be constructed using two mate- commonly used as electrical conductors, aluminum and
rials, one layer of a high permeability material and one copper. Copper is almost twice as conductive as aluminum,
layer of a high conductivity material. In these cases both but aluminum is about 3.3 times lighter than copper and
shielding mechanisms contribute to the shielding to an generally costs less than copper on a per pound basis. For
extent that depends on material properties, frequency of shielding that depends on the induced-current mecha-
the fields, and details of the shield configuration. nism, conductivity across a shield is paramount and cop-
To illustrate the combined effect of both shielding mech- per has the advantage that it is easily soldered whereas
anisms, Fig. 14 shows the shielding factor, calculated by a aluminum is not—it should be welded. Mechanical fas-
method described in Ref. 8, as a function of shield radius teners can be used for connecting aluminum or copper
for a spherical steel shield in a 60-Hz uniform field. For sheets, but the longevity of these connections is question-
these calculations steel is assigned a conductivity of 6.76 able because of corrosion and oxidation.
106 S/m, a relative permeability of 180, and the shield Although there appears to be a large variety of ferro-
thickness of 1 mm is held constant as the shield radius is magnetic shielding materials, most fit into one of five basic
varied. Flux shunting dominates at the smaller radii, in- types:
duced-current shielding dominates at the larger radii, and
there is a worst-case radius of about 0.4 m, where a tran- *
Basic iron or steel—typically produced as coils and
sition occurs between the dominant shielding mecha- sheet for structural uses
nisms. *
Electrical steels—engineered for good magnetic prop-
The combined effect of both flux shunting and induced-
erties and low losses when used as cores for trans-
current shielding can be exploited with multilayer shields
formers, motors, and other components
made from alternating ferromagnetic and high-conductiv-
ity materials. Also using the method described in Ref. 8,
*
40–50% nickel alloys—moderately expensive materi-
one can explore this type of shield construction. Alternat- als with very good magnetic properties
ing thin layers of high permeability and high conductivity *
70–80% nickel alloys—highest cost materials with
the best magnetic properties, often referred to gener-
ically as mumetal, although this was originally a
trade name.
*
Amorphous metals—noncrsytalline metallic sheet
formed by an ultrarapid quenching process that so-
lidifies the molten metal; the noncrystalline form pro-
vides enhanced ferromagnetic properties.
Important properties for ferromagnetic shield materials conducting and ferromagnetic materials. The computation
are the initial permeability, the maximum permeability, must account for induced currents and magnetization
and the magnetic field strength (or flux density) at which throughout the shield material. This involves solutions
the material saturates and further shielding cannot be ob- to the quasistatic form of Maxwell’s equations for mag-
tained. Because the ferromagnetic properties are nonlin- netic fields over a continuum that represents the problem
ear, the operating permeability depends on the magnitude region. In differential form the basic equations to be
of the magnetic field being shielded. In general, increasing solved are
magnetic properties go hand in hand with increasing cost,
lower saturation levels, and lower conductivity. Table 1 rH¼J ð11Þ
shows nominal values of maximum permeability, satura- r.B¼0 ð12Þ
tion flux density, conductivity, and density for basic shield-
ing materials including copper and aluminum [9]. Note @B
rE¼ ð13Þ
that the initial permeabilities of ferromagnetic materials @t
are often one and two orders of magnitude smaller than
the maximum permeabilities (see Table 1). along with the constitutive relationships for permeability,
Eq. (5), and conductivity, Eq. (8), which describe the mac-
roscopic properties of shield materials. This quasistatic
5. SHIELDING CALCULATIONS description, which ignores the displacement current term
@D=@t, normally on the right-hand side of Eq. (11), is valid
Because there are an infinite variety of shield source con- as long as an electromagnetic wavelength is much larger
figurations and a wide variety of shield materials for build- than the largest dimension of the shield. General solutions
ing effective magnetic field shields, shielding calculations to these equations are often called eddy-current or mag-
are a key part of practical shield design. Elaborate exper- netic diffusion solutions. At zero frequency or zero con-
iments need not be made to characterize the performance ductivity in the shield, there are no induced currents.
