CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

*Life requires about 25 chemical elements.
*Atomic structure determines the behavior
of an element.
•Interaction among atoms (for instance,
how atoms bond to form molecules) is the basis of
biological structure and function.
*Each kind of atom has a characteristic number of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
*An atom's behavior (how it interacts with other atoms)
is determined by the arrangement of its electrons.
 - body functions depend on cellular functions

- biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes, and

develop new drugs and methods for treating diseases

- cellular functions result from chemical changes

NATURE OF MATTER

A. ATOMIC STRUCTURE: the universe is

composed of 92 elements,each with unique
atomic structure
ATOM – the smallest unit of matter that cannot
be broken down by chemical means
- composed of protons,neutrons and
electrons
ATOM STRUCTURE
B. MOLECULES – formed by 2 or more
atoms bonded together
COMPOUNDS – 2 or more different
types of atoms bonded together

C. TYPES OF BONDS
1. IONIC BONDS
2. COVALENT BONDS
3. HYDROGEN BONDS
IONIC BOND- an attraction between a cation and
an anion
Na Cl formation
Covalent Bond - Formed when atoms share
electrons

•Hydrogen atoms form single bonds

•Oxygen atoms form two bonds
•Nitrogen atoms form three bonds
•Carbon atoms form four bonds
Polar Molecule
• molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly
positive end
• results when electrons are not shared equally in
covalent bonds
• water is an important polar molecule
Hydrogen Bond
• a weak attraction between the positive end of one
polar molecule and the negative end of another
polar molecule
• formed between water molecules
• important for protein and nucleic acid structure
PROTOPLASM

! The living part of the cell composed of organic

and inorganic compounds
! Properties:
1. Physical – colloidal system
- sol –> gel reversals
2. Chemical – organic and inorganic
compounds
3. Biological - reproduction,metabolism,
irritability, adaptability
Inorganic Substances

Water
• most abundant compound in living material
• two-thirds of the weight of an adult human
• major component of all body fluids
• medium for most metabolic reactions
• important role in transporting chemicals in the body
• absorbs and transports heat

Oxygen (O2)
• used by organelles to release energy from nutrients
in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities
• necessary for survival
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• waste product released during metabolic reactions
• must be removed from the body

Inorganic salts
• abundant in body fluids
• sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, etc.)
• play important roles in metabolism
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
• provide energy to cells
• supply materials to build cell structures
• water-soluble
• contain C, H, and O
• ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)

• monosaccharides – glucose, fructose,galactose,

pentoses
• disaccharides – sucrose (glucose+ fructose),
- lactose (glucose+galactose),
• polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose
LIPIDS
• soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water

• fats (triglycerides)
• used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body
• contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates
(C57H110O6)
• building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per
molecule
• saturated and unsaturated
• phospholipids
• building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per
molecule
• hydrophilic and hydrophobic
• major component of cell membranes
• steroids
• four connected rings of carbon
• widely distributed in the body, various functions
• component of cell membrane
• used to synthesize hormones
• cholesterol
PROTEINS

• structural material
• energy source • amino acids held
• hormones together with
• receptors peptide bonds
• enzymes
• antibodies
NUCLEIC ACIDS
• carry genes
• encode amino acid sequences of proteins

• building blocks are nucleotides

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide

• RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide
CLINICAL APPLICATION

CT Scanning and PET Imaging

• techniques used to give anatomical and physiological
information, respectively

• CT scanning uses X-ray emissions to provide 3-D

image of internal body parts

• PET imaging used radioactive isotopes to detect biochemical

activity in a specific body part
CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION

Chapter 3
What is a cell?
! A cell is a small membrane-bound structure
that contains all the requirements for life.

! It is the smallest living structure.

