Berry Chemistry Form 4 Definition List

by BerryBerryTeacher on 28/10/2009

in Berry Reference (Notes)

This is a list of your berry important definitions for SPM Form 4 Chemistry. Try and understand
them, rather than memorising them. There is no need to memorisation with the understanding
of terms.

Chemistry Form 4 Definition List

1. Element – a substance consists of one type of atom.

2. Compound – a substance consists two or more elements that are chemically bonded
(molecule or ions).
3. Atom – smallest particle of an element.
4. Molecule – a group of two or more atoms.
5. Ion – a positively charged / negatively charged particle.
6. Isotopes – atoms of the same element with same proton number but different nucleon
numbers.
7. Relative atomic mass of an element = the average mass of one atom of an element/
((1/12) x the mass of one carbon-12 atom)
8. Relative molecular mass of an element = the average mass of one atom of an
molecule/((1/12) x the mass of one carbon-12 atom)
9. Molecule formula – compound shows the actual number of atoms of each element that
are present in a molecule of the compound
10. Empirical formula – compound shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of
each element in the compound
11. Mole – amount of substance that contains as many particles as the number of atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12 the symbol of mole is mol.
12. One mole – Avogadro constant – 6.02 x 1023
13. Group (Periodic Table) – vertical columns of element (similar chemical properties).
14. Periods (Periodic Table) – horizontal rows of element.
15. Valence electrons – electrons that occupy the outermost shell.
16. Ionic bond – bond formed through the transfer of electrons between atoms of metal and
non-metal to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement.
17. Ionic compound – consist of positive ions and negative ions which are held by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction.
18. Covalent bond – bond formed through the sharing of non-metal electrons to achieve
the stable duplet or octet electron arrangement.
19. Covalent compound (also simple molecular structure) – consists of neutral molecules
which are held by weak intermolecular forces (Van der Waals).
20. Alkali (base) – chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydroxide ions,
OH-.
21. Acid – chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+ or
hydroxonium ions, H3O+.
22. pH – degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Scale ranges from 0 to 14.
23. pH value – measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+.
24. Strong alkali – ionises (dissociates) completely in water to form hydroxide ions, OH- of
high concentration.
 25. Weak alkali – ionises (dissociates) partially in water to form hydroxide ions, OH- of low
concentration.
26. Strong acid – ionises (dissociates) completely in water to form hydrogen ions, H+ of
high concentration.
27. Weak acid – ionises (dissociates) partially in water to form hydrogen ions, H+ of low
concentration.
28. Polymer – long chain molecules made up by monomer (repeating unit).

So there you go!!! 28 of the most common definitions for SPM Form 4 Chemistry.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –

Terminology and Concepts: Introduction
to Chemistry
by BerryBerryTeacher on 21/01/2010

in Berry Reference (Notes)

For those taking science stream in Form 4, Chemsitry will be a new subject that are most likely
within your subject combination choices. It might seemed difficult in the beginning. You might
even hear stories from seniors about how chemistry gives you sleepless nights. Or stories of
exploding chemicals. Don’t fret, chemistry is not all too bad if everybody is attentive to their
teachers and observe lab safety regulations. Berry Berry Easy would like to share with all
Berry Readers the introduction to chemistry. Berry Berry Teacher has decided to make it
very short so that students do not feel overwhelmed by new things. If you can fully understand
what is written below, then you are cut out to do chemistry.

SPM Form 4 Notes – Terminology and Concepts: Introduction to Chemistry

Chemistry and Its Importance

Chemistry – earlier study of alchemy (an art of transforming common metals to precious
metals, usually lead to gold but to no success) (alchemy has since been proven to be a wrong
and currently dead branch of science)

Chemistry – is the study of the composition, structure, properties and interactions of matter.

Founder of Modern Chemistry (try and read up on the history of these two great men)

1. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) – performed controlled experiments and published his work
with elaborate details such as procedure, apparatus and observations.
2. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) – developed the Law of Conservation of Mass and the
theory of combustion.

Scientific Method
 1. Making Observation
2. Making Inference (smart guess)
3. Identifying the Problem
4. Making a Hypothesis
5. Identifying the Variables
6. Controlling the Variables
7. Planning an Experiment
8. Collecting Data
9. Interpreting Data
10. Making a Conclusion
11. Writing a Report

If you observe all 11 steps, you will be a young scientist in the making. Try to enjoy the process
of learning chemistry. Berry Berry Important subject if you intend to further your career in
the field of engineering.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –

Terminology and Concepts: The Structure
of the Atom
by BerryBerryTeacher on 30/01/2010

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Among the most basic knowledge in chemistry would be understanding the structure of atom.
The understanding of terms and concepts of all the important keywords and key phrases would
be crucial in gaining further knowledge in chemistry. Fortunately, the structure of atoms has
been simplified for SPM Form 4 students to make it less abstract and more intuitive for
students to understand them. It will also be helpful to start to memorise the periodic table for
now. (If there as anything that you should memorise, it should be the periodic table. As it could
save you more time in the long run) Nonetheless, Berry Berry Teacher hopes that everybody
try to understand at minimum the following concepts as terminology before moving on to other
topics.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: The Structure of the Atom

Important Terms

Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass.

Compound – a substance consists two or more elements that are chemically bonded
(molecule or ions).

Element – a substance that cannot be made into anything simpler by chemical reaction.

Atom – smallest particle of an element.

Molecule – a group of two or more atoms.

Ion – a positively charged / negatively charged particle.

Cations – positively-charge ions. Example: H+, K+, NH4+ and Mg2+

Anions – negatively-charge ions. Example: Br-, OH-, O2- and S2O32-

Velocity of the particle increases when

• Temperature increases
• Kinetic energy increases

Diffusion – movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low

concentration.

Changes in the States of Matter

1. Freezing / Solidification – liquid -> solid

2. Melting – solid -> liquid
3. Evaporation – liquid -> gas / vapour
4. Condensation – gas / vapour -> liquid
5. Sublimation – gas / vapour -> solid
6. Sublimation – solid -> gas / vapour

(Sublimation – iodine, ammonium chloride and solid carbon dioxide)

Important Scientist and Their Contributions

Berry Berry Teacher thinks that it will be good if students can link the contribution of each
great scientists to their findings. This will allow a chronological understanding of the
discoveries (for easier understanding) and to appreciate the work of these fine scientist.

John Dalton (1808) – atomic theory

1. Atoms – small indivisible particles.

2. Atoms – neither created nor destroyed.
3. Atoms – an element are alike.
4. Atoms – it combine in simple ratio.
5. Atoms – chemical reactions result from combination / separation of atoms.

