1

Evaluate the events and ideas that led to the Unification of

Germany and the impact of this on the future of European
Politics.

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to assess the road that led to the unification of
Germany, as well as the aftermath of the unification, with a particular emphasis on
the way a unified Germany under Bismarck transformed European politics and
altered the balance of power. So much so, that one may argue that both World War
I, and World War II were long term consequences of the early stages of the German
unification. However, it is essential for our scope to have a point of departure, and
that is, without doubt the impact the French Revolution had on the social and
political development of the German states. Moreover, an analytical view of the
1848 revolutions, the emergence of Bismarck, the wars between Prussia and Austria,
and the final war prior to the proclamation of the German empire between France
and Prussia, is important in assessing the path that led to the unification of Germany.

Germany and the French Revolution

According to many, the road towards the Unification of Germany started with
Napoleon’s1 attempt to occupy Europe, through which the most tangible exports of
the French Revolution took place. Napoleon also tried to re-organise Europe, in
fact, in Germany he replaced the Holy Roman Empire which had been dissolved in
1789,2 with the Confederation of the Rhine. The Confederation was made up of
1
This attempt is known as the Napoleonic Wars, which started in 1799 and were ended at the battle
of Waterloo with the defeat of Napoleon.
2
See The French Revolution and Germany (on-line) : http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/
history/ bl_french_revolution.htm.
 2

Saxony, Bavaria, Baden and 14 other states, and it was under direct French control.
Moreover, the various laws and judicial procedures of each state within the
Confederation were replaced by the famous Napoleonic Code.3 Thus, this
Confederation was the first, though minute beginning in the political and judicial
unification of Germany, because even though with Napoleon’s defeat the
Confederation ceased to exist, the Napoleonic Code and other exports of the French
revolution remained.

The French Revolution left Europe somewhat in disarray, so to restore some

order, the Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815 by the four European powers
which had defeated Napoleon. The first goal was to establish a new balance of
power in Europe, which would prevent imperialism within Europe, and maintain the
peace between the great powers. The second goal was to prevent political
revolutions, such as the French Revolution, and maintain the status quo.4 The
congress also established the German Confederation, which replaced the
Confederation of the Rhine. This German Confederation consisted of most of the
area of the Holy Roman Empire which had been transformed from an area of some
300 semi autonomous states to an area with only 39 but larger states. This was
under the presidency of Austria, as at the time, Austria was the most politically and
economically stable state of them all.5 The central political figure within this
confederation was Prince Clemens von Metternich, who also directed Austria’s
foreign policy from 1809 till 1848. His main objective was to prevent the revolution
from spreading in Europe by making sure that much of the political and social order
that was present before the French Revolution was restored.6

Particularly because of Metternich’s objectives, this German Confederation did

3
Ibid.
4
Ibid.
5
See The French Revolution and Germany (on-line) : http://www.germanculture.com.ua/
library/history/bl_french_revolution.htm.
6
See German Confederation 1815-66 (on-line) : http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/
history/bl_german_confederation.htm.
 3

not strive to unify Germany. It was a very conservative organization, and thus many
states went back to the status quo of the pre-Napoleonic period, with the Monarch as
the absolute leader. This was accepted by most citizens except for a few university
students and academics.

Political Movements working for reform

With the defeat of Napoleon, these students and academics started propagating
ideologies such as nationalism and liberalism all throughout Germany, thus making
the unification of Germany constantly on the agenda. As a result, numerous
campaigns were held during which various acts of violence occurred, and minor
upheavals took place. Nonetheless, these alarmed Metternich who with the approval
of the King created the Carlsbad Decrees7 in order to try and contain these
upheavals. Moreover, the development of liberalism and nationalism made
Metternich feel extremely uneasy about the future of the German Confederation. He
was of the idea that what happened in one State could happen in another, and that is
why he was constantly on the alert, because he feared that once an ideology is
widespread, it could also challenge his Monarch in Austria.