! The basic unit of life composed of organelles

and inclusion bodies
HISTORY OF CELL BIOLOGY

Anton von Leeuwenhoek

! 17th century Dutch draper, lens grinder,
microscope architect, and microscopist
! “invented the microscope” (1600s)
! maintained voluminous notes and detailed
drawings of his viewings
! 1665 Robert Hooke “discovered” the cell and
cyclosis
! 1838 Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants
are made up of cells.
! 1839 Theodor Schwann proposed that all animals
are made up of cells.
! 1858 Rudolf Virchow proposed his theory of
biogenesis: All cells come from pre-existing cells
(life from life). This discredits the theory of
spontaneous generation.
! Jan Evangelista Purkinje – the first one to use the
term protoplasm to describe the living part of the cell
The Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of cells.
- can be a single cell or many cells

2. The cell is the smallest living thing that shows all

of the characteristics of life.
" homeostasis, metabolism, responsiveness, reproduction, evolution

3. All cells come from preexisting living cells

Why are cells so small?
• In order to be efficient in producing materials and
energy for survival, cells must maintain a small
surface to volume ratio.

1. The surface membrane must be large enough to

control what enters and leaves the cell

2. The volume of the cell must be small enough so

that reactants can find each other
METHODS OF STUDYING CELLS

1. MICROSCOPY
2. CELL CULTURE
3. ULTRACONFIGURATION/
CENTRIFUGATION
MICROSCOPY
! light microscope
" light as source of illumination
" glass lenses
" limited resolution (loses resolving power at
magnifications above 2000X)
! electron microscope
" beam of electrons directed by magnets onto a
viewing screen or photographic plate
" greater magnification than light microscope
" greater resolving power than light microscope
Types of cells based on complexity:

! prokaryotic - lacks nuclear membrane;

possesses no well-defined nucleus;
possesses few organelles; Examples:
bacteria and other monerans
! eukaryotic - possesses nuclear membrane;
possesses well-defined nucleus; many
organelles present; Examples: protists; cells
of fungi, plants, and animals
The Human Cell
! The human cell is bounded by a plasma
membrane that encloses a central nucleus
surrounded by cytoplasm.
" Cytoplasm contains organelles, membranous
structures, and a cytoskeleton
! Human cells differ in size, shape and function
CELL SIZE

! most cells are

microscopic
5-100 microns
! length of nerve cell
1 meter (m)
! largest single cell
ostrich egg
Cell Organization
I. The Plasma Membrane
1. Composed of a phospholipid bi-layer with
embedded proteins, carbohydrates, and
cholesterol
a. Glycoproteins and glycolipids serve as identification
markers
b. Embedded proteins may serve as hormone receptors,
transport channels, or enzymes in metabolic
reactions
c. Cholesterol is a membrane stabilizer
A. Phospholipid bilayer
1. HYDROPHILIC END

2. HYDROPHOBIC END

B. Protein layer
1. extrinsic protein
2. intrinsic protein
" 2. Plasma Membrane Functions
" Keeps the cell intact and being selectively
permeable, it regulates what enters or leaves the
cell
! a. Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
" some molecules can diffuse across the plasma
membrane
! b. Osmosis is the movement of water across a membrane
from an area of higher water concentration to an area of
lower water concentration
! c. Transport across the plasma membrane by a carrier
" Some carrier molecules require no energy (facilitated
transport)
" Other transport carriers require energy (active transport)

! d. Endocytosis and Exocytosis

" Endocytosis occurs when the plasma membrane forms a
vesicle around a particle outside the cell and brings the
particle into the cell

" Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle inside the cell fuses with
the plasma membrane and dumps it’s contents outside the
cell
Junctional complexes of the
Cell membrane
1. Zonula adherens

2. Macula adherens

3. Spot desmosomes
II. The Cytoplasm

! The cellular material outside the nucleus

! The site of most cellular activities
! The factory area of the cell
! Components:
a. cytosol – semi-transparent fluid that
suspends other elements of the cell
b. organelles
c. inclusions
Differences of organelles and
inclusions
ORGANELLES
INCLUSIONS
• Permanent living
components of the cell • temporary, non-living
• Machinery of the cell accumulation of metabolites
engineered to carry out their
•Stored nutrients and
own function
cellular products
• examples: Nucleus, G.A.,
mitochondria, ER, • examples: Fat
lysosomes, peroxisome, droplets,granules,pigments,
proteasomes crystals and secretory
products
Types of Organelles

1. Membranous Organelles
- membrane-bounded structures of the
cell
- Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER,
lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes

2. Non-membranous Organelles
- not bounded by membrane
ex. cytoskeleton, centrioles
a. The Nucleus
" The nucleus is the control center for the cel
" DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm
" Nuclear structures:
b.1 Nucleoli - the nucleus contains one or more where
ribosomal RNA is synthesized
b.2 The nuclear envelope- a double membrane that surrounds
the DNA and has pores that connect it with the cytoplasm
b.3 Chromatins

b.4 perinuclear cisternae

B. Ribosomes (Microbodies)
" A mix of ribosomal RNA and protein that forms a
structure of two subunits
" They are the site of protein synthesis
" Has small ribosomal units and large ribosomal
units
Types of ribosomes

1. Attached ribosomes
- located in the ER
- for CHON synthesis

2. Free ribosomes
- located in the cytoplasm
- for cellular uses
C. The Internal Membrane System
" 1.The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
membranes that form channels through the cytoplasm
a. Rough ER specializes in protein synthesis
b. Smooth ER produces different substances in different
cells,steroid, CHO synthesis
" 2. The Golgi Apparatus
– a. A series of flattened sacks that accept materials from the
ER
– b. packages, stores, and modifies the materials and places
them in vesicles for delivery
– c. always near the nucleus, the principal traffic director for
cellular CHONS
– D. forms vescicles, vacoules,etc.
D. Lysosomes
! Vesicles formed by the Golgi Apparatus that contain
hydrolytic enzymes
! Digest food particles brought into the cell by endocytosis,
and digest worn out and unwanted materials within the
cell
! With hydrolytic enzymes
Lysosomal activity

1. AUTOPHAGY – digestion of damaged

organelles by the lysosomes of the cells

2. AUTOLYSIS – digestion of the its own

damaged cells.
- related to aging
E. Mitochondria
" Small double membrane bound organelles
" Convert the energy stored in glucose into ATP
molecules by a process known as aerobic
respiration
" CRISTAE – area where there is greater ATP
production
F. PEROXISOMES

! Membranous sacs containing powerful

oxidase
! For detoxification of toxins such as
alcoho,formaldehyde
! Disarm dangerous free radicals (highly
reactive chemicals w/ unpaied e- which can
scramble CHON & nucleic acid structures
! Ex. H2O2- # H2O + O
G. PROTEASOME

! Organelles responsible for recycling of

cellular materials
! With enzyme called proteases
! Bounded by membranes
G. The cytoskeleton
" 1. A network of filamentous protein structures
" 2. Provides an internal framework for the cell
" 3. Centrioles are structures that occur in pairs in
the cell that organize the microtubules within the
cell
! Also, give rise to basal bodies that direct the formation of
cilia and flagella
! TYPES:
1. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
2. MICROFILAMENTS
3. MICROTUBULES
TYPES OF CYTOSKELETONS
1. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
* strong,stable,rope-like
* form desmosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist
pulling forces on the cell
2. MICROFILAMENTS
* involved in motility and producing changes in the cell
shape.
3. MICROTUBULES
* tube-like structures which determine the overall shape of
the cell and the distribution of the organelles
* important in cell division
G. Cilia and flagella
" Hairlike projections of the cells
" Responsible for locomotion in some cells; also,
movement of invading organisms out of the body
" Flagella are relatively large in size and occur in
small numbers
" Cilia are short and occur in large numbers
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
and
CELLULAR METABOLISM
CELL PHYSIOLOGY

! The the processes or functions of the cell

CELL TRANSPORT
2 ways that the molecules move through the
membrane:
1. Active transport requires that the cell use
energy that it has obtained from food to move
the molecules (or larger particles) through the
cell membrane.
2. Passive transport does not require such energy
expenditure, and occurs spontaneously
PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Does not require energy - requires for energy
- Does not require oxygen - requires oxygen
-flow of materials is from - flow of materials is from
greater to lesser lesser to greater concentration
concentration(follows (does not follow concentration
concentration gradient) gradient)
- flow rate is faster
- flow rate is slower - examples:
- examples: Endocytosis
Diffusion,Selectively permeable Phagocytosis
membranes ,Osmosis (isotonic, Pinocystosis
hypotonic and hypertonic Exocytosis
solutions)
Facilitated diffusion
SOLUTION, SOLVENT AND SOLUTE