of each unique shield design. Extensive experiments are Only permeability restructures the magnetic field. This
not only impractical but also unnecessary. However, simplification is called the magnetostatic case, and solu-
closed-form analytical expressions exist only for a limited tions must satisfy only Eqs. (11) and (12), along with the
set of ideal shield geometries, such as cylindrical shells, constitutive relationship that defines permeability, Eq. (5).
spherical shells, and infinite flat sheets. Even for these In finding exact solutions to the governing magnetic
ideal shield geometries, the expressions can be quite com- field equations previously described, one approach is to
plicated, especially solutions for shields with more than define a vector potential A that satisfies Eq. (12):
one material layer. For general shielding calculations, one
must either select a simple approximation to obtain an or- rA¼B ð14Þ
der-of-magnitude shielding estimate or utilize more com-
plex numerical methods to solve the shielding problem. Substituting Eq. (14) in Eq. (13), we obtain
In high frequency shielding, calculations for plane
waves propagating through infinite sheets are used to ar- @A
E¼ ð15Þ
rive at shielding estimates. Because the resulting equa- @t
tions are analogous to transmission line equations, this
method is often called the transmission-line approach Combining Eqs. (8), (11), (14), (15), and using a vector
[10]. As described previously, this approach is not rele- identity gives the following
vant to ELF shielding except for a limited set of condi-
tions. Reference 8 describes a technique similar to the @A
r2 A ms ¼ mJs ð16Þ
transmission-line approach, but specifically tailored to @t
ELF magnetic field shielding calculations for ideal shield
geometries with multiple layers having different material in which Js is the known distribution of source currents
properties. This method is well suited for calculations in- producing magnetic fields that require shielding.
volving nested cylindrical or spherical shields or shields When the source currents are sinusoidal, A and Js can
constructed from alternating layers of conducting and fer- be represented as phasors, and the time derivative in Eq.
romagnetic materials. (16) is replaced by jo:
Another technique found in literature is the circuit ap-
proach [11]. In this method, typically used to calculate r2 A jomsA ¼ mJs ð17Þ
ELF induced-current shielding, the shield enclosure is
viewed as a short-circuited turn that can be characterized When the shield material has zero conductivity or the
by an inductance and resistance. This method suffers from magnetic fields are constant (zero frequency), Eq. (17)
the assumption that significant details of field structure becomes
for the shielding problem are known a priori to properly
set the circuit parameters. This severely limits application r2 A ¼ mJs ð18Þ
of the method.
General modeling of ELF magnetic field shielding Equation (17) can be used for the general case where a
amounts to calculating magnetic fields in the presence of shield provides field reduction through both flux shunting
MAGNETIC SHIELDING 2481
and induced-current mechanisms. Equation (18) is only called the Biot–Savart law, which gives the magnetic field
for flux shunting. The shielding factor for a specific source contribution at a point in space due to a differential piece
shield configuration is determined by first solving for the of current density
magnetic vector potential A without the shield in the Z
problem and then solving for A with the shield. Using 1 Jðr 0 Þ ðr r 0 Þ
H¼ dv 0 ð19Þ
Eq. (14), one calculates the flux densities from both vector 4p V0 jr r 0 j3
potential solutions. Ratios of the field magnitudes as in
Eq. (2) define the field reduction provided by the shield as in which Jðr 0 Þ is the current density in the problem as a
a function of position. function of position defined by the vector r 0 (from the or-
igin to the integration point) and r defines the point where
the magnetic field is being evaluated (vector from origin to
6. NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS FOR SHIELDING the field evaluation point). Integrating over all of the cur-
rents in the problem gives the total field at one point in
Except for the ideal shield geometries mentioned previ- space. This equation is not valid when shield materials,
ously, solving the governing equations requires numerical that is, conducting and ferromagnetic materials, are in-
methods. Two common numerical techniques are the fi- troduced into the problem region. The boundary integral
nite-element method and the boundary integral method method overcomes this difficulty by replacing the effect of
[12–14]. magnetization or induced currents within the materials
In the finite-element method, the problem region is with equivalent sources at the surface of the materials
subdivided into elements—typically triangles for two-di- where discontinuities in material properties occur. In con-
mensional problems and tetrahedra for three-dimensional trast to the finite-element method, only the surfaces are
problems—that form a mesh. The continuous variation of divided into elements. Basis functions are used to approx-
vector potential A over each element is approximated by a imate a continuous distribution of equivalent sources over
specified basis function. Then the unknowns become the these surfaces, and a system of equations is developed in
coefficients of the basis function for each element. Varia- which the unknowns are the coefficients for the basis func-
tional concepts are used to obtain an approximate solution tions. After solving for the unknown sources on the shield
to the governing partial-differential equation, for example, surface, one can then calculate the new magnetic field at
Eq. (17), across all elements. The net result is a system of any point by combining the contributions of all sources—
algebraic equations that must be solved for the unknowns. the original field sources and the induced sources in the
Finite-element software is commercially available, and shield—to obtain the shielded magnetic field distribution.