J. J. Thomson (1897)

1. Electrons – negatively-charged particles.

2. Atoms – positively-charged sphere.

Ernest Rutherford (1911)

1. Atoms – consists of a positively-charged nucleus with a cloud of electrons surrounding

nucleus.
2. Protons – positively-charged particles.
Niels Bohr (1913)

1. Electrons – surrounding the nucleus (orbit).

James Cadwick (1932)

1. Neutrons – electrically neutral subatomic particles.

2. Neutrons – mass almost the same with a proton.
3. Nucleus of an atom – consists of protons and neutrons.

Concepts of the Atomic Model

Modern Atomic Model

1. Nucleus of an atom – consists of protons and neutrons.

2. Electrons – moving around the nucleus (orbits / electron shells/ quantum shells)

Proton number / Atomic number / Number of protons

1. Number of protons in its atom.

2. Number of electrons (neutral atom).

Nucleon number / Mass number / Number of nucleon

1. Sum of the number protons and neutrons.

Isotopes – atoms of the same element with same proton number but different nucleon
numbers.

(Further clarification on isotopes as there are still students who are confused with this concept
– Isotopes for any elements simply means that it is another element with the same number of
proton and electron but different number of neutrons. It is important to note that the atomic
number of isotopes are the same, although the mass number is different. If you can
understand this concept, you should be okay)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –

Terminology and Concepts: Chemical
Formulae and Equations (Part 1)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 25/02/2010
in Berry Reference (Notes)

After few weeks of learning chemistry, there are still some students who wrote in to Berry
Berry Easy to express their problems in mastering chemical formulae and chemical equations.
Some ask if they could just forget about it and catch up later. The answer is NO. Among basic
skills which students must master to understand chemistry, none is more important than
mastering chemical formulae and chemical equations. Most newcomers to the subject of
chemistry are scared off by the rather complex chemical formulae and equations, although
they become easier when you understand the underlying concept behind them.

Chemical formulae are simply there to describe chemical reactions as denoted by the chemical
equations. Confusing? Nay, it should be. Some memorising and practise will go a long way in
understanding this topic.

If you think this is hard, try understanding the difficulty of chemistry students before Mr
Berzelius devised the current chemical formulae writing system. So give it a try before saying
that this is hard. For those who do not find this difficult, congratulation. But do work hard in
learning how to express information in a chemical formula properly. So Berry Berry Teacher
would like to share with all some notes as shown below.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations – Part 1

1. Relative atomic mass, Ar is the atomic mass of an atom when compared to a standard
atom

2. Standard atom:

Hydrogen scale: hydrogen is the lightest atom of all and the mass of one hydrogen atom was
assigned 1 unit.

Weakness of Hydrogen scale:

• not too many elements can react readily with hydrogen,

• the reactive masses of some elements were not accurate,
• hydrogen exists as a gas at room temperature and
• has a number of isotopes with different masses.

Helium scale: the second lightest atom of all and the mass of one helium atom was assigned
1 unit.

Weakness of Helium scale:

• Mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times the mass of a hydrogen atom

• So, mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times 1/12 mass of a carbon atom
• helium exists as a gas at room temperature and
• helium is an inert gas.

Oxygen scale: chose as the standard atom to compare the masses of atoms

Weakness of Oxygen scale:

• the existence of three isotopes of oxygen were discovered,

• natural oxygen (containing all the three isotopes) as the standard (Chemist) and
 • used the isotopes oxygen-16 as the standard (Physicists).

Carbon scale: standard atom of comparison internationally.

• a carbon-12 atom is 12 times heavier than an atom of hydrogen,

• used as the reference standard in mass spectrometers,
• exists as a solid at room temperature,
• most abundant carbon isotope, happening about 98.89% and
• carbon-12 is close to the agreement based on oxygen.

3. Relative molecular mass, Mr of a substances is the average mass of a molecule (two or

more atoms) of the substances when compared 1/12 with of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

4. Relative formula mass, Fr is for ionic compound which is calculated by adding up the
relative atomic masses of all the atoms.

5. Example:

• Relative atomic mass, Ar of helium = 4

• Relative molecular mass, Mr of CO2 = 12 + 2(16) = 44
• Relative formula mass, Fr of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
• Relative formula mass, Na2CO3·10H2O = 2(23) + 12 + 3(16) + 10 [2(1) + 16] = 286

Try to solve some of the examples without looking at the answers. If you can understand this,
then stay tune and log in again for Part 2 of this topic’s notes. If you cannot understand the
examples, try and try and try and try and try again until you are good with it. Till then.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –

Terminology and Concepts: Chemical
Formulae and Equations (Part 2)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 02/03/2010

in Berry Reference (Notes)

This is the second part of the notes on Chemical Formulae and Equations that was
posted on Berry Berry Easy some few days back. The first part focused on relative atomic
mass, relative formula mass, relative molecular mass and the various scales from different
atom types. So here we are, moving on to some tougher concepts. Let’s us get acquaintant
with Mr Avogadro and see what we can further learn on this topic.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations (Part 2)

Berry Berry Scientist

Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (Name at birth: Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro)

• Born: 9 August 1776

• Birthplace: Turin, Piedmont, Italy
• Died: 9 July 1856
 • Best Known As: The guy they named Avogadro’s number after

1. Avogadro constant / Avogadro’s number is 6.02 x 1023

2. Atomic substances

• Elements – all the particles are atoms.

• Example: zinc (Zn), sodium (Na), aluminium (Al) and all noble gases, argon (Ar), helium
(He) and neon (Ne).
• RAM (Relative Atomic Mass) of Na = 23

3. Molecular substances

• Covalent compounds – the particles are molecules.

• Example: carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and non-metal elements, iodine (I2), nitrogen
(N2) and oxygen (O2).
• RMM (Relative Molecular Mass) of I2 = 127 + 127 = 254

4. Ionic substances

• Ionic compounds – the particles are ions.

• Example: sodium chloride (NaCl), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and potassium iodide (KI).
• RFM (Relative Formula Mass) of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

5. Avogadro’s Law / Gas Law states that equal volumes of all gases contain the same
number of molecules under the same temperature and pressure.

• Example: equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen would contain the same
number of molecules under the same temperature and pressure.

6. Volume of gas (dm3) = Number of moles of gas x Molar volume

7. Room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) = 24 dm3 mol-1 (25°C and 1 atm)

• Example: What is the volume of 5.0 mol helium gas at s.t.p.?

• Volume of gas = Number of moles x Molar gas volume
= 5.0 mol x 24 dm3 mol-1
= 120 dm3

8. Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) = 22.4 dm3 mol-1 (0°C and 1 atm)

• Example: What is the volume of 5.0 mol helium gas at s.t.p.?

• Volume of gas = Number of moles x Molar gas volume
= 5.0 mol x 22.4 dm3 mol-1
= 112 dm3

9. Mass (g) = Number of moles x Molar mass

10. Number of particles = Number of moles x Avogadro constant

11. Volume (dm3) = Number of moles x Molar volume

Be sure to copy down all these formulae a few times on paper so that you will have a better
chance recalling it in the future. Copying them onto a card to bring around will be very helpful.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –

Terminology and Concepts: Chemical
Formulae and Equations (Part 3)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 14/04/2010

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Berry Berry Easy would like to present all Form 4 SPM student who took chemistry with the
third part of the notes on Chemical Formulae and Equations. For those who have
missed out on the previous two parts, do check them out and learn about relative atomic
mass, relative formula mass, relative molecular mass and the various scales from different
atom types, properties (with units) and the very important concept of Standard Temperature
and Pressure (s.t.p). So let us begin on the most difficult topic in Form 4 so far, after the earlier
easy topics.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations (Part 3)

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1. Empirical (simplest ratio of atoms of each element that present in the compound) and
molecular formulae (actual number of atoms of each element that are present in one molecule
of the compound) indicate:

• the types of the elements

• the symbols of the elements and the ratio of atoms or
• moles of atoms of each element in a compound.

2. Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

n is a positive number

Compound Molecular formula n Empirical formula

Carbon CO2 1 (CO2) = CO2
dioxide
Ethane CH3 2 (CH3)2 = C2H6
Propene CH2 3 (CH2)3 = C3H6
Glucose CH2O 6 (CH2O)6 = C6H12O6
Quinine C10H12NO 2 C20H24N2O2

3. Chemical formulae for covalent compounds.

Name Chemical Number of each

formula element
Nitrogen N2 2 nitrogen atoms
gas
Oxygen gas O2 2 oxygen atoms
Ammonia NH3 1 nitrogen atom and
3 hydrogen atoms
Water H2O 2 hydrogen atoms
and 1 oxygen atom

4. Cations are positively-charged ions.

Charge Cations Formula

+1 Ammonium ion NH4+
+1 * Copper(I) ion Cu+
+1 Hydrogen ion H+
+1 Lithium ion Li+
+1 * Nickel(I) ion Ni+
+1 Potassium ion K+
+1 Silver ion Ag+
+1 Sodium ion Na+
+2 Barium ion Ba2+
+2 Calcium ion Ca2+
+2 * Copper(II) ion Cu2+
+2 * Iron(II) ion Fe2+
+2 * Lead(II) ion Pb2+
+2 Magnesium ion Mg2+
+2 * Manganese(II) ion Mn2+
+2 Nickel(II) ion Ni2+
+2 * Tin(II) ion Sn2+
+2 Zinc ion Zn2+
+3 Aluminium ion Al3+
+3 * Chromium(III) ion Cr3+
+3 * Iron(III) ion Fe3+
+4 * Lead(IV) ion Pb4+
+4 * Tin(IV) ion Sn4+

* refer to the Roman numerals

5. Anions are negatively-charged ions.

Charge Anions Formula

-1 Bromide ion Br-
-1 Chloride ion Cl-
-1 Chlorate(V) ion ClO3-
-1 Ethanoate ion CH3COO-
-1 Fluoride ion F-
-1 Hydride ion H-
-1 Hydroxide ion OH-
-1 Iodide ion I-
-1 Manganate(VII) ion MnO4-
-1 Nitrate ion NO3-
-1 Nitrite ion NO2-
-2 Oxide ion O2-
-2 Carbonate ion CO32-
-2 Chromate(VI) ion CrO42-
-2 Dichromate(VI) ion Cr2O72-
-2 Sulphide ion S2-
-2 Sulphate ion SO42-
-2 Sulphite ion SO32-
-2 Thiosulphate ion S2O32-
-3 Nitride ion N3-
-3 Phosphate ion PO43-
-3 Phosphite ion PO33-

6. Chemical formulae for ionic compounds

Name Chemical Number Number

formula of cation of anion
Zinc chloride ZnCl2 1 Zn2+ 2 Cl-
Copper(II) CuSO4 2 Cu2+ 2 SO42-
sulphate
Aluminium Al2(SO4)3 2 Al3+ 3 SO42-
sulphate

7. Meaning of prefixes

Prefix Meaning
Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10

8. Naming of chemical (non-metal) compounds with Greek numerical prefixes.

Non-metal Chemical
compound formula
Carbon monoxide CO
Carbon dioxide CO2
Sulphur dioxide SO2
Sulphur trioxide SO3
Carbon CCl4
tetrachloride
(tetrachloromethan
e)
So, do come back for more Berry Essential Notes. If it is not simplified to its essense, then it
is not from Berry Berry Easy. Let us do the summarising while you understand the core
before you master the whole topic. Do share out this site with your friends.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –

Terminology and Concepts: Chemical
Formulae and Equations (Part 4)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 28/04/2010

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Finally after a long wait, the final part (Part 4) of the long series, SPM Chemistry Form 4
notes on Chemical Formulae and Equations is here on Berry Berry Easy. In the first
three parts, the relative atomic mass, relative formula mass, relative molecular mass, scales,
properties, Standard Temperature Pressure (s.t.p.), empirical formula, molecular formula,
covalent compounds, ions, ionic compounds and even prefixes were all discussed. All these are
of utmost importance in understanding Chemistry. So all Form 4 students must understand
them by now if you wish to understand other chapters. (For Form 5 students who have not
mastered the aforementioned concepts, make sure you look back at previous posts and learn
them before your SPM)

In this part, we’ll try to apply what you have learnt in the previous three parts with some
examples. So get a pen and paper to follow through the steps. Good revision too if you have
already understand it.

Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Chemical Formulae and Equations (Part 4)

Chemical Equation

1. Importance of chemical equation:

The types of reactants; the physical conditions; the quantity of reactants and products and
stated in moles.
nA + nB –> pC + pD

2. Reactants are written in the left side of the reaction and products are written in the right
side of the reaction.

• Example 1:
Word equation: Sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid –> sodium sulphate + water
Chemical equation: NaOH + H2SO4 –> Na2SO4 + H2O
Balancing equation: 2NaOH + H2SO4 –> Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Complete chemical equation: 2NaOH + H2SO4 –> Na2SO4 + 2H2O
• Example 2:
Word equation: Aluminium + copper(II) oxide –> aluminium(III) oxide + copper
Chemical equation: Al + CuO –> Al2O3 + Cu
Balancing equation: 2Al + 3CuO –> Al2O3 + 3Cu
Complete chemical equation: 2Al + 3CuO –> Al2O3 + 3Cu
• Example 3:
Word equation: Nitrogen + hydrogen <–> ammonia
 Chemical equation: N2 + H2 <–> NH3
Balancing equation: N2 + 3H2 <–> 2NH3
Complete chemical equation: N2 + 3H2 <–> 2NH3

3. Information obtainable from chemical equations.

• i) mass of reactants
• ii) volume of reacting gas
• iii) mass of products formed
• iv) volume of gas produced

• Example:
2 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate solution is added to excess of potassium iodide solution.
How many molecules of potassium nitrate will be formed?
[Relative atomic mass: N, 14; O, 16; K, 39; I, 127; Pb, 207; Avogadro's constant: 6.02 x
1023 mol-1]

Step 1: Write a complete chemical equation.

• Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) –> PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

• From the equation, 1 mole of Pb(NO3)2 reacts with 2 moles of KI formed 1 mole PbI2 of and
2 moles of KNO3.

Step 2: Convert to moles.

• No. of moles of Pb(NO3)2

= Mass of Pb(NO3)2 / Relative molecular mass
= 2 / [207 + 2(14 + 3 x 16)]
= 6.04 x 10-3 mol

Step 3: Ratio of moles.