Economic Movements
The only successful and probably the most important common German interest in
this period was the Zollverein, which was a Customs Union formed under the
leadership of Prussia. In 1816 Prussia boldly got rid of internal custom duties and
taxed duties only at the external frontiers.8 Due to the success of this Customs Union
by 1834 other German states joined, and from the 1st of January 1834 the Zollverein
was created.9 Austria was however not included, mainly because it had a highly
protected industry. From 1834 till 1867 the Zollverein was under the control of the

7
The Carlsbad Decrees established a strict system including University laws which hindered German
intellectual life and censored most of the publications promoting liberalist ideas. Also it set up a
central investigating commission armed with certain powers set out to find conspiratorial
organizations. See Carlsbad Decrees (on-line) : http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/
topic/96098/Carlsbad-Decrees.
8
Confer Hajo Holborn, A history of Modern Germany 1648-1840, New Jersey 1964, 461.
9
See Denis Richards, An Illustrated History of MODERN EUROPE 1789-1984, Singapore, 1985,
108.
 4

central authority known as the Customs Congress.10 The building of the first German
railways helped the union prosper, as it made transport of merchandise much easier,
and thus, this success attracted other German states to join, in fact, by 1844, the
Zollverein nearly covered all of Germany.11 The Zollverein was initially created
mainly to strengthen ties between German states but it did much more than that. It
laid out the economic foundation for the later unification of Germany. 12 Other
unions such as The Middle Union were created, however they all failed by time,
only the Zollverein kept becoming stronger and stronger.

In the meantime, in the 1820s Metternich succeeded in securing a certain iron

grip on Germany, however, the fall of the Bourbons in France in 1830 once again
caused havoc in Europe, because this gave rise to new riots.13 These riots which
were started by the liberals quickly failed, however not for long, because the liberals
would go on to be more successful in the 1848 revolutions.

Causes of the Revolution

What had happened was that between 1815 and 1848, population growth and
urbanization took place in every European country. So 1848 in the German states
brought the shifting nature of society to modernisation. It showed the problems of
the transition period. Since the mass migration from the country to the towns
resulted in a rapidly growing town proletariat, who had given up their home and
familiar ties, without at first succeeding in creating new systems and new forms of
association.14

The revolutions of March 1848 can be seen to have been sparked by the news of

10
Confer International Trade (on-line) : http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/291349/
international-trade/61731/The-Zollverein.
11
See Denis Richards, An Illustrated History of MODERN EUROPE 1789-1984, Singapore, 1985,
108.
12
Confer Zollverein (on-line) : http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/z/o/Zollverein.html.
13
See Denis Richards, An Illustrated History of MODERN EUROPE 1789-1984, Singapore, 1985,
107.
14
Therefore the personal relationship between the employer and the employee changed to an
impersonal one and that internal decay of the liberal middle classes led to the revolution.
 5

the successful revolution in Paris which led to the overturn of King Louis Phillip.
They started in the south-west and spread to Berlin and Vienna. Success in one state
generated confidence in another and so on. Thus, these revolutions became
widespread, and at first they seemed very successful, in fact even Metternich, the
apparently immovable senior statesman of Europe, was forced into exile by events in
Vienna.

In March 1848, rioting began in Berlin,15 and it soon crossed across Prussia into
Austria. Prussia, whose very existence had been the most seriously threatened,
carried out the most resolutely reforms.16 It was no longer the old, traditional, and
anachronistic Prussia of Frederick the Great with an army of mercenaries, but it was
a modern Prussia, with a flexible administration and a national army embracing all
sections of the population.

