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UNIT 3
TOPIC 2
TOPIC NOTES
Unit Outline
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
• apply the concepts of current, resistance, potential difference (voltage drop), power to the operation of
electronic circuits comprising diodes, resistors, thermistors, and photonic transducers including light
dependent resistors (LDR), photodiodes and light emitting diodes (LED); V = IR, P = VI
• calculate the effective resistance of circuits comprising parallel and series resistance and unloaded
voltage dividers;
• describe energy transfers and transformations in opto-electronic devices
• describe the transfer of information in analogue form (not including the technical aspects of
modulation and demodulation) using
– Light intensity modulation i.e. changing the intensity of the carrier wave to replicate the
amplitude variation of the information signal so that the signal may propagate more efficiently
– Demodulation i.e. the separation of the information signal from the carrier wave
• design, investigate and analyse circuits for particular purposes using technical specifications related
to potential difference (voltage drop), current, resistance, power, temperature, and illumination for
electronic components such as diodes, resistors, thermistors, light dependent resistors (LDR),
photodiodes and light emitting diodes (LED);
• analyse voltage characteristics of amplifiers including linear voltage gain (ΔVOUT/ΔVIN) and clipping;
• identify safe and responsible practices when conducting investigations involving electrical, electronic
and photonic equipment
____________________________________
CHAPTER 1
The fundamental unit of electrical charge is that carried by the electron (& the
proton).
This is the smallest discrete charge known to exist independently and is called
the __________________ _______________
Electric Charge (symbol Q) is measured in units called COULOMBS (C).
The electron carries - 1.6 x 10-19 C.
The proton carries +1.6 x 10-19 C.
If 1 electron carries 1.6 x 10-19 C
Then the number of electrons in 1 Coulomb of Charge = 1C/(1.6 x 10-19) =
___________________
When electric charges (in particular electrons) are made to move or “______”,
an Electric Current (symbol I) is said to exist.
The SIZE of this current depends upon the ___________ OF COULOMBS of
charge passing a given point in a given TIME.
Mathematically: I = Q/t
Electric CURRENTS usually flow along wires made from some kind of
________________ MATERIAL, usually, but not always, a METAL.
Currents can also flow through a Liquid (electrolysis), through a Vacuum (old
style radio “valves”), or through a Semiconductor (Modern Diodes or
Transistors).
A Current can only flow around a ________________ CIRCUIT.
A break ANYWHERE in the circuit means the current stops flowing
EVERYWHERE, IMMEDIATLY.
The current does not get weaker as it flows around the circuit, BUT REMAINS
________________.
It is the ENERGY possessed by the electrons (obtained from the battery or
power supply) which gets used up as the electrons move around the circuit.
In circuits, currents are measured with __________________, which are
connected in series with the power supply.
Connecting
Measures Wires
Current A
VU3E&P Notes Flow Page 3
Resistor (consumes
energy)
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
Well before the discovery of the ____________, electric currents were known
to exist. It was thought that these currents were made up of a stream of positive
particles and their direction of movement constituted the direction of current
flow around a circuit. This meant that in a Direct Current (D.C.) circuit, the
current would flow out of the _____________ terminal of the power supply and
into the NEGATIVE terminal.
Currents of this kind are called _______________ Currents, and ALL
CURRENTS SHOWN ON ALL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS EVERYWHERE are
shown as Conventional Current, as opposed to the “real” or ELECTRON
CURRENT.
1.4 Voltage
OR
A ______ Volt battery will supply each Coulomb of Charge passing through it
with _____ J of Energy.
1.5 EMF
Voltage is measured with a ___________________.
Voltmeters are placed in __________________ with Voltmeter
Circuit Symbol
the device whose voltage is being measured.
Voltmeters have a very high internal resistance, V
so they have little or no effect the operation of
the circuit to which they are attached.
The term EMF (ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE) describes a particular type of
voltage.
It is the VOLTAGE of a battery or power supply when _______ CURRENT is
being drawn.
This is called the “Open Circuit Voltage” of the battery or supply.
Questions
Q1: Which one of the following
statements (A to D) concerning the
voltage across the resistor in Figure 1 is
true?
_____________________________________________________________
1.6 Electrical Energy
Electrical Energy (W) is defined as the product of the Voltage (V) across, times
the Charge (Q), passing through a circuit element (eg. a light globe).
Mathematically
W = VQ ………1,
where: W = Electrical energy (Joule)V = Voltage (Volts) Q = Charge (Coulomb)
VU3E&P Notes Page 5
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
Q Coulombs of
Charges (Q) enter Electricity leave
with high energy Voltage computer
= V volts
______________________________________________________________
Questions
Q2: Determine the electrical energy
dissipated in the 100 Ω
resistor of Figure 1 in 1
second. In your answer
provide the unit.