• Number of moles of KNO3/ Number of moles of Pb(NO3)2

= 2/1
• Number of moles of KNO3
= (2 x 6.04 x 10-3) / 1
= 12.08 x 10-3 mol

Step 4: Convert to the number of molecules of potassium nitrate.

• Number of molecules of KNO3

= 12.08 x 10-3 x 6.02 x 1023
= 7.27 x 1021

Once you have completed all parts in this series, you would have mastered the most basic of
knowledge in SPM Chemistry. So make sure all Berry Readers understand the basics before
moving on to more advance topics.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic

Table of Elements (Part 1)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 16/02/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

The Periodic Table (or more accurately, the Periodic Table of Elements) is something all
SPM chemistry students love and hate. Maybe more hate than love at first, but usually more
love than hate towards examination time.As all would know before even learning chemistry, it
is a table to systematically classify and compare all elements and have found extensive usage
in the field of chemistry and beyond.

The elegance of the periodic table has often been understated and often credited to Dmitri
Mendeleev. However, there are more to it before Mendeleev and this first post on Periodic
Table of Elements from Berry Berry Easy for SPM Chemistry Form 4 (SPM Kimia
Tingkatan 4) attempts to present the precursor and successor to Mendeleev’s Periodic table
in a nutshell.

Trivia: For those who studied SPM Chemistry many aeons ago, it was in Malay, and we call the
Periodic Table of Elements as Jadual Berkala Unsur.

(Tips: Actually, this part is more for interest than actually being tested in exams. Typically, this
subtopic is disregarded except for the occasional multiple choice questions in exams.
However, a true chemistry student should know some history worth the salt of a true chemistry
lover. If you love chemistry, you have a chance to do well in exams.)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic Table of Elements (Part 1)

Development of the Periodic Table

Periodic Table

A) Antoine Lavoisier (1743 – 1794) – French chemist

• Elements were classified into 4 groups

• Limitation – some wrong information (light and heat were consider as elements

B) Johann Dobereiner (1780 – 1849) – German chemist

 • Elements were classified into groups named as triad (Triad Law – relationship between
properties and atomic masses of the elements)
• Limitation – few elements were classified

C) John Newlands (1837 – 1898) – British chemist

• Elements were arranged horizontally in ascending order of their atomic masses and each
row consisted of 7 elements (Law of Octaves – same properties were repeated at every
eight element)
• Limitation – obeyed by the first 17 elements only (from H to Ca)

D) Lothar Meyer (1830 – 1895) – German chemist

• Properties of the elements were in a periodic pattern with their atomic masses
• Similar chemical properties occupied the same relative positions on the curve

E) Dmitri Mendeleev (1834 – 1907) – Russian chemist

• Elements were arranged in ascending order of their atomic masses

• Elements with similar chemical properties were placed in a group
• Gap for undiscovered elements
• Prediction: gallium, scandium and germanium (discover later)
• Separate groups for certain elements: transition elements
• Meedeleev’s Periodic Table was used as a basis for the formation of the Periodic Table

F) H. J. G. Moseley (1887 – 1915) – British physicist

• Elements were arranged horizontally in ascending order – proton numbers

• Elements with the same number valence electrons – same group
• 18 vertical columns – Group 1, Group 2, until Group 18
• Alkali metal – Group 1
• Alkaline earth metal – Group 2
• Transition elements – Group 3 to Group 12
• Halogen – Group 17
• Noble gas – Group 18
• Horizontal row of the elements – period
• Period 1 – 2 elements
• Period 2 and 3 – 8 elements
• Period 4 and 5 – 18 elements
• Period 6 – 32 elements
• Period 7 – 27 elements
• Lantanides – proton numbers 58 to 71
• Actinides – proton numbers 90 to 103
• Elements (Group 1, 2 and 13) – metal
• Transition elements (Group 3 to 12) – metal
• Elements (Group 15, 16 and 17) – non-metal
• Carbon and silicon (Group 14) – non-metal

The next part, Part 2 of Berry Berry Easy’s Notes on Periodic Table of Elements for SPM
Chemistry students will focus on the relationship between electron arrangement of the
atom of an element to its group and period. It’s easy for a Form 5 student when they look
back but rather difficult for a Form 4 student. So Form 4 students need to pay full attention
when your teacher is teaching this part, or you can always refer back to Berry Berry Easy for
our notes.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic

Table of Elements (Part 2)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 01/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Students take note (taking note mentally and also copying notes),
this post on Berry Berry Easy is on Part 2 of SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes on Periodic
Table of Elements. This is the proper start of the ‘meat’ in this chapter as the history in Part 1
is just a ‘taster’. Students will get the first ‘feel’ of chemistry with the periodic table. In this
part, you’ll learn about electron arrangement of atoms of an element, and the physico-
chemical properties and uses of noble gases (Group 18 elements).

(Tips: Draw out the electron arrangements of atoms of elements in a group side by side on a
piece of paper. Then compare them. Then draw it again but put a mockup periodic table beside
your drawing. This way, you’ll have a mental picture of the electron arranngements, its
position in the periodic table and their interconnectivity. This tip is provided by a top student
during his study days, very effective among Berry Berry Teacher’s students)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic Table of Elements (Part 2)

Relationship between the electron arrangement of the atom of an element to its

group and period

• The number of valence electrons determines the chemical properties of elements

(group).
• Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
• The number of shells occupied with electrons in an atom determines the period number
of an element.

Group 1 Group 2
Period 2 Lithium / Li / 2.1 Beryllium / Be / 2.2
Period 3 Sodium / Na / Magnesium / Mg /
2.8.1 2.8.2
Period 4 Potassium / K / Calcium / Ca /
2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2

Group 18 elements
Monoatomic gas

• Group 18 elements are known as noble gases (inert chemically and chemically
unreactive).
• Atomic radius (atomic size) – increases (going down the group)
• Helium atom has only one filled electron shell which is 2 electrons (duplet electron
arrangement)
• The outermost shell of the atoms (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) have 8 electrons (octet electron
arrangement)
• Atoms of noble gases do not release electrons, accept electrons or share electrons.

Element Electron arrangement of atom

Helium / 2
He
Neon / Ne 2.8
Argon / Ar 2.8.8
Krypton / 2.8.18.8
Kr
Xenon / Xe 2.8.18.18.8
Radon / Rn 2.8.18.32.18.8

Physical properties

• Monoatomic gases
• Colourless gas at room temperature
• Insoluble in water
• Cannot conduct electricity
• Poor conductors of heat
• Melting point and boiling point increases (going down the group) – atomic size increases
and force of attraction between atoms of each element become stronger
• Density of element increases (going down the group)

Chemical properties

• Chemically inert / not reactive / non-flammable – do not gain, lose or share electrons with
other elements
Uses

• Helium – airships, weather balloons, cool down metals

• Neon – advertising light bulb
• Argon – welding, filled light bulbs
• Krypton – used in laser, filled photographic flash lamps
• Radon – treat cancer

The next part, Part 3 in this series of notes from Berry Berry Easy on the Periodic Table of
Elements for SPM Chemistry Form 4 students will be focused on Group 1 elements such as
Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and Francium. They might be ‘volatile’ but
extremely important in your studies. So stay tuned.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic

Table of Elements (Part 3)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 08/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Group 1 elements, also known as alkali metals are elements that can usually be
remembered by students in the Periodic Table of Elements, simply due to its proximity to the
left end of the table. (Most students read from left to right, obviously) The following notes in
Berry Berry Easy is Part 3 of SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes on Periodic Table of
Elements. Similar to understanding noble gases (from Part 2), the trends for Group 1 elements
in terms of electron arrangement of atoms, physical properties, chemical properties and
specifically for this group, safety precautions will be discussed.