! A solution is a homogenous molecular mixture of two or more

substances.
! The substance that has the greatest concentration is the solvent.
It is the substance that dissolves the other substance(s) in the
solution.
! Substances that are found in lesser concentration in solutions
are solutes. Solutes are the substances dissolved by solvents.
! When you put a spoonful of sugar in a cup of water, the result is
a solution. The water is the solvent and the sugar is the solute.
Suppose you have a cup of coffee with sugar in it. __________ is
the solvent and _________ and __________ are the solutes.
DIFFUSION

! The principle means of passive transport

! Diffusion - The random movement of
molecules from a area of higher
concentration to an area
of lower concentration.
! the direction of diffusion is determined by the
concentration of specific molecules in
! the two sides of the membrane and the
energy that causes the diffusion
DIFFUSION

It is important to bear in mind that:

- the movement is random
- the steeper the concentration gradient (ie. the bigger the
difference between the higher concentration and lower
concentration), the faster will be the movement.
TYPES OF DIFFUSION
1. SOLID OVER
a. solid - MASTICATION
b. liquid - DIGESTION
c. gas - TRANSPIRATION
2. LIQUID OVER
a. solid - PERSPIRATION
b. liquid -DIGESTION
c. gas - EVAPORATION
3. GAS OVER
a. solid - SUBLIMATION
b. liquid - OXYGENATION
c. gas - RESPIRATION
DIFFUSION OF SOLID OVER LIQUID
What factors can influence the rate
of diffusion?
! Temperature.
! The state of the solvent; i.e. whether the solvent is a solid, liquid
or gas.
! The size of the molecules.
! The steepness of the diffusion gradient.
! Permeability
! Size of molecules
! Size of pores
! Solubility
! Electrical charges
! Membrane structure
Property of Diffusion
! The greater the space between these
molecules the greater the ability for the
molecular particles to spread out from one
another.
! The more packed the molecules are in the
substance the less space to maneuver, and
therefore, the more difficult for diffusion to
occur.
! Requires diffusion pressure
OSMOSIS

! is the movement of water molecules from a region of

their higher concentration to a
! region of their lower concentration, through a
partially permeable membrane
! Water will move by osmosis into and out of cells due
to differences in water potential between the cell
and its surroundings.
! Water potential is the chemical potential of water
and is a measure of the energy available for
reaction or movement (Bidwell 1974:59).
.
Some Basic Principles of
Osmosis
! Water always moves from high water potential to
low water potential.
! Water potential is a measure of the tendency of
water to move from high free energy to lower free
energy.
! Distilled water in an open beaker has a water
potential of 0(zero).
! The addition of solute decreases water potential.
! The addition of pressure increases water potential.
! In cells, water moves by osmosis to areas where
water potential is lower.
" A hypertonic solution has lower water potential.
! A hypotonic solution has higher water potential
OSMOSIS
DIAGRAM
Hypertonic Solutions: contain a high
concentration of solute relative to another
solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm). When a cell
is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water
diffuses out of the cell, causing the cell to
shrivel.
Hypotonic Solutions: contain a low
concentration of solute relative to another
solution (e.g. the cell's cytoplasm). When a cell
is placed in a hypotonic solution, the water
diffuses into the cell, causing the cell to swell
and possibly
Isotonic explode
Solutions: contain the same
concentration of solute as an another solution
(e.g. the cell's cytoplasm). When a cell is placed
in an isotonic solution, the water diffuses into
and out of the cell at the same rate. The fluid
that surrounds the body cells is isotonic.
Summary of the direction of OSMOSIS
CONDITION CELL ENV’T WATER CELL
SOLO’ N SOLU’N MOV’T RXN.
1. solute
concentration in
Away shrink
the surrounding Hypertonic from the
solution is higher Hypotonic
then in the cell,
cell
solvent is lower
2. solute Hypertonic Hypotonic
concentration in
Towards swell
the surrounding the cell
solution is lower
then in the cell,
solvent is higher
3. Solute Isotonic Isotonic
concentration is
In and No
equal between the out of change
surrounding
solution and that
the cell
of the cell
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Endocytosis begins when a particle contacts the
plasma membrane of a cell. An invagination of the
membrane occurs until the particle is completely
wrapped in membrane. The wrapped particle is now
inside a vesicle in the interior of the cell. There are
two types of endocytosis: phagocytosis and
pinocytosis.
Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis. In this
case material exits from the cell. As with
endocytosis, the plasma membrane is actively
involved. Material in a sac or vesicle moves to the
membrane and when it makes contact the
membrane opens and the material inside the vesicle
pours out. Note that the plasma membrane and the
vesicle membrane fuse to form a new border for the
cell.
! The difference between the two has to do with the size of the
material ingested.
1. Phagocytosis (cell eating) is shown above and occurs when
solid material is involved. A white blood cell phagocytosis
bacteria when it ingests them and breaks them down inside the
cell.

