MB0050 – Research Methodology

Assignment Set -1
Q 1. Why should a manger know about research when the job entails managing
people, products, events, environments, and the like?

The manager, while managing people, products, events, and environments will
invariably face problems, big and small, and will have to seek ways to find long lasting
effective solutions. This can be achieved only through knowledge of research even if
consultants are engaged to solve problems.

The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering,
interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of
human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe.
Research can use the scientific method, but need not to do so. The goal of the research
process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms (although, as
previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy):

Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems.

Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem

Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research
in progress. Research can also fall into two distinct types :

Primary research

Primary research (also called field research) involves the collection of data that does not
already exist, which is research to collect original data. Primary Research is often
undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by collecting
secondary data. This can be through numerous forms, including questionnaires, direct
observation and telephone interviews amongst others. This information may be
collected in things like questionnaires and interviews .

Secondary research

Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation
and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is
collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments.

Secondary research can come from either internal or external sources. The proliferation
of web search engines has increased opportunities to conduct secondary research
without paying fees to database research providers

In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can
be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the
research:
Qualitative research

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic

disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further
contexts.[1] Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human
behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method
investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence,
smaller but focused samples are more often needed, rather than large samples.

Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any
more general conclusions are only propositions (informed assertions). Quantitative
methods can be used to seek empirical support for such research hypotheses.

Quantitative Research

In the social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical

investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The
objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models,
theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is
central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection
between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships.

Quantitative research is used widely in social sciences such as psychology, economics,

anthropology, and political science. Research in mathematical sciences such as physics
is also 'quantitative' by definition, though this use of the term differs in context. In the
social sciences, the term relates to empirical methods, originating in both philosophical
positivism and the history of statistics, which contrast qualitative research methods.

Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any
more general conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to
verify, which of such hypotheses are true.

A comprehensive analysis of 1274 articles published in the top two American sociology
journals between 1935 and 2005 found that roughly two thirds of these articles used
quantitative methods.

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of Research. The
hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required
information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then
expands the research in the form of discussion and results. Research and development
is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production
processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of
marketing where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order
to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their
customers. Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since
the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly
how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not
guarantee “more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share.
Q 2. a. How do you evolve research design for exploratory research? Briefly
analyze.

Ans. Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view.
The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such
the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility
in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is
transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally,
the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked
about :

1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful
method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis.
Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already
stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review
and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have
not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the
relevant hypothesis from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made
in one’s area of interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating
the problem. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed
in different research contexts to the area in which he is him working. Sometimes the
works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such
may be looked into by the researcher.

2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain
insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research
problem. For such a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new ideas
may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types
of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the
investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants. By the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the
respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has
not previously considered. Generally, the experience of collecting interview is likely to
be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a
copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also
give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the
various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute
effectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the
problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This,
survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing
different types of research.

3. Analyses of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples are also a fruitful method for

suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little
experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected
instance of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing
records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or
some other approach may be adop0ted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the
study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified
interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure
for evoking insights. Now, what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied?
There is no clear cut answer of it. Experience indicated that for particular problem
certain types of instances are more appropriate than others. One can mention few
examples of ‘insight-stimulating’ cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions
of marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to
another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like. In general,
cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively
more useful while adopting this method of hypothesis formulation. Thus, in an
exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypothesis,
whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential
is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may
be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher.

b. Briefly explain Independent dependent and extraneous variables in a

research design.

Ans. Independent dependent variables : A magnitude that varies is known as a

variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight,
income, etc. qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity.
However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or
absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values
quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But, all
variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values
are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical term, they are also known as
‘discrete variable’. For example, age is a continuous variable; where as the number of
children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the
changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous
variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known
as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variable. For example, if demand
depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the
independent variable. And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices
of substitute commodity, the demand also depends upon them in addition to the own
price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent
variables like own price, income and price of substitute.

Extraneous variable : The independent variables which are not directly related to the
purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous
variable. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there
is relationship between children’s school performance and their self-concepts, in which
case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this
context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not
directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be
known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on
the dependent variable is technically called as an ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a
research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable
completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous
variable or variables.
Q 3. a. Differentiate between ‘Census survey’ and ‘ Sample Survey’.

Ans. Census Survey vs Sample Survey

Surveys are done all over the world to collect information from the populace to arrive at
conclusions that help in improving the products or services of a company. There are
many techniques of survey out of which sample survey and census survey are very
popular. Though there are many similarities between these two methods, there are
many differences in features and also the results obtained. It depends upon time
available and other circumstances to engage in either of the two types of surveys. This
article will discuss the features of two types of surveys to clear the doubts in the minds
of the readers.

Before we begin to differentiate, it is pertinent to note that sample is a portion of the

population whereas census takes into consideration everyone in the population. This
obviously means that a census survey is a much bigger exercise in nature and
procedures than a sample survey. Census survey also is a very time consuming
exercise as information needs to be collected from each and every individual from the
population. On the other hand, sample survey is easier as a representative sample is
taken from the population and the results obtained are extrapolated to fit the entire
population.

There are times and requirements where governments have to indulge in census survey
even if it is time consuming and very expensive as it needs to formulate policies and
welfare programs for the population. For example, when a government has to count
heads of the population, it cannot conduct a sample survey to count the number of
people in the country. But when government is planning on a welfare program for
cancer patients, it can conduct a sample survey of some of the cancer patients and then
extrapolate the results on the section of the population that is undergoing treatment for
cancer.