(Tips: Please follow the safety precaution prescribed by your teacher in handling the alkali
metals (if you were given the chance to do so). The reason is simple, as you will only need to
see the volatile nature of alkali metals here when they are in contact with water, Brainiac’s
video on Alkali Metal <view here>. After viewing the video, you should have no reasons to not
follow the safety precautions)

(Second Tips: Do try your best to memorise the elements down the group. Read aloud
everyday a few times: Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and Francium. If you do
so, you’ll memorise it without much effort. That’ll be an advantage in exams.)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic Table of Elements (Part 3)

Alkali metal atom arrangement

Group 1 elements

• Group 1 elements are known as alkali metals

• Atomic radius (atomic size) – increases (going down the group)
• The outermost shell of the atoms (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr) have 1 valence electron
• Good reducing agents
• Very reactive – increases (going down the group)
• Very electropositive – increases (going down the group)

Element Electron arrangement of

atom
Lithium / Li 2.1
Sodium / Na 2.8.1
Potassium / 2.8.8.1
K
Rubidium / 2.8.18.8.1
Rb
Caesium / 2.8.18.18.8.1
Cs
Francium / 2.8.18.32.18.8.1
Fr

Physical properties

• Grey solids with shiny silvery surfaces when freshly cut

• Soft solids at room temperature
• Good conductors of electricity
• Good conductors of heat
• Low melting point and boiling point (compared to heavy metal)
• Melting point and boiling point decreases (going down the group) – atomic size increases
and number of shells occupied with electrons increases / metallic bonding between
atoms becomes weaker & less heat energy is required to overcome the weaker metallic
bonding.
• Low density (Li, Na and K float on the surface water / Rb, Cs and Fr sink in the water)
 • Density of element increases (going down the group)

Chemical properties

• Chemically very reactive and react rapidly with oxygen and water vapour in the air (must
be kept in paraffin oil)
• Reactivity increases (down the group) – how easily it can lose one (single) its valence
electron to achieve stable (octet or duplet) electron arrangement
• React vigorously with cold water – produce alkaline metal hydroxide solutions and
hydrogen gas
• React with oxygen – produce white solid metal oxides and metal oxides can dissolve in
water to form alkaline metal hydroxide solutions
• React with halogens – produce white solid metal halides

Safety precautions

• Cannot hold with bare hands

• Wear safety goggles and gloves
• No flammable substance nearby
• Avoid the fire

The next part, Part 4 in this series of notes from Berry Berry Easy on the Periodic Table of
Elements for SPM Chemistry Form 4 students will be focused on Group 17 elements or
Halogens such as Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine and Astatine. They are what the Berry
Berry Teacher will call, the friendliest group of elements. After you learn this topic, you’ll
understand why.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic

Table of Elements (Part 4)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 10/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Question: What is the friendliest group of elements across the periodic table of elements?
Answer: The Halogen group.

Now you must be wondering why the Berry Berry Teacher, Miss Isabelle Wong calls it the
friendliest group. For those who answered Halogen, congrats. This is due to Halogens typically
occuring in pairs in natural conditions. As you would have guessed it, Part 4 of Berry Berry
Easy notes on SPM Chemsitry Form 4 – Periodic Table of Elements is focused on
halogens. We’ll be looking at the friendly and interesting group of Group 17 elements or
Halogens such as Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine and Astatine. The usual suspects
as we learn each group includes the general properties/nature of elements in the group,
physical properties, chemical properties and safety precautions.

(Tips: You should draw out the diatomic molecules and their electron configurations so that
you can better understand why they typically exist in the form of diatomic molecules. Try to
also memorise the atomic size as they go down a group. Note whether if it is metallic or non-
metallic. How about their oxidising abilities? If you can answer those and beyond, you would
have mastered the basic knowledge on halogens.)
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic Table of Elements (Part 4)

Molecules of Halogen

Group 17 elements

• Group 17 elements are known as halogens

• Exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At2)
• Non-metals
• Atomic radius (atomic size) – increases (going down the group)
• The outermost shell of the atoms (F, Cl, Br, I and At) have 7 valence electrons
• Good oxidising agents
• Very reactive – decreases (going down the group)
• Very electronegative – decreases (going down the group)

Element Electron arrangement of

atom
Fluorine / F 2.7
Chlorine / Cl 2.8.7
Bromine / Br 2.8.18.7
Iodine / I 2.8.18.18.7
Astatine / At 2.8.18.32.18.7

Physical properties

• Non-metals
• Insulators of electricity
• Poor conductors of heat
• Low melting point and boiling point
• Melting point and boiling point increases (going down the group) – molecular size
increases / forces of attraction between molecules become stronger & more heat energy
is required to overcome the stronger forces of attraction (Van der Waals’ forces of
attraction between molecules).
• Colour: F2 (pale yellow gas), Cl2 (greenish-yellow gas), Br2 (reddish-brown liquid),
I2 (purplish-black solid) and At2 (black solid – rarest naturally occurring element and
extremely radioactive)
 • Low density
• Density of element increases (going down the group) – increase in atomic mass

Chemical properties

• Chemically reactive
• Reactivity decreases (down the group) – how easily it can gain one (single) more valence
electron to achieve stable (octet) electron arrangement
• React with water – produce two acids
• React with hot iron – produce brown solids iron(III) halides
• React with sodium hydroxide NaOH solution – produce water and two types of sodium
salts (sodium halide and sodium halite(I))

Safety precautions

• Poisonous gas
• Wear safety goggles and gloves
• Handle in the fume cupboard

The next part, Part 5 in this series of notes from Berry Berry Easy on the Periodic Table of
Elements for SPM Chemistry Form 4 students will be focused on Elements in a period.
Example will be given across Period 3 which will form your basis of understanding for changes
that occur when element moves across a period.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic

Table of Elements (Part 5)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 12/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

What is the trends of elements across a period? This is one of the most often asked question in
chemistry examinations (or pop quizzes). As SPM students are required to know their periodic
table of elements very well, recognising trends of elements across a period is of utmost
importance. For this Part 5 of Berry Berry Easy notes on SPM Chemsitry Form 4 –
Periodic Table of Elements, the changes across period 3 is discussed in detail. Atomic
radius, proton number, electronegativity, phase changes and other changes will be explained
in point form for easy reading. Students are advised to read the previous 4 parts in the series
of notes before proceeding to this post, in order to better understand this part.