With an A.C. supply, the average values for both voltage and current = 0,
so Vav and Iav cannot be used by the Power Companies to calculate the amount
of electric power consumed by its customers.
Yet, AC circuits do consume power, so a method of calculating it had to be
found.
To get around this problem R.M.S. or _______ ________ _________ values
for AC voltage and current were developed.
RMS values are DEFINED as:
The AC Voltage/Current which delivers the same voltage/current to an
electrical device as a numerically equal D.C. supply would deliver
An AC source operating at 240 V RMS delivers the same power to a device
as a DC source of 240 V.
V V2
339 Mean V2 Mean V2
339
33 339
9
t t t t
0 0 0 0
-
339
1.10 Peak versus RMS Values
In AC supplies, the Peak and RMS values are related through simple
formulae:
For Voltage:
VRMS = VP/√2
For Current:
IRMS = IP/√2
In Australia Domestic Electricity is supplied at 240 V, 50 Hz
VU3E&P Notes Page 8
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
2.0 Resistance
R = ρL/A L
where:
R = Resistance (Ohms) Ω
ρ = Resistivity (Ohm.m) Ω.m A 1
L = Length (m)
A = Cross Sectional Area (m2)
A 2
Thus: I = I1 + I2 + I3
(b) The voltage drop across each arm is the same. R3
Thus: V = V1 = V2 = V3
The greater the number of resistors in a parallel network the lower the value of
the equivalent resistance (RT).
______________________________________________________________
Questions
VU3E&P Notes Page 10
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
R2
VIN
R1 VOUT
You wire up the circuit shown in Figure 1 but only have 10 kΩ resistors to work
with.
Q3: Explain how you would construct the R1 = 5 kΩ resistor using only 10 kΩ
resistors. Include a sketch to show the connections between the appropriate
number of 10 kΩ resistors.
A B
20 VRMS
C
VOUT
D E
OHM’S LAW relates the __________ across, the ________ through and the
_____________ of a conductor.
Mathematically: V = IR
where: V = Voltage (Volts) I = Current (Amps) R = Resistance (Ohms)
Any conductor which follows Ohm’s Law is called an _____________
V
CONDUCTOR.
A graph of V versus I produces a
straight line with Slope = ________________
(Remember a straight line
I
graph has formula y = mx + c)
Questions
Figure 1 shows a resistor, a linear circuit
component, with resistance R = 100 Ω.
A DC current, I = 40 mA, passes through
this resistor in the direction shown by the
arrows.
Q5: What is the voltage drop across this resistor? Express your answer in volts.
Electrical devices which follow Ohm’s Law (V = IR) are called Ohmic Devices.
Electrical devices which do not follow Ohm’s Law are called Non Ohmic
Devices.
Non Ohmics show non linear behaviour when a plot of V vs I is produced, as
can be seen in the graphs for components X and Y opposite.
Most of the individual components covered in this electronics course are Non
Ohmic Devices.
Volta
ge (V)
1
________________________________________________________________________
1
5
Questions
05
VU3E&P Notes Page 13
0 1 2 3 4Curre
nt (A)
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
They are made by using combinations of fixed value resistors or using variable
resistors called rheostats.
Voltage dividers are one of the most important circuits types used in
electronics. Almost all sensor subsystems (eg Thermistors, LDR’s), use voltage
divider circuits, there is just no other way to convert the sensor inputs into
useful “electrical” information.
I
For the circuit shown: V
R1
V = V1 + V2 1
A
RL
The further from A the slider moves
the larger the voltage drop across the
V load resistor , RL
Rheostat
Slider
Questions
A B
20 VRMS
C
VOUT
D E
R2
VIN
R1 VOUT
Q8: What is the value of the resistance R2? Show your working.
R2 15k
VIN
100
R1
mV 5k VOUT
Q9: What is the current through resistor R2? Show your working, and express
your answer as a peak-to-peak current in μA.
= 7.0 V 2 2
The Voltage Drop across R2
= I x R2
= 0.01 x 500
= 5.0 V
Suppose a load (RL), requires 5.0 V to operate. Conveniently, 5 V appears
across R2.
Lets look at 2 cases where the impedance of RL varies.
CASE (a):
Suppose RL has a total impedance of 50 Ω
RL and R2 are in parallel,
so Total Resistance RT for the parallel network = (1/R2 + 1/RL)-1
= (1/500 + 1/50)-1
= 45.5 Ω
∴I = V/RT
VU3E&P Notes Page 18
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
= 5.0/45.5
= 0.11 A.
This is an 110% increase in the current through R1.