The Frankfurt Parliament and its failure

Moreover, the dramatic news of revolution in Paris brought the liberals and the
radicals together at a meeting based in Heidelberg which led to the organization of
the preparatory Frankfurt Parliament (Vorparlament). The members included large
numbers of men, important in industrial life. They possessed good knowledge but
they lacked political experience. They were not particularly fiery revolutionaries,
and were essentially unwilling to consider violent revolution. During these times the
Federal Diet of the German Confederation was debating processes of election
towards reaching decisions about the future of Germany.17 However, the position of
the Frankfurt Parliament was weak because its members lacked experience, and they
possessed neither the power nor the authority to take decisions, and neither the
15
Stadelmann Rudolph, Social and Political History of the German 1848 Revolution, translated by
James G. Chastain, Ohio University 1975, 31.
16
They were planned and put into operation in a short space of time, at least in the administrative,
economic and military spheres.
17
It was agreed by the German governments that extensive diplomatic, military and commercial
powers were to be entrusted to an Executive Body that was to concern itself with the welfare of the
Confederation without direct involvement in the framing of the Constitution. This Executive Body of
responsible ministers was to be headed up by a titular Regent of the Empire. This title was awarded to
Archduke John of Austria - a proposal that it should go to the King of Prussia having failed to find
support.
 6

money nor the army to make their resolutions prevail.18

In 1849, the Frankfurt Assembly offered Germany to Frederick William IV.19

Frederick William IV knew that accepting would mean war with Austria; apart of
the fact that accepting such a deal would make him a constitutional monarch, neither
of which he desired. He therefore turned down the offer. Germany remained
fragmented after 1848, and the small rulers of the various small German states came
back to power. With the refusal of the crown, the revolution of 1848 had collapsed.

The Prussian Union Plan

Moreover, Prussia's withdrawal from the Frankfurt Assembly also meant that any
kind of move it made to unite Germany would be looked upon as suspicious.
Nonetheless, Radowitz proposed the so-called Prussian Union Plan.20 This scheme
envisaged a smaller federation within a larger league, which would include Austria.
However, Hanover and Saxony agreed to join the plan only if Baden and
Württemberg did too. The latter two South German states refused and so Hanover
and Saxony also withdrew. However, although this Prussian Union Plan entailed a
lot of problems, in January 1850, a Parliament based on this plan actually met in the
city of Erfurt.21

Prussia
In 1858 Frederick William IV of Prussia was succeeded by his younger brother

18
Mann Golo, The History of the Germany since 1789, translated from German by Marian Jackson,
London 1968, 95-97.
19
King William the IV had become Prussia’s Monarch after the death of the King of Prussia in 1840.
King William IV was a very important figure in regards to the unification of Germany, however, he
was considered to be a very fluctuative character as he would change his mind very often regarding
important issues.See Frederick William IV of Prussia (on0line) :
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Frederick_William_IV_of_Prussia.
20
See Mann Golo, The History of the Germany since 1789, translated from German by Marian
Jackson, London 1968, 112
21
But Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Württemberg and some smaller states had refused to
participate in the election.
 7

William I. The latter was a very different man form his brother, he was more
authoritative, more decisive and far less afraid of Austria. His training in the
Prussian Army had given him authoritarian views, and therefore he logically
detested liberal and democratic ideas. Some of his first actions showed these
tendencies clearly. In fact he appointed two keen military minds, both anti – Liberal
to the key positions of the Prussian Army. Soon afterwards it was decided that the
army had to be greatly increased both in number and in strength. All this would
naturally involve considerable expenditure. The problem was how to make the
liberals of the Prussian Parliament agree to these military changes, especially
because these changes would have undoubtedly increased the taxes, and therefore
would have affected the budget. The Liberals in the Prussian Parliament succeeded
in gaining a majority against the proposed taxation, and thus, the King`s demands
were rejected. This was not just some random opposition by the liberals to
militarism, but their opposition symbolically meant the refusal to accept the control
of the King and of his military advisers. They therefore proposed certain
amendments to the military laws in return of acceptance of the new taxes.

Meanwhile the King went ahead and created the new regiments using funds
which were not allocated for that purpose. The Parliament was against this and
refused to accept this budget prepared by the Chief Minister. This inevitably created
a tense situation between the King and the liberal opposition. At this point William I
began to contemplate abdication. He was persuaded that what he needs was a Chief
Minister who could push the army reforms through Parliament against the wishes of
the liberal majority. The choice fell on Otto von Bismarck, who was called from
Paris where he was acting as the Prussian ambassador. The King appointed him
head of the government as Minister President.