(Tips: You should draw out the entire Period 3 and then draw the elements based on their size,
colour, electronegativity (use size of negative signs to represent the levels), the phase which is
appears in (s = solid, g = gas, l = liquid) and all other characteristics. Then paste this figure
that you have drawn on your desktop. This way you’ll see it until you have it in the back of
your head.)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic Table of Elements (Part 5)

Elements: Zinc Copper Lead Magnesium

Elements in a period

• The Periodic Table – 7 periods (Period 1 to Period 7)

• Proton number increases by one (across a period – from left to right)
• Number of valence electrons of each element increases (across a period – from left to
right)

Across Period 3

• Atomic radius / atomic size decreases – increasing number of electrons / attraction by

nucleus on the valence electrons becomes stronger (pulled closer to the nucleus)
• Proton number increases – positive charge of the nucleus increases
• Electronegativity (strength to attract electrons towards its nucleus) increases – proton
number increases / positive charge of the nucleus increases
• Change from solid to gas
• Left – solid metals
• Right – non-metals gases
• Electropositive / metallic properties decreases
• Na, Mg, Al (metals): good conductor / Si (semi-metal): weak conductor of electricity / P,
S, Cl (non-metals): cannot conduct electricity
• Na, Mg (metals): form oxides with basic properties
• Al (metal): form oxides with both basic and acidic properties = amphoteric oxides
• Si (semi-metal): forms oxides with acidic properties
• P, S, Cl (non-metals): forms oxides with acidic properties

Uses of semi-metals (metalloids)

• Semiconductor (flow in one direction)

• Microchip
The next part, Part 5 is the final part in this series of notes from Berry Berry Easy on the
Periodic Table of Elements for SPM Chemistry Form 4 students. The next post which conclude
the entire series of post will be on transition elements.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic

Table of Elements (Part 6 – Final)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 14/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Consider this list: Scandium, Titanium, Vanadium, Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt,
Nickel, Copper, Zinc, Yttrium, Zirconium, Niobium, Molybdenum, Technetium, Ruthenium,
Rhodium, Palladium, Silver, Cadmium, Hafnium, Tantalum, Tungsten, Rhenium, Osmium,
Iridium, Platinum, Gold, Mercury, Rutherfordium, Dubnium, Seaborgium, Bohrium, Hassium,
Meitnerium, Darmstadtium and Roentgenium.

Q: What do they have in common?

A: They are all considered as transition elements (or sometimes called as transition metals)
Note that the list above are not the complete list of transition elements.

So now that you know the elements listed above are transition elements, you might be
interested to know in-depth about them. This post from the Berry Berry Teacher, Miss
Isabelle Wong is all about transition elements. Berry Readers will get to learn about the
physical characteristics of transition elements, their special characteristics and common uses,
all in the final part, Part 6 of Berry Berry Easy notes on SPM Chemistry Form 4 –
Periodic Table of Elements. Do note that, you are advised to read the previous parts before
reading this post. Also, you do not need to memorise all the transition elements listed above,
although you do need to know the common ones.

(Tips: Learn the colours of the coloured ions, and write them with colour pencils. This will
further reinforce your ability to remember the colours. The colours are important as they are
typical examination questions, especially on experimental observations. While memorising the
exact properties of each elements is not required at this level, but you will be better off
remembering the general properties of transition elements.)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Periodic Table of Elements (Part 6 – Final)

Transition elements

• Elements from Group 3 to Group 12

• Metals
• Atomic radius (atomic size) approximately the same
• Solids with shiny surfaces
• Very hard (compared to Group 1 and Group 2 metals)
• High density
• Ductile (ability to stretched into wires without breaking)
• Malleable (ability to be bent into new shape)
• High tensile strength (ability to stay in their shape without breaking)
• High melting and boiling points
• High density
 • Good conductors of electricity
• Good conductors of heat
• Electronegativity is low but increases (across the series)

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub

Colourful Complex of Transition Elements

Special characteristics

• Form coloured ions (Cu2+: blue / Fe2+: pale green / Fe3+: yellow)
• Form coloured compound (cobalt chloride crystal: pink)
• Different oxidation numbers in their compound
• Useful catalysts (nickel – hydrogenation of vegetable oil, copper(II) sulphate –
reaction of zinc with dilute sulphuric acid to liberate hydrogen gas, manganese(IV)
oxide – decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to liberate oxygen gas, iron – Haber
process, vanadium(V) oxide – Contact process, platinum – Ostwald process)
• Form complex ions (bigger-sized polyatomic ion) (Hexacyanoferrate(III) ion / [Fe(CN)6]3- )

Uses

• Iron – used as steel

• Chromium – coating corroded metals, heat-resisting alloys and make stainless steel
• Copper – making cables, pipes and electrical wires
• Titanium – metal pipes and tanks, wings of supersonic aircraft

So finally we are at the end of Berry Berry Easy notes on SPM Chemistry Form 4 notes on the
Periodic Table of Elements. Rejoice. This is a simple but heavily tested topic in exams. They
will also return to haunt you in Form 6, foundation studies, A-level and further up. So learn
them well over here now.
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical
Bonds (Part 1)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 26/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Chemical bond is the reason why substances other than chemical elements exists. It is an
attraction between at least two atoms which then forms chemical substances. Hence this is the
reason why there are more chemical substances in this planet than they are elements. This is a
relatively easy subject but is very fundamental to chemistry that Berry Readers need to
fully understand it, or else hard time follows in the next couple of years leading to SPM. As
such, Berry Berry Easy will be sharing Part 1 of SPM Chemistry Form 4 notes on
Chemical Bonds.

For Part 1, you’ll be learning about the formation of compounds, stability of noble gases, the
types of chemical bonds and how they can form bonds. Make sure you fully understand this
Part before moving on to other topics in Chemistry or even other parts in this series of notes.

[Tips: Although chemical bonds are drawn typically with two spheres and a rod connecting
them (as shown in the figure below), it is important to understand now rather than later that,
the rod (or chemical bond) is not a physical object, but rather more like an 'effect' to allow
atoms to come together to form substances. The formed substances each will have its own
physico-chemical properties due to the type of atoms and bond types involved.]

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical Bonds (Part 1)

Formation of Compounds

• Compounds – different elements that chemically bonded together

• Octet electron arrangement – electron arrangement of an atom where the outermost
occupied shell is filled with eight valence electrons
• Duplet electron arrangement – electron arrangement of an atom where a single shell
filled with two valence electrons

Example:

Compound water is hydrogen and oxygen atoms are chemically bonded together.

Stability of Noble Gases

• Atom of noble gas does not gain, lose nor share electrons with other atoms.
• Noble gas atoms do not combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds or
with each other to form molecules.
• Noble gases are chemically unreactive.
• Noble gases exist as monoatomic.