This will cause a dangerous heating effect in R1 and also decrease V across
RL - both undesirable events !
CASE (b): Now RL = 5000 Ω,
Then RT = (1/500 + 1/5000)-1
= 454.5 Ωand
I = V/RT
= 0.011 A.
This is only a 10 % increase in current.
In other words it is important to “match” the impedance of the load RL to that of
resistor R2 such that: RL ≥ 10R2
Chapter 3
3.0 Semiconductors
p n
depletion
layer
The “majority” current carriers are holes in p type material and electrons in n
type material. However, each also has some “______________” carriers
(electrons in p, holes in n) due to impurities in the semiconductor and their
dopeants.
Note: undoped semiconductor material, pure silicon or germanium, is called
“intrinsic semiconductor material”.
p n p n
depletion depletion
VU3E&P Notes
layer layer Page 20
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
The current carriers now have enough energy to cross the junction which now
becomes “conducting” or “____________ biased”
If the external supply is now reversed,
it draws the charge carriers away from the junction and makes the depletion
layer bigger meaning current is even less likely to flow and the junction is now
“____________ biased”
Voltage (V)
This diode will not fully conduct until a forward bias voltage of 0.7 V exists
across it.
VU3E&P Notes Page 21
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
Notice that when the diode is reverse biased it does still conduct - but the
current is in the pA or μA range. This current is due to _______________
carriers crossing what is for them a forward biased junction.
Collector
Collector
Collector
N Base
Base P Emitter
Circuit symbol
N Base
Emitter
On the circuit symbol the arrow points in the direction of conventional current
flow
Note: npn transistors have the arrow:
Not Pointing iN
Chapter 4
Opto Electronic Devices
4.0 Photonics
Photonic devices fall into 2 general categories: Photovoltaic they generate their
own ____________ and do not require an external power supply, example solar
cells,
Photoconductive require an external supply and operate by modifying the
_________________, example would be a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or
Photodiode
4.1 Photodiodes
VU3E&P Notes Page 23
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
R VO
0 L
UT
V
4.2 Phototransistors
+ +
V V
When light is on -
When light is on - RL VOUT is Low
VOUT is High
VOUT VOUT
RL
0 0
V V
Further applications
1. Optoisolator- the optical equivalent of an electrical transformer. There is no
physical connection between input and output.
IF IC
t t
VU3E&P Notes Page 26
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
An op amp (operational
amplifier) is a high gain,
linear, DC amplifier
The inputs marked as (+) and
(-) do not refer to power
supply connections but
instead refer to inverting and
non inverting capabilities of
the amplifier.
Questions
You are asked to investigate the properties of an optical coupler, sometimes
called an opto-isolator. This comprises a light-emitting diode (LED) that
converts an electrical signal into light output, and a phototransistor (PT) that
converts incident light into an electrical output. Before using an opto-isolator
chip you consider typical LED and PT circuits separately.
A simple LED circuit is shown in Figure 4 along with the LED current-voltage
characteristics. The light output increases as the forward current, IF , through
the LED increases.
Q10: Using the information in Figure 4, what is the value of the resistance, RD,
in series with the LED that will ensure the forward current through the LED is IF
= 10 mA?
Q11: Will the light output of the LED increase or decrease if the value of RD is a
little lower than the value you have calculated in the last question? Justify your
answer.
You now consider the phototransistor (PT) circuit of Figure 5 with RC = 2.2 kΩ.
The light is incident upon the base region of the PT and produces a collector
current, IC.
VU3E&P Notes Page 28
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
Q12: As the light intensity incident on the PT increases, which one of the
following statements concerning the PT-circuit of Figure 5 is correct?
A. The collector current remains constant, but VOUT increases.
B. The collector current remains constant, but VOUT decreases.
C. The collector current increases, but VOUT decreases.
D. The collector current decreases and VOUT decreases.
4.6 CD Readers
CD
pits
DAC
amplifi
er
Questions
Q13: With no light incident upon the photodiode, the current in the photodiode
circuit, the “dark current”, is 5 µA.
What is the output voltage, VOUT, across the 100 Ω resistor in the circuit of
Figure 5b?
Chapter 5
5.0 Analogue Data
The world is divided into two streams: ____________ and ______________
Humans perceive the world as an _______________ place i.e. we receive our
input is a continuous stream, this continuous stream is what defines analogue
data.
On the other hand digital data (a stream of 1’s and 0’s) estimates analogue
data by “__________________” it at various time intervals
Analogue data is usually more ______________________ than digital data.
5.1 Modulation
Modulation is a a way of changing an
analogue signal so data or information
can be transmitted over a
communication network.