Bismarck
 8

Otto von Bismarck22 was one of the most brilliant diplomats of all time. He was
born at Schönhausen, northwest of Berlin in 1815, in the year of waterloo. Through
Bismarck’s efforts, Germany was transformed from a loose collection of small states
into the German Empire, the strongest industrialized nation in continental Europe.
During his early political life, Bismarck was an ardent supporter of the monarchy,
where he believed that the dynasty of the Hohenzollern was governing Prussia by
divine right and that the state was part of a divine world plan. Although Bismarck
was full of ambition, he did not seek power for his own advantage but he simply
wanted to do well for Prussia. He believed that a state’s foreign policy must be
shaped by reasonable interests and not by personal quest for power or glory. As a
matter of fact, when it came to Prussia’s domestic affairs, Bismarck began to see
himself as a mediator among conflicting interest group that would destroy society
unless there was conciliation.23 During his early political career, he opposed any
attempts to challenge the position of the landowning aristocracy, thus creating a
controversy even between the people that agreed with him.

The clash between King and Parliament that had begun in 1860 could have never
been resolved without the strength and persuasion of a man like Bismarck. There
were various politicians who wanted to settle the conflict, but it seemed that neither
William I nor the Parliament were interested to negotiate. 24 Later on it was in merit
of Bismarck who came up with a solution. However, many liberals disapproved of
Bismarck being appointed as Chief Minister and were expecting him to commit
disastrous mistakes which would have forced William I to come to terms with the
Parliament.25 Instead, Bismarck surprised people with his handling of the situation.
He proceeded to collect the additional taxes needed for the military reform based on
the 1861 budget and he did this without the approval of Parliament. Bismarck argued
that despite the standoff between Parliament and the King, the government must
continue to function. Since the constitution did not provide for the case of an
22
See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997), in Encarta Online (online) : http://encarta.msn.com/
encnet/refpages/RefArtTextonly.aspx?refid=761571668&print=0 [14 April 2009].
23
See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997).
24
See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997).
25
See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997).
 9

impasse and no new budget existed, he would have to apply for the preceding year’s
budget. To justify increasing the army he argued that, “the great questions of the day
will not be settled by speeches and majority decisions … but by blood and iron.”26
To liberal suggestions that the people should refuse to pay taxes, Bismarck argued
that he had two hundred thousand soldiers ready to persuade them. Parliament
declared that his actions are illegal, however he ignored it, and in the following years
he collected taxes and re-organised the army as if the Parliament did not exist.

Austro-Prussian Conflict
Bismarck’s will to reorganise the army, and his determination to ensure sufficient
military power was his answer to the German question, which according to him, was
to be at the expense of Austria.

The Schleswig-Holstein Policy

In 1863 the childless King of Denmark died. He was also the ruler of the two
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and which had been under Danish rule for four
hundred years. Holstein was largely German and was a member of the German
Confederation; it resented the Danish connection, whilst Schleswig was mostly
Danish in population.

During the era of nationalism, national Danes wanted to take up the two
provinces completely under the Danish rule. On the other hand, national Germans
wanted to save them from exactly that, so later they can be brought into an
integrated Germany. A conference of the great powers in London in 1852 had
determined that the Duchies should be kept as they were part of the lands of the
King of Denmark, but without falling under the laws of the Danish Kingdom. This
did not satisfy the Germans, nor the Danes, so the only solution to this was war.

Bismarck’s policy towards the dispute

26
See Otto von Bismarck : http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/historical/biography/otto_von_bismarck.html
[14 April 2009].
 10

Bismarck had no intention of standing aside from this controversy. It was, in fact,
a development as far as his aims were concerned; to gain the support of the German
nationalists who wished to incorporate the two Duchies into Germany. The small
states of the German Confederation invaded first, by sending an army to occupy
Holstein. In the meantime, Bismarck persuaded Austria to take joint military action
against Denmark on the basis that King Frederick’s promise to maintain the separate
rights of the Duchies had been broken. In January 1864 a combined Prussian and
Austrian army advanced through Holstein and into Schleswig. The war was too
much for the Danes to bear and therefore they had no choice but to surrender.