2. Pinocytosis (cell drinking) occurs when smaller particles, such

as large molecules, that are in solution are ingested by a cell.
The process is the same as that shown above, but the type of
material taken into the cell differs
CELLULAR METABOLISM

! a major biochemical pathway along

which the cells release the chemical
bond energy from the food and convert
it to usable form (ATP)

! the many synthesis or breakdown of

material taking place within the cell.
METABOLISM AND ENERGY:

1. ENDERGONIC REACTION – the synthesis

of compounds which require energy outside
the reacting substances
Ex. Photosysntesis
2. EXERGONIC REACTION – the life
processes accompanied by loss or release of
energy
Ex. Maintenace and repair, secretion of
substances, physiological
oxidations
CELLULAR RESPIRATION

! the series of complex oxidation reactions

whereby living
! cells obtain energy through breakdown of
organic substances and other intermediate
materials.
! release of energy by the oxidation of fuel
molecules by taking oxygen and release
carbon dioxide
TYPES OF CELLULAR
RESPIRATION:
1.ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION /GLYCOLYSIS
- the cytoplasmic cellular activity which consists of the enzymatic
breakdown of glucose molecules without the use of molecular
oxygen
! glucose is stable molecule and will not decompose
spontaneously to release energy:
1 glucose molecule - 2 ATP molecules
! involves phosphorylation reaction – phosphates are released
from the 2 ATP and become ADP and the other phosphate
become attached to glucose and form PHOSPHORYLATED
SUGAR (P-C6-p) under the control of the enzyme
phosphorylase.
! Products: 2 ATP, 2 pyruvic acids (3-carbon sugar),lactic
acids
2. AEROBIC RESPIRATION / KREB’S
CYCLE/CITRIC ACID CYCLE

! a series of oxidation-reduction mitochondrial reactions that

complete the breakdown of pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis
! pypyruvic acid must enter the mitochondrion so that it can be
used as a source of energy
! 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules is reacted upon by acetyl-co-
enzyme a, and carbon dioxide is the waste product and is
eventually released into the atmosphere
! 5 pairs of hydrogen bonds are removed and become attached to
the H carriers
! involves 3 uses of water and ETS
! products: 34 ATP(17 per pyruvic acid), Carbon Dioxide,
water
COMPARISON OF ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC
RESPIRATION
BASIS GLYCOLYSIS KREB’S CYCLE
1. Site Cytoplasm Mitochondrion
2. Oxygen Do not require oxygen Require oxygen
requirement
3. Raw
materials/Energy 1 Glucose molecule 2 Pyruvic acid from
(CHO,CHON, Fats) glycolysis
Source

4. Processes
Breakdown of glucose Breakdown of pyruvic
involved to pyruvic acid, acids
phosphorylation, lactic
acid formation
BASIS GLYCOLYSIS KREB’S

5. Enzymes Phosphorylase, Coenzyme A (CoA),

NAD(Nicotinamide FAD (Flavin Adenine
Adenine Dinucleotide, Dinucleotide)

2 ATP, 2 pyruvic 34 ATP(17 per

6. Products acids (3-carbon pyruvic acid),
sugar),lactic acids Carbon Dioxide,
water
CHO (FATS,CHON)
PYRUVIC ACID
GLYCOGEN
OXALOACETIC ACID(CoA)
GLUCOSE
ATP, CO2 , H
PYRUVIC ACID , ATP,
LACTIC ACIDS
Cell Division
Cell division increases the number of somatic (body)
cells, and consists of:

Karyokinesis (division of nucleus)

Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)

Apoptosis (cell death) decreases the number of cells.

Both cell division and apoptosis occur during normal

development and growth.
 The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events that

occurs from the time when a cell is first formed until it
divides into two new cells.

Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase.

Following interphase, the mitotic stage of cell division

occurs.
The stages of interphase

G1 stage – cell growth, cell doubles its organelles,

accumulates materials for DNA synthesis.

S stage – DNA synthesis occurs, and DNA replication

results in duplicated chromosomes.

G2 stage – cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell

division
The cell cycle
The Mitotic Stage

Following interphase is the M stage, including mitosis

and cytokinesis.

During mitosis, sister chromatids of each chromosome

separate, and become the nuclei of the two daughter
cells.

The cell cycle ends when cytokinesis, the cleaving of

the cytoplasm, is complete.
The cell cycle is controlled at three checkpoints:

1. During G1 prior to the S stage

2. During G2 prior to the M stage

3. During the M stage prior to the end of mitosis

DNA damage can also stop the cell cycle at the G1

checkpoint.
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is programmed cell death.

Apoptosis occurs because of two sets of enzymes

called capsases.

The first set, the “initiators” receive a signal to activate

the second set, the “executioners”.

The second set of capsases activate enzymes that tear

apart the cell and its DNA.
Maintaining the Chromosome Number

When a eukaryotic cell is not dividing, the DNA and

associated proteins is a tangled mass of thin threads
called chromatin.

At the time of cell division, the chromatin condenses to

form highly compacted structures called chromosomes.

Each species has a characteristic number of

chromosomes.
Overview of Mitosis

The diploid number of chromosomes is found in the

somatic (non-sex) cells.

The diploid (2n) number of chromosomes contains two

chromosomes of each kind.

The haploid (n) number of chromosomes contains one

chromosome of each kind.
In the life cycle of many animals, only sperm and
eggs have the haploid number of chromosomes.

The nuclei of somatic cells undergo mitosis, a nuclear

division in which the number of chromosomes stays
constant.

Before nuclear division occurs, DNA replication takes

place, duplicating the chromosomes.
A duplicated chromosome is made of two sister
chromatids held together in a region called the
centromere.

Sister chromatids are genetically identical.

At the end of mitosis, each chromosome consists of a

single chromatid.

During mitosis, the centromeres divide and then the

sister chromatids separate, becoming daughter
chromosomes.
Following mitosis, a 2n parental cell gives rise to two
2n daughter cells, or 2n → 2n.

Mitosis occurs when tissues grow or when repair

occurs.

Following fertilization, the zygote divides mitotically,

and mitosis continues throughout the lifespan of the
organism.
Mitosis in Detail

During mitosis, the spindle distributes the chromosomes

to each daughter cell.

The spindle contains fibers made of microtubules that

disassemble and assemble.

Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers through their

centrosomes.

Mitosis has four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,

and telophase.
Late
Interphase
Early
Prophase
Late
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis, or cytoplasmic cleavage, accompanies
mitosis.

Cleavage of the cytoplasm begins in anaphase, but is

not completed until just before the next interphase.

Newly-formed cells receive a share of cytoplasmic

organelles duplicated during the previous interphase.
A cleavage furrow begins at the end of anaphase.

A band of actin and myosin filaments, called the

contractile ring, slowly forms a constriction between
the two daughter cells.

A narrow bridge between the two cells is apparent

during telophase, then the contractile ring completes
the division.
Cytokinesis
Cell Division in Prokaryotes
The process of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes is
called binary fission.

The two daughter cells are identical to the original

parent cell, each with a single chromosome.

Following DNA replication, the two resulting

chromosomes separate as the cell elongates.
MEIOSIS: Reducing the Chromosome Number

Meiosis reduces the chromosome number such that each

daughter cell has only one of each kind of
chromosome.

The process of meiosis ensures that the next generation

will have:

1. the diploid number of chromosomes

2. a combination of traits that differs from that of
either parent.
Meiosis in humans.

Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes,

or 46 chromosomes total.

Prior to meiosis I, DNA replication occurs.

During meiosis, there will be two nuclear divisions, and

the result will be four haploid nuclei.

No replication of DNA occurs between meiosis I and

meiosis II.
Meiosis I separates homologous pairs of
chromosomes.

Daughter cells are haploid, but chromosomes are still in

duplicated condition.