Chemical Bonds
Chemical Bond

Types of chemical bonds:

• ionic bonds (metal + non-metal)

• covalent bonds (non-metal + non-metal)

Atoms of other elements can achieve the stable octet electron arrangement by

• transfer of electrons
• sharing of electrons

The next part, Part 2 of SPM Chemistry Form 4 notes on Chemical Bonds from Berry Berry Easy will be on ionic bonds, ionic
compounds and the relatively difficult task of predicting the formula of ionic compounds.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical

Bonds (Part 2)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 27/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Ionic Bond is one of the two main chemical bonds that Berry Readers will learn as a
chemistry SPM student. Ionic bond is simply a bond formed when there are electrostatic
attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Typically, ionic bonds are formed between a
metal (cation) and non-metal (anion). Bonds with greater difference in the electronegativity
between the involved atoms will be more ionic.

If it is starting to sound confusing for you, fret not! That was just a teaser from Berry Berry
Easy on ionic bonds, and this post is the Part 2 of SPM Chemistry Form 4 notes on
Chemical Bonds. In this part, you’ll learn about the basics of ionic bonds (definition),
metals and non-metals (and how they form ionic bonds), structure of ionic compound
and predicting the formula of an ionic compound.
[Tips: Learn to at least recognise that ionic bonds must consist of a metal and non-metal. Try
and memorise common pairs of ionic compounds after you understand how they are formed.
Draw many many many diagrams of ionic compounds. With these, you should easily master
the basics of ionic bonds.]

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical Bonds (Part 2)

Ionic lattice structure

Ionic Bonds

• It is a chemical bond formed from the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-
metal atoms
• Metal atoms donate valence electrons to form positive ions (cations, Mb+) and achieve
the stable duplet or octet electron arrangement of the noble gases
• Non-metal atoms receive electrons to form negative ions (anions, Xa-) and achieve the
stable duplet or octet electron arrangement of the noble gases
• Cations and anions are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force of attraction

Example:

Metal + Non- –> Ionic

metal compound
Sodium + bromine –> Sodium bromide
Calcium + chlorine –> Calcium chloride
Lithium + oxygen –> Lithium oxide
Aluminiu + nitrogen –> Aluminium
m nitride

Metals

Group 1

• A lithium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.1 achieves stability after it donates
one valence electron to form a lithium ion, Li+. The electron arrangement of the lithium
ion, Li+, is 2 with stable duplet electron arrangement.
 • A sodium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.1 achieves stability after it donates
one valence electron to form a sodium ion, Na+. The electron arrangement of the sodium
ion, Na+, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.
• A potassium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.8.1 achieves stability after it
donates one valence electron to form a potassium ion, K+. The electron arrangement of
the potassium ion, K+, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 2

• A magnesium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.2 achieves stability after it

donates two valence electrons to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+. The electron arrangement
of the magnesium ion, Mg2+, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.
• A calcium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.8.2 achieves stability after it
donates two valence electrons to form a calcium ion, Ca2+. The electron arrangement of
the calcium ion, Ca2+, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 13

• An aluminium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.8.3 achieves stability after it

donates three valence electrons to form an alumium ion, Al3+. The electron arrangement
of the aluminium ion, Al3+, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Non-metal

Group 15

• A nitrogen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.5 achieves stability after it accepts
three valence electrons to form a nitride ion, N3-. The electron arrangement of the nitride
ion, N3-, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.
• A phosphorus atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.5 achieves stability after it
accepts three valence electrons to form a phosphoride ion, P3-. The electron arrangement
of the phosphoride ion, P3-, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 16

• An oxygen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.6 achieves stability after it accepts
two valence electrons to form a oxide ion, O2-. The electron arrangement of the oxide ion,
O2-, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.
• A sulphur atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.6 achieves stability after it accepts
two valence electrons to form a sulphide ion, S2-. The electron arrangement of the
sulphide ion, S2-, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 17

• A fluorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.7 achieves stability after it accepts
one valence electron to form a fluoride ion, F -. The electron arrangement of the fluoride
ion, F -, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.
• A chlorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.7 achieves stability after it accepts
one valence electron to form a chloride ion, Cl -. The electron arrangement of the chloride
ion, Cl -, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Predict the Formula of an Ionic Compound

 • Cation Mb+
• Anion Xa-
• Formula of an ionic compound formed, MaXb

Formulae for ionic compound

Metal Non-metal Ionic

atom, M atom, X Compoun
d
Group 1 Group 15 M3X
Group 1 Group 16 M2X
Group 1 Group 17 MX
Group 2 Group 15 M3X2
Group 2 Group 16 MX
Group 2 Group 17 MX2
Group Group 15 MX
13
Group Group 16 M2X3
13
Group Group 17 MX3
13

Some common ionic compound

• Sodium chloride (NaCl)

• Magnesium oxide (MgO)
• Calcium sulphide (CaS)
• Potassium oxide (K2O)
• Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)

Structure of ionic compounds

• The oppositely-charged ions, Mb+ and Xa- are attracted to each other by a strong
electrostatic force.
• It form a rigid 3-dimensional lattice structure
• Formed crystal.
• Giant ionic lattice.

Berry Important Notes:

In the diagram of ionic compound, always shows

• The outermost shells of all ions must achieve a stable duplet or octet electron
arrangement.
• The charge of each ion must be placed outside the bracket.
• Label the ions.

In the next part (Part 3) of Berry Berry Easy notes on Chemical Bonds for SPM Form 4
chemistry students, Berry Readers will learn covalent bonds and the non-metals needed to
form the bonds, the different types of covalent bonds, examples and structure of covalent
compounds.
[Extra: Pure ionic bonds cannot actually be formed as all ionic compounds have some levels of
covalent bonding. However, this is not covered in the syllabus, hence it'll only be for your own
reference, in case you do extra reading online and get confused. Hence, the traditional ionic
bond only exist when ionic character > covalent character]

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical

Bonds (Part 3)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 30/03/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Covalent bond is the second type of chemical bonds that Berry Readers learn in SPM Form
4 Chemistry. Covalent bonds occurs when electrons are shared between atoms, rather than a
complete transfer of electrons in ionic bonding. Typically, covalent bonds occur for non-metals
when they bind together due to similar tendency for electrons (usually to gain electrons in the
syllabus). When non-metals gain electrons, they will share electrons in order to fill up their
valence shell, with one of the simplest example being the abundant hydrogen gas. Now that
you know that covalent bonding is usually with non-metals and it is different from ionic
bonding, the Berry Berry Easy notes of Part 3 of Chemical Bonding for SPM Chemistry
Form 4 begins.

This Part 3 focuses on covalent bonds (definition), non-metals (and how they can form covalent
bonds), covalent compound formula prediction, structure of covalent compounds and
some tips on covalent bonding. So take note of the notes from Part 2 (Ionic bonding) and try to
find parallels from it. This way you’ll better learn the two tips of bonds.

[Tips: In event that you forget how covalent bond works, think of the humble and simplest
hydrogen gas. Why is it a good example, because it is easy to remember. As hydrogen atom
(H) each has one valence electron in their first electron shell, they will 'prefer' to have a
second electron to fill up the first electron shell. If you remember, the first electron shell has a
capacity of 2 electrons. When the first H atom wants a second electron, another H atom also
wants the same thing. As such, both hydrogen atoms will come together (or in chemistry, we
call it 'react') to form H2, a gas compound. Thus, both atoms now 'enjoy' the stability afforded
by full valence shell. So take out your pencil and draw the concept of covalent bonding a few
times with the hydrogen atoms.]