After the war, the future of the Duchies created a lot of tension, especially
between Austria and Prussia. By the summer of 1865 the future of the Duchies was
still not settled, and tension between the two great powers was high. Neither country
wanted war; Austria for economic reasons and Prussia because Bismarck believed
that Prussian army was still not ready for war with Austria. Meanwhile Prussia was
on good terms with both France and Russia. Bismarck, in case of war with Austria
had secured the neutrality of Napoleon the III by promising him future
compensation. However, the war was inevitable because apart of the problem of the
two Duchies, there was also the question of who would lead a unified Germany,
Prussia or Austria? Should it be a kleindeutschland or a Grossdeutschland?

The Seven Weeks War

The war consisted of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and certain minor
German states.27 Prussia won, and this meant the exclusion of Austria from the
process of the German unification. Thus, it was to be a kleindeutschland, and an
important step forward towards the unification. Prussian objectivity, meanwhile
dealt with the forces of Bavaria and other German states that had sided with Austria.
During the same period, in parallel to the Seven Weeks War, a campaign was fought
27
Seven Weeks’ War, (2009), In Encyclopaedia Britannica, April 04, 2009, from Encyclopaedia
Britannica Online (on-line) : http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/536531/Seven-Weeks-
War.
 11

in Venetia between the Austrian army of the south and Italy, after the latter had
made a secret alliance with Prussia.

Bismarck was already in possession of most of today’s Germany. The main

change was the abolition of the old German Confederation by substituting it with a
new body called the North German Confederation, this change was essential in order
to solidify the dominance of Prussia. However, Bismarck thought that by winning
this war he achieved what his liberals of the 1848 revolution failed to achieve by
peaceful means; a unified Germany.

With an efficient military force that startled the whole of Europe, Prussia overran
the German states allied with Austria and consequently also crushed the Austrians.
By doing so, Bismarck made evident the military might of Prussia. However,
Bismarck never aimed to destroy Austria, as he still saw Austria as a future potential
ally of a unified Germany, and that is why in the peace Treaty of Prague he did not
acquire any territory from the Austrians. On the other hand, against Italy the
Austrians had won victories on land,28 however because they lost their war against
Prussia they ceded Venetia to Napoleon III of France, who in turn surrendered it to
Italy.

Moreover, the Habsburgs were enduringly barred from German affairs. The
Kingdom of Prussia, thus established itself as the only foremost power among the
German states. Soon after the treaty of Prague, Bismarck extended the Zollverein to
include four southern states and involve them in the new ZollParliament/customs
Parliament. Bismarck hoped that by time this Parliament would be transformed from
an economical, to a commercial one, as a further step in the Prussian domination of a
unified Germany.

The North German Confederation

28
"Austro-Prussian War." 04 Apr. 2009, (On-line) : http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/
A0805396.html
 12

The North German Confederation that replaced the German Confederation

consisted of twenty-two German states. The agreement of this Confederation stated
that each state retained its own government but must submit its military forces to the
control of the confederation; the commander in Chief of the collective armies was
the King of Prussia. A legislative organization was created; its president was the
King of Prussia, but the duties of the office were performed by a chancellor.

Moreover, The North German Confederation was an important stepping stone

towards the unification of Germany. In fact, the North German Confederation and
the remaining areas of the former German Confederation, excluding Austria, formed
later on the German Empire. Furthermore, the constitution of the confederation was
adopted, although modified slightly, as the constitution of the German empire.
During this period, Otto von Bismarck became ever more popular in Prussia. This
initiated a new highly important era of co-operation between Bismarck and the
liberals.

Prussia and France 1862-1872

The rivalry of Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany also led to a
dispute between France and Prussia. The Luxembourg Crisis was a stepping stone
for the diplomatic dispute and confrontation in 1867 between France and Prussia
over the political status of Luxembourg. The confrontation almost led to war
between these two, but was resolved by the Treaty of London peacefully. Bismarck
certainly did not want war with France, especially because Prussia had not yet
recovered from the effects of the 1866 war. Moreover, he did not intend to fight the
French on an agenda set by the national liberals; if war had broken out over the issue
of final unification – as they wanted – their position would be strengthened and
pressure for further constitutional change intensifies.