The carrier is usually of one frequency
and the wave (usually a
sine wave) is
y(t) = A sin (ft + φ)
Where
A = Amplitude
f = Frequency
φ = Phase
Changing (modulating) this
wave can only occur by
changing one of A, f or φ
Changing A leads to
Amplitude Modulation
Changing f leads to Frequency Modulation
Changing φ leads to Phase Modulation
5.2 Demodulation
Demodulation is
the inverse process
of modulation. The
modulated wave
signal is
transmitted to a receiver at the receiving station.
Then information components are extracted from the carrier signal (recovering
information).
The process is called demodulation.
Questions
Q 16. Which of the diagrams (A–D) above could represent the signal that would
be observed at point Y in Figure 8a?
Chapter 6
6.0 Input Transducers
a k
Circuit
Symbol
LEDs must be connected the correct way round.
The diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it
really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be
a slight flat region on the body of round LEDs.
______________________________________________________________
In the dark:
Vout 10
= x 9 = 0.43 V
10 + 200
Questions
The graph opposite shows the variation in resistance of a light dependent
resistor (LDR) with
changes in light intensity i.e. an illumination of 105 lux produces a resistance of
102 ohms.
Q19. What is the resistance of the LDR when the light level is 103 lux?
6.4 Thermistors
A temperature-sensitive resistor is called a ______________.
The resistance of most common types of thermistor _________________ as
the temperature rises.
They are called negative temperature coefficient, or ntc, thermistors. Note the
-t° next to the circuit symbol.
Different types of thermistor are manufactured and each has its own
characteristic pattern of resistance change with temperature.
The diagram shows characteristic curve(Ω)
Resistance for one particular thermistor:
100000
10000
1000
How could you make a sensor circuit for use as a fire alarm?
You want a circuit which will deliver a ________ voltage when hot conditions
are detected.
R = 10 k
Vout = 10
10 + 0.25 x 9 = 8.78 V
How could you make a sensor circuit to detect temperatures less than 4°C to
warn motorists that there may be ice on the road?
You want a circuit which will give a _________ voltage in cold conditions.
R = 10k k
Vout = 40
10 + 40 x 9 = 7.2 V
At 4o RThermistor = 40 kΩ
_____________________________________________________________
Questions
The thermistor is incorporated into the control circuit for the refrigeration unit of
a cool room. The circuit is shown in Figure 8
The relay switches the refrigeration unit ON when voltage, V, across variable
resistor R ≥ 4V and switches OFF when V < 4V.
The refrigeration unit must turn on when the temperature of the cool room rises
to, or exceeds, 5°C.
Q21. At what value should the resistor R be set so that the refrigeration unit
turns on at this temperature?
You must show your working.
Q22. From the list of components below (A–D) select the one that would be
most suitable for use in the circuit shown
in Figure 9 at position P and the one most suitable for use at position Q.
A. LDR (light dependent resistor)
B. LED (light emitting diode)
C. transistor
D. diode
CHAPTER 7
7.0 Transistor Amplifiers
Shown below is the single stage common emitter amplifier.
Single stage because it has only 1 transistor
Common emitter because the emitter is common to both input and output.
+V
RL
C1 R1
VOUT
VIN R2
RE
C2
0V
The device can be regarded as a black box (dotted line) with an input and an
output
The voltage divider consisting of R1and R2 provides the ___________ bias so
the base will be positive with respect to the emitter. Resistors are sized to set
the _______________ (Q) or steady state operating point at the middle of the
load line (shown by the dot on load line see below).
RL is chosen to limit the __________________ current to the maximum allowed
value.
RE is chosen to set VCE at the voltage which will allow the biggest “swing” in the
output signal to occur.
So this amplifier is now correctly biased and can operate to produce an
enlarged (amplified), inverted output.
7.1 Gain
Questions
The graph of vOUT versus vIN for the transistor amplifier is shown in Figure 4.
Q24. Explain the shape of the graph in Figure 4. Your explanation should
include why the graph shown has a negative slope, and why it has horizontal
sections at vIN > +60 mV and vIN < –60 mV.
7.2 Clipping
The load line for an amplifier is a plot of the collector emitter voltage against the
base emitter voltage
Setting the Q point of the amplifier at an incorrect level can lead to the output
signal being distorted, cut off or “_____________ ”
VCE (V)
VBE (V)
VIN
VIN
VU3E&P Notes Page 43
Drouin Secondary College VCE PHYSICS TOPIC: Electronics
Trying to drive the amplifier too hard, by having too large an input signal will
also lead to clipping of the output signal
Questions
The input signal, vIN, she is using for the amplifier mentioned in Q 23 is shown
in Figure 5.
Q25. On the graph below, sketch the output signal as measured at point vOUT.