Synapsis occurs during meiosis I

Meiosis II separates sister chromatids.

The completely haploid daughter cells mature into gametes.

Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes
during sexual reproduction.
 Meiosis in Detail
Meiosis involves the same four phases seen in
mitosis prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

The occur during both meiosis I and meiosis II.

The period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II

is called interkinesis.

No replication of DNA occurs during interkinesis

because the DNA is already duplicated.
Meiosis I continued
Meiosis II (similar to mitosis)
Genetic Recombination
There are two sources of genetic recombination during
meiosis:
1. Crossing-over.
Non-sister chromatids of a chromosome pair
exchange their genetic material.
2. Independent assortment.
Homologous chromosomes are distributed to
daughter cells randomly.
3. Synapsis of chromosomes

4. Fertilization
All events assure new genetic combinations in the
offspring.
Synapsis and crossing-over
Independent
assortment
Fertilization between haploid gametes results in a third
source of genetic recombination because there is the
combining of chromosomes from different individuals
(parents).

The three source of genetic recombination

are:

1. Independent alignment of paired

chromosomes along the metaphase I
plate
2. Crossing-over during prophase I
3. Combining of chromosomes of genetically different
gametes
Comparison of Meiosis with Mitosis

Before mitosis and meiosis, DNA replication occurs only

once during the interphase prior to cell division.

Mitosis requires one division

Meiosis requires two divisions.

Two diploid daughter cells result from mitosis

Four haploid daughter cells result from meiosis.
Comparison of Meiosis with Mitosis (cont)

Daughter cells from mitosis are genetically identical

to parental cells
Daughter cells from meiosis are not genetically
identical to parental cells.

Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells for growth and

repair.
Meiosis occurs only in the reproductive organs for
the production of gametes.
Comparison of Meiosis II to Mitosis

The events of meiosis II are like those of mitosis

except in meiosis II, the nuclei contain the haploid
number of chromosomes.

At the end of telophase II of meiosis II, there are four

haploid daughter cells that are not genetically
identical.

At the end of mitosis, there are two diploid daughter

cells that are identical.
The human life cycle requires both mitosis and
meiosis.

In males, meiosis occurs as spermatogenesis and

produces sperm.

In females, meiosis occurs as oogenesis and produces

egg cells.

Mitosis is involved in the growth of a child and repair of

tissues during life.
Spermatogenesis in human males produces four viable
haploid sperm.

Diploid primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I to

produce haploid secondary spermatocytes.

Secondary spermatocytes divide by meiosis II to

produce haploid spermatids.

Spermatids mature into sperm with 23 chromosomes.

During oogenesis, a diploid primary oocyte undergoes
meiosis I to produce one haploid secondary oocyte and
one haploid polar body.

The secondary oocyte begins meiosis II but stops at

metaphase II and is released at this stage from the ovary.

Meiosis II will be completed only if sperm are present.

Following meiosis II, there is one haploid egg cell with 23

chromosomes and up to three polar bodies.

Polar bodies serve as a dumping ground for extra

chromosomes.
Oogenesis
In humans, both sperm cells and the egg cell have 23
chromosomes each.

Following fertilization of the egg cell by a single

sperm, the zygote has 46 chromosomes, the diploid
number found in human somatic cells.

The 46 chromosomes represent 23 pairs of homologous

chromosomes.
Genetic Recombination in Humans

There are three ways in which meiosis and fertilization

ensure that a child has a different combination of
genes from that of either parent:

1. Independent assortment of chromosomes during

metaphase I
2. Crossing-over during prophase I
3. Upon fertilization, recombination of chromosomes
from different individuals (via their gametes)
occurs.
Summary
Cell division increases the number of body cells;
Apoptosis decreases cell number.

Cells goes through a cell cycle.

Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes.

Mitosis
1. produces daughter cells that are identical to the
parental cell.
2. has four phases designed to maintain the
chromosome number.
3. is used for growth and repair of tissues.
 Summary continued

Meiosis
1. reduces the chromosome number.
2. includes two nuclear divisions.
3. results in non-identical haploid gametes.

The human life cycle includes both mitosis and

meiosis.

The process of meiosis and fertilization in humans and

other sexually reproducing organisms result in
offspring with new genetic combination.
 THE END

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