In acknowledgement to Prussia, Luxembourg was to be a member of German

Confederation, with several thousand Prussian soldiers stationed there. In fact,
 13

Bismarck, being increasingly more popular in Germany, proposed a policy which

referred Luxembourg as being part of Germany and argued that Germany must risk
war rather than surrender. Yet, the Luxembourg crisis has been also described by
some historians as the point where Bismarck stopped being a Prussian patriot and
became a German one. He saw Germany as the mother of Europe.

War with France

The sudden growth of Prussia alarmed France very much and wanted to check its
strength. In fact, after the Austro-Prussian war, Napoleon III demanded Bismarck to
keep the territorial promises he had made before the war, for France’s neutrality.

In the meantime, in Spain we have the Spanish succession which becomes a

controversy between France and Prussia. The Spanish throne had been unoccupied
since the revolution of September 1868, and the Spanish offered the throne to the
German prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Fearing that a Hohenzollern
King in Prussia and another one in Spain would upset the balance of power, France
became determined to stand up to the expansion of Prussian influence. So Napoleon
III protested by sending ambassador Benedetti to try to talk to Leopold to give up his
candidacy and support peace. During their meeting in Ems, William I accepted the
withdrawal of Leopard but he didn’t assure Benedetti that the Hohenzollern
candidature for the Spanish throne would never be renewed. Immediately
afterwards, William I sent a telegram from Ems to Bismarck telling him about the
negotiations. But before publishing it, he altered some words making it appear as if
William I had incited Benedetti by refusing to see him again when requested. As a
result France immediately declared war on Prussia in 1870. The Ems telegram gave
Bismarck his chance. Strictly speaking, the edited version was not a forgery; but it
was certainly designed to precipitate war. And war fought on an issue of ‘national
honor’ against the old foe was only a combination which could only enhance the
prestige of the Prussian crown. Bismarck certainly bears responsibility at least for
the outbreak of war. He did this because he wanted to make Germany the strongest
state in Europe and this could only be achieved if he defeated France of Napoleon
 14

III. This was a good time to initiate war since France had no allies to turn to for
help. It turned out to be Bismarck’s master-stroke, as Napoleon the III who
personally led his forces at the lost Battle of Sedan, surrendered and was deposed in
the civil war that boiled over in France, resulting in the Third French Republic. In
the meantime the Prussian forces laid siege to Paris between September 1870 and
January 1871, starving the city into surrender.

Historians disagree whether it should be called the Franco-Prussian war or the

Franco-German war. Although there was no official unification of the German
states, it was the first genuinely German war, fought by the newly defined
Kleindeutschland. Although in the beginning of the war there were different
emotions toward the unification of Germany, by the end of it all Germany was
united by a blind hatred of France and all things French. Moreover, Bismarck had
not only achieved the complete unification of Germany but also its establishment as
the most powerful state in Europe. It was unified as a modern nation- state in 1871,
when the German Empire was forged, with the Kingdom of Prussia as its largest
constituent. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire
was proclaimed in Versailles on 18 January 1871. The fact that this German empire
was proclaimed in Versailles is evidence of the huge humiliation that the French had
suffered in the hands of the Prussians. On January 28, 1871, the French capitulated
and signed an armistice followed by a preliminary peace in February and a definite
treaty, The Peace of Frankfurt, in May. It was a humiliating peace treaty for France,
German troops were to remain in eastern France until a heavy fine of £200 million
had been paid, and Alsace and the eastern half of Lorraine became part of Germany.
These harsh terms created anger in France, even because Bismarck had treated them
in a degrading way especially in contrast to the way he had treated Austria after the
latter’s defeat. The years of 1870 and 1871 were dramatic for Bismarck and Europe,
with France defeated, Germany united as an empire. Furthermore, the balance of
power in Europe totally altered and the beginning of a Franco-German hatred was to
go on until the Second World War.
 15