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical Bonds (Part 3)

Molecules

Covalent Bonds

• It is a chemical bond formed from the sharing of valence electrons between non-metal
atoms to achieve the stable duplet of octet electron arrangement.
• Each shared pair of electrons is as one covalent bond.
• It produces molecules.
• Usually the covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms from Group 15, 16 and 17
and sometimes can be formed from Group 14 (carbon and silicon) and hydrogen.
• Covalent bond can be formed from atoms of the same element and atoms of different
elements.

Example:

Non- + Non- –> Covalent

metal metal compound
Bromine + bromine –> Bromine (Br2)
Nitrogen + nitrogen –> Nitrogen (N2)
Carbon + chlorine –> Tetrachloromethan
e (CCl4)
Hydrogen + oxygen –> Water (H2O)
Hydrogen + nitrogen –> Ammonia (NH3)

Types of covalent bond formed:

• Single bond = one pair of electrons shared between two atoms.

• Double bond = two pair of electrons shared between two atoms.
• Triple bond = three pair of electrons shared between two atoms.

Non-metal

Group 15
 • A nitrogen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.5 needs three more electrons to
achieve stable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) three
valence electrons to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
• A phosphorus atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.5 need three more electrons to
achieve stable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) three
valence electrons to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).

Group 16

• An oxygen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.6 needs two more electrons to
achieve stable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) two
valence electrons to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
• A sulphur atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.6 need two more electrons to
achieve stable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) two
valence electrons to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).

Group 17

• A fluorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.7 needs one more electron to achieve
stable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) one valence
electron to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
• A chlorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.7 need one more electron to
achieve stable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) one
valence electron to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).

Predict the Formula of a Covalent Compound

• Non-metal X atom (valence electron is a)

• Combine with another non-metal Y atom (valence electron is b)
• b = simplest ratio (n) and a = simplest ratio (m)
• Formula of a covalent compound formed, XnYm

Example:

The electron arrangement of atom X is 2.8.6 and atom Y has four valence electrons. Which of
the following is the formula of the compound formed between X and Y?

(A) Y4X
(B) Y2X
(C) YX
(D) YX2

Solution:

• X has 6 valence electrons, it needs to share 2 electrons to achieve the stable octet
electron arrangement.
• Y has 4 valence electrons, it needs to share 4 electrons to achieve the stable octet
electron arrangement.
• Therefore, the formula of the covalent compound is X4Y2 = Y2X4 = simplest ratio YX2.

Answer: D

Some common covalent compound

 • Hydrogen molecule, H2 (single bond)
• Chlorine molecule, Cl2 (single bond)
• Bromine molecule, Br2 (single bond)
• Fluorine molecule, F2 (single bond)
• Water molecule, H2O (single bond)
• Nitrogen trifluoride molecule, NF3 (single bond)
• Tetrachoromethane / carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 (single bond)
• Ammonia molecule, NH3 (single bond)
• Oxygen molecule, O2 (double bond)
• Carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 (double bond)
• Nitrogen molecule, N2 (triple bond)
• Ethyne molecule, C2H2 (triple bond)

Structure of covalent compounds

• Can be simple molecular structure or giant molecular structure.

• The atoms in the molecule are joined together by strong covalent bond but
intermolecular forces are weak by weak van der Waals’ forces.

Berry Important Notes:

In the diagram of ionic compound, always shows

• The outermost shells of all atoms must achieve a stable duplet or octet electron
arrangement through sharing.
• The outermost shells of each atom must overlap.
• Label all atoms clearly.

The next part, Part 4 in Berry Berry Easy‘s notes on Chemical Bonding for SPM Form 4
Chemistry will be on the differences between ionic compound and covalent compound (in
terms of particle, electrons, forces, state, melting point, volatility, solubility in water, solubility
in organic solvent, electricity conductor) and also the uses of covalent compound as solvent.
So stay tuned.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical

Bonds (Part 4 – Final)
by BerryBerryTeacher on 01/04/2011

in Berry Reference (Notes)

Difference between ‘Ionic Compound‘ and ‘Covalent Compound‘. This is one of the most
common questions in tests for SPM Form 4 Chemistry students. (Then again, this is nothing
unusual as comparison based questions are popular in most exams across all subjects.) This
post, Part 4 of Berry Berry Easy‘s notes on Chemical Bonds for SPM Form 4 Chemistry
is all about the differences between the two types of compounds. You’ll read all about the
differences in terms of particles, electrons, forces, state, melting point, volatility,
solubility (in water and organic solvent) and electricity conductor. Also in this post, you’ll
be given example of common covalent compounds which can be used as solvent.
[Tips: Try your best to understand the differences between ionic compound and covalent
compound through this table shown below. After understanding it, you should write it in table
form as shown at least 3 times to fully memorise it by heart. The knowledge in this chapter
forms the basis upon which you will learn chemistry later on in your student life. Learn by
heart also the common covalent compounds used as solvent, especially their names and
application. This always appears in objective questions in exams.]

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Chemical Bonds (Part 4 – Final)

Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compound

Ionic Compound – ionic bonding is strong electrostatics forces between the oppositely-charged
ions

Covalent Compound

Covalent Compound – covalent bonding is strong bonding between the atoms in the molecule
Ionic Compound Differences Covalent Compound
Ions Particles Molecules
Lost or gained Electron Shared
Strong Forces Strong (Covalent bond)
electrostatics between the atoms in
forces (Ionic the molecule. Weak
bond) between forces of attraction
the oppositely- between the molecules
charged ions (van der Waals’ forces)
arranged in a 3-D
giant crystal
lattice
Solid State Gases or volatile liquids
High Melting Low (Simple
point molecules)High (Giant
molecules)
High Melting Low (Simple
point molecules)High (Giant
molecules)
Non-volatile Volatility Very volatile (Simple
molecules)Non-volatile
(Giant molecules)
Dissolve in water Solubility in Do not dissolve in
and polar solvents water water
Do not dissolve in Solubility in Dissolve in organic
organic solvent organic solvent (ether, alcohol,
solvent benzene,
tetrachloromethane
and propanone)
Conduct Electricity Cannot conduct
electricity in liquid conductor electricity in any state
and aqueous (no free mobile ions)
solution (positive
and negative ions
can move freely).
Cannot conduct
electricity in solid
state (fixed
position and
cannot move
freely).

Uses of covalent compounds as solvent

• Ether – solvents in the extraction of chemicals from aqueous solution

• Alcohol – solvents used to make ink and dye because these solvent are volatile
• Turpentine – dissolved paint
• CFC (chlorofluocarbons) – solvents to clean computer circuits board
• Propanone – remove nail varnish

This is the end of the series of notes on Chemical Bonds brought specially to all Form 4 SPM
Chemistry students by Berry Berry Easy. Make sure you understand all the posts in this
series before you proceed to other chapters as this is a very simple but extremely important
chapter, not only for exams but also for general understanding of chemistry as a subject.