features that provide automatic meshing, graphical pre- The key advantages of the boundary integral method
processing, and visualization of results make it an acces- are that only the surfaces of the shield need to be subdi-
sible and useful general shield calculating tool for some vided into elements and that the method is ideal for open
shield problems, especially problems that can be modeled boundary problems with a large air region. The method is
in two dimensions or problems with symmetry about an also ideally suited for complex systems of currents. Thus,
axis. Figures 3, 5, 6, 12, and 13 were produced with finite- the boundary-element method is better suited for three-
element software. dimensional problems than the finite-element method. The
However, there are weaknesses to the finite-element main weakness of the boundary integral method is that it
method. Shield geometries typically involve very thin results in a full system of equations that is more difficult to
sheets of materials with much larger length and width solve than the sparse system produced by the finite-
dimensions. This, along with the need to accurately model element method. An integral method based on surface
significant changes in field magnitudes across the shield elements, developed expressly for solving three-dimension-
thickness, requires large numbers of elements in the al quasistatic shielding problems, is described in Ref. 15.
shield region. Shielding problems are also characterized The underlying theoretical basis for shield calculations
by large regions of air and complicated systems of con- is as old as electricity itself and goes back to Faraday and
ductors that are the field sources for the problem. In terms Maxwell. Although materials science is a rapidly changing
of energy density, the fields in the shielded region are area with developments in composite materials and ma-
negligible compared with fields near the sources, so one terials processing, the basic materials for shielding of DC
cannot rely on energy as the criterion for determining and ELF magnetic fields have, for the most part, remained
when an adequate solution has been obtained. Finally, unchanged. For basic shield configurations, calculations
solving the partial-differential equations means that the are straightforward. However, actual application of
problem region must be bounded and a boundary condi- shielding requires practical expertise in addition to theo-
tion must be specified at the edges. The problem region retical knowledge. For example, construction methods
must be made large enough that the boundary conditions used to fabricate a shield from multiple sheets must en-
do not affect the solution in the region where shielding is sure that conductivity and permeability are maintained
being calculated. This results in more unknowns and a across the entire shield surface, especially in critical di-
larger problem to solve. rections. Edge effects and holes in shields for conduits,
Instead of differential equations, it is also possible to doors, windows, and so on degrade shield performance and
use the integral form of the quasistatic equations. For must be accounted for early in the design process. With
determining magnetic fields in air due to some distribu- proper shield calculating tools and proper construction
tion of currents, one can derive an integral equation, often practices, shields can be designed that attenuate magnetic
Next Page
2482 MAGNETRONS
fields by factors ranging from 10 to 1000 (shielding factors is complicated in historical length (back to 1921) and
ranging from 0.100 to 0.001), thus eliminating problems breadth, types, and derived devices. In this review the
with stray or unwanted magnetic fields. term ‘‘magnetron’’ usually connotes a source (oscillator) of
microwave power, where ‘‘microwave’’ is used to designate
frequencies between roughly 300 MHz and 300 GHz. Prac-
BIBLIOGRAPHY tical application is dominated by its use in the microwave
oven, although a significant number of other military and
1. IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics
industrial applications remain.
Terms, ANSI Std 100-1997, 6th ed., IEEE, New York, 1997.