After the outbreak of war, Bismarck had been willing to concede negotiations
over unification. In fact, a memorandum was formulated in the outlining of the
constitutional basis for the future arrangements in Germany. The new German
Empire, of which William was Kaiser, was a federal state which was reduced from
39 states of the German Confederation to 25 by the loss of Austria to the Prussian
annexations. Moreover, the newly founded German Empire’s federal states were
mostly constitutional monarchies. Eight separate states had universal equal manhood
suffrage, as did the national Parliament, the Reichstag. Eleven states had franchises
based on class system. In fact, the ‘’Law Regarding the Constitution of the German
Empire,’’ promulgated by the emperor on 16 April 1871, took effect on 4 th May
1871 with the acceptance of the terms ‘’emperor’’ and ‘’empire’’.

The aim of the liberals of 1848 to create a German state now appeared to have
been achieved, although not in a manner they would have necessarily approved.
Their aim had been a Germany united by a popular national movement. The reality
was unity imposed from above, a Prussian dominated empire, brought into being by
Bismarck.

The impact of German Unification on the future of Europe

In his domestic politics Bismarck’s aim was always to unify and consolidate the
new empire socially and politically. Moreover his foreign policy in the 1870s and
1880s was directed towards the creation of a breathing space during which real unity
could be developed. However, this does not mean that Bismarck had suddenly been
converted to the cause of national liberalism. Although like any other Prussian
conservative, he definitely opposed any links of liberalism and nationalism, it seems
as if he was being a nationalist when he believed that the three larger states were
truly German. At bottom he was a loyal servant to his monarch. Like Frederick the
Great he simply intended, to make the Kingdom of Prussia, the most dominant
power in that geographical area, by seizing every opportunity that arose.
 16

Due to the German victory of 187029 the balance of power in Europe was altered
altogether. Suddenly the German empire emerged as the largest, with regards to
population, a great economic power with a strong re-enforced army. It was clearly
going to be a new beginning in international relations. The proclamation of the
German Empire turned a new page in the history of Europe. One could instantly
visualize that the former, weak and dismantled Germany, of the first half of the
century, had now reached its peak. Austria-Hungary and France were no longer
considered as two of the major powers of the continent. They were both still trying
to recover from the heavy defeats they suffered to Prussia. Russia remained a treat,
as it was equally interested in both Central Asia and Europe. Britain was still
thinking that it was better off on her own. So Germany was assured a temporary
position of relative hegemony in Europe. At the moment it was “more than a
traditional Great Power but less than a World Power in the class of Britain and
Russia”.30

The greatest danger for Germany was the government of the French Republic31
because it was still trying to come to terms with the loss of Alsace-Lorraine at the
end of the war, for which Bismarck was responsible. This made the French vow that
they will take back the territory that was taken from them. In fact, in the early 1870s
France made a rapid military recovery on the German lines which totally surprised
and alarmed many Germans. Bismarck’s foreign policy was to isolate France, by
ensuring the support of all great powers. The friendship of Austria was important to
Germany because it deprived France from a potential ally and it gave Bismarck a
degree of independence when dealing with Russia.

The Eastern Crisis

At the time the Eastern question was also a very important issue since two of the
major players in international relations, Britain and Russia, almost came close to

29
The bulk of the French army was encircled at the battle of Sedan and the German's took 104,000
prisoners of war, among them the seriously ill Emperor Napoleon III.
30
It was once remarked by a historian.
31
Had to put up with German occupying troops until 1873.
 17

war on several occasions over the loss of the territory of the Ottoman empire in the
Balkans. Due to the intervention of Bismarck the Treaty of Berlin32 was signed in
1878. The Ottoman Empire took back its territories, and Bulgaria was reduced to a
third. The French wanted a free hand in Tunisia and so took it in 1881. Bosnia
Herzegovina passed under Austrian rule, and Britain gained Cyprus because of its
proximity to the Mediterranean.33 Peace was maintained at the expense of small
countries and their future stability. Thus Bismarck pursued a system of alliances
aimed at preserving German security. He believed that this could be achieved only if
the three great powers, Britain, France, and Russia were satisfied and united.
Although Italy had gained certain power, it was still not close to becoming one of
the great powers. Through these alliances the balance of power was regained and the
result was a significant period of peace.34

The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente

Bismarck’s concern was not with the distant future but with the immediate
situation. The alliance of 1879 served its purpose well; it strengthened Austria
against Russia and ensured that she would not seek alliance elsewhere. Bismarck
briskly proceeded to bring back Russia into the fold. By the end of 1879 Russia was
thoroughly alarmed by her diplomatic isolation and was anxious for an
understanding with Germany. In 1880 trouble came from Vienna where the new
foreign Minister Haymerle was seeking an alliance with Britain, the natural enemy
of Russia. The anti-Russian and pro-Austrian conservatives were defeated in 1880
and the Treaty of the Three Emperors' Alliance was signed between Russia, Austria
and Germany. Bismarck had accommodated the Austrians in 1879 and the Russians
in 1881; however, in order to keep peace on both sides of the borders, he now had to
satisfy both powers indefinitely.

A sharp decline in the friendship between Russia on one hand and Austria-
Hungary and Germany on the other pushed Bismarck to form a secret defensive
32
See Also the Treaty of San Stefano.
33
From Cyprus Britain could keep a closer eye on India.
34
Due to Bismark Germany gained twenty years of peace.
 18

alliance in 1879. This Dual Alliance was formed with Austria-Hungary. In 1882,
angry at France chiefly because it had forestalled an Italian advance by occupying
Tunis, Italy signed another secret treaty, which bound it with Germany and Austria-
Hungary, and therefore the Triple Alliance was formed.35 The Three Emperors'
League died a slow death and by 1890 its days were over. Germany refused to renew
its treaty with Russia and so Russia sought assurance with France. At the same time,
face to face with an increasingly powerful Germany and a hostile Central Europe
combination, France felt great need of an ally, so French diplomats began to make
overtures to Russia for an agreement to counterbalance the Triple Alliance.

Meanwhile, the fall of Bismarck, after the accession to the throne of the German
Emperor William II,36 was followed by the appearance of more adventurous foreign
policies. Germany committed itself to colonial and commercial expansion.
Friendship between Britain and France did not seem possible because of their
colonial quarrels in Africa and more importantly their rational enmity. Although
Great Britain and France had been on the verge of war in 1898, the matter was
settled and the way opened for further agreements between the two powers. Though
there was no alliance, the Entente Cordiale,37 was established in 1904. Colonial
rivalries between Russia and Britain had in the late 19th century made these powers
hostile. Their fields of contest were Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, China and India. But
after the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Britain was in favour of a
friendly settlement in 1907. This agreement created an international group opposing
the Triple Alliance. France, Great Britain and Russia had formed the Triple Entente.

35
Germany, Italy and Austria.
36
He lacked a sense of proportion and combined arrogance with inferiority and therefore led his
country to disaster.
37
A friendly understanding.
 19

The road to World War I

Eventually Bismarck had managed to divide Europe into two armed camps38 and
their rivalry brought about a serious of crisis. Due to the amount of tension that was
building up only a simple excuse was needed to start war and it came with the
assassination of Austria's Crown Prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on
the 28 June 1914, which triggered the start of World War I. Germany, as part of the
unsuccessful Central powers, suffered defeat against the allied powers in one of the
bloodiest conflicts of all time. By the end of October a revolutionary situation
existed in Germany. Four years of war-time, privation and hardship had gradually
eroded the relationship between the rulers and the people. The German revolution
broke out in November 1918 and Emperor William II and all German ruling princes
abdicated. An armistice putting an end to the war was signed on 11 November and
Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. Its negotiation
contrary to traditional post-war diplomacy, excluded the defeated Central powers.
The Treaty was perceived in Germany as a humiliating continuation of the war, and
by other means its harshness is often cited as having facilitated the later rise of
Nazism in the country.

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The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.
 20

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