In the IEEE dictionary (1997 edition), ‘‘magnetron’’ is
2. L. Hasselgren and J. Luomi, Geometrical aspects of magnetic
defined as ‘‘An electron tube characterized by the interac-
shielding at extremely low frequencies, IEEE Trans. Elect-
romagn. Compat. 37:409–420 (1995).
tion of electrons with the electric field of a circuit element
in crossed steady electric and magnetic fields to produce
3. R. B. Schulz, V. C. Plantz, and D. R. Brush, Shielding theory
and practice, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 30:187–201
alternating current power output’’. If ‘‘alternating cur-
(1988). rent’’ is replaced by RF/microwave, then this definition is
4. J. F. Hoburg, Principles of quasistatic magnetic shielding with
roughly equivalent to the one used here with some further
cylindrical and spherical shields, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. caveats. The IEEE definition would apply to amplifiers as
Compat. 37:547–579 (1995). well as oscillators. Also, a strict reading would allow its
5. T. Rikitake, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Shielding, Reidel, application to a possible class of ‘‘cyclotron resonance’’ de-
Boston, 1987. vices, which would not generally be termed as magnet-
6. R. M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, rons. If the interaction mechanism is restricted to the
1993 Reprint. class of ‘‘velocity synchronism,’’ then the IEEE definition
7. A. P. Wills, On the magnetic shielding effect of trilamellar would be apt. It should be noted that in modern technology
spherical and cylindrical shells, Phys. Rev. IX(4):193–243 (1899). the term ‘‘magnetron’’ also applies to devices not covered
8. J. F. Hoburt, A computational methodology and results for by the IEEE definition but that demonstrably are derived
quasistatic multilayered magnetic shielding, IEEE Trans. from the basic elements of the magnetron, which are de-
Electromagn. Compat. 38:92–103 (1996). picted in Fig. 1. A uniform static magnetic field B is ap-
9. R. C. Weast, ed., Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 56th plied parallel to a cylindrical (generally) cathode, of radius
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1975–1976. rc, which is an effective emitter of electrons when a voltage
10. S. A. Schelkunoff, Electromagnetic Waves, Van Nostrand, New Va is applied between the concentric anode, of radius ra,
York, 1943. and the cathode, with conventional polarity. Axial con-
11. D. A. Miller and J. E. Bridges, Review of circuit approach to finement of the electrons is achieved by the presence of
calculate shielding effectiveness, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. end shields or end hats, which are attached to the cathode
Compat. EMC-10:52–62 (1968). as depicted in Fig. 1, where the distance between end
12. P. P. Silvester and R. L. Ferrari, Finite Elements for Electrical shields is denoted as L. The anode electrode, of height H in
Engineers, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 1983. the axial direction, could be merely a solid (generally cop-
13. S. R. Hoole, Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Electro- per) block, in which case the term ‘‘magnetron diode’’ is
magnetic Devices, Elsevier Science, New York, 1989. used. Alternatively the anode could be made of a circuit, or
14. R. F. Harrington, Field Computation by Moment Methods, periodic structure for the purpose of achieving interaction
Macmillan, New York, 1968. of circuit and electron cloud. The cathode is shown as a
15. K. C. Lim et al., Integral law descriptions of quasistatic mag- uniform cylindrical tube heated by an internal filament
netic field shielding by thin conducting plate, IEEE Trans. (usually tungsten) and thus dubbed an ‘‘indirectly heated’’
Power Deliv.12:1642–1650 (1997). cathode. Alternatively, which is the case for most magnet-
rons in ‘‘power applications,’’ the cathode itself could be
directly heated when it itself consists of a tungsten (or
thoriated tungsten) helix or coil.
MAGNETRONS
rm
1. INTRODUCTION
Anode
structure
The magnetron is an unique surviving example of an elec-
tron tube, or vacuum-electronic device, in the modern age
of RF and microwave semiconductor devices. Its definition (a) (b)
Figure 1. Basic structure of a magnetron: (a) midplane cross
1
Section 3,5, and 7 were contributed by Thomas E. Ruden. section; (b) longitudinal cross section through axis.