There are errors in sampling in case of sample survey which can be minimized but
never eliminated. Therefore the results of a sample survey always have a margin for
error whereas census survey is always accurate. However, many times, it is not
possible to carry out census survey which is when sample survey is undertaken.

Census Survey Sample Survey

A census is a statistical enumeration and A survey can be a tally of opinions or

analysis of a certian population answers.

Census Survey is conducted in an A sample survey is asked of a limited

attempted to get an answer from all people group of people
in a geographical area.

Census Survey gathers data from the A sample Survey investigation on takes a
whole group/poulation small part of the group/poulation
Census survey takes each and every sample survey takes a representative
individual sample

Census survey takes more time and Sample Survey takes less time and money
money

Census survey is more accurate. Sample Survey is less accurate.

b. Analyze multi-stage and sequential sampling.

Ans. In multi-stage sampling method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages.
The population is regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and
so forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the
subsequent stage. First, a sample of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from
each of the selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling
units is drawn. The procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population
procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population elements.
Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage. It is appropriate where
the population is scattered over a wider geographical area and no frame or list is
available for sampling. It is also useful when a survey has to be made within a limited
time and cost budget. The major disadvantage is that the procedure of estimating
sampling error and cost advantage is complicated.

Sub-sampling is a part of multi-stage sampling process. In a multi-stage sampling, the

sampling in second and subsequent stage frames is called sub-sampling. Sub-sampling
balances the two conflicting effects of clustering i.e., cost and sampling errors.

Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher

picks a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study,
analyzes the results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.

In sequential sampling technique, there exists another step, a third option. The
researcher can accept the null hypothesis, accept his alternative hypothesis, or select
another pool of subjects and conduct the experiment once again. This entails that the
researcher can obtain limitless number of subjects before finally making a decision
whether to accept his null or alternative hypothesis.

ADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

• The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and sampling
schedule. The sample size can be relatively small of excessively large depending
on the decision making of the researcher. Sampling schedule is also completely
dependent to the researcher since a second group of samples can only be
obtained after conducting the experiment to the initial group of samples.
• As mentioned above, this sampling technique enables the researcher to fine-tune
his research methods and results analysis. Due to the repetitive nature of this
sampling method, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial
parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
 • There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this
sampling technique. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce
extensive.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

• This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only
hope of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a
very large sample size significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire
population.
• The sampling technique is also hardly randomized. This contributes to the very
little degree representativeness of the sampling technique.
• Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique
cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire
population.

Q 4. List down various measures of central tendency and explain the difference
between them?

Ans. The two most common measures of central tendency are the median and the
mean, which can be illustrated with an example. Suppose we draw a sample of five
women and measure their weights. They weigh 100 pounds, 100 pounds, 130 pounds,
140 pounds, and 150 pounds.

 To find the median, we arrange the observations in order from smallest to largest
value. If there is an odd number of observations, the median is the middle value.
If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two
middle values. Thus, in the sample of five women, the median value would be
130 pounds; since 130 pounds is the middle weight.

 The mean of a sample or a population is computed by adding all of the

observations and dividing by the number of observations. Returning to the
example of the five women, the mean weight would equal (100 + 100 + 130 +
140 + 150)/5 = 620/5 = 124 pounds. In the general case, the mean can be
calculated, using one of the following equations:

Population mean = μ = ΣX / N OR Sample mean = x = Σx / n

where ΣX is the sum of all the population observations, N is the number of

population observations, Σx is the sum of all the sample observations, and n is
the number of sample observations.
When statisticians talk about the mean of a population, they use the Greek letter μ to
refer to the mean score. When they talk about the mean of a sample, statisticians use
the symbol x to refer to the mean score.

The Mean vs. the Median

As measures of central tendency, the mean and the median each have advantages and
disadvantages. Some pros and cons of each measure are summarized below.

 The median may be a better indicator of the most typical value if a set of scores
has an outlier. An outlier is an extreme value that differs greatly from other
values.

 However, when the sample size is large and does not include outliers, the mean
score usually provides a better measure of central tendency.

To illustrate these points, consider the following example. Suppose we examine a

sample of 10 households to estimate the typical family income. Nine of the households
have incomes between $20,000 and $100,000; but the tenth household has an annual
income of $1,000,000,000. That tenth household is an outlier. If we choose a measure
to estimate the income of a typical household, the mean will greatly over-estimate the
income of a typical family (because of the outlier); while the median will not.

Effect of Changing Units

Sometimes, researchers change units (minutes to hours, feet to meters, etc.). Here is
how measures of central tendency are affected when we change units.

 If you add a constant to every value, the mean and median increase by the same
constant. For example, suppose you have a set of scores with a mean equal to 5
and a median equal to 6. If you add 10 to every score, the new mean will be 5 +
10 = 15; and the new median will be 6 + 10 = 16.

 Suppose you multiply every value by a constant. Then, the mean and the median
will also be multiplied by that constant. For example, assume that a set of scores
has a mean of 5 and a median of 6. If you multiply each of these scores by 10,
the new mean will be 5 * 10 = 50; and the new median will be 6 * 10 = 60.
Q.5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary
and primary sources to gather the required information.

Primary Sources of Data

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data
that has not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher
on brand awareness, brand preference, and brand loyalty and other aspects of
consumer behavior, from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data is
first hand information collected through various methods such as surveys, experiments
and observation, for the purposes of the project immediately at hand.

The advantages of primary data are –

• It is unique to a particular research study
• It is recent information, unlike published information that is already available

The disadvantages are –

• It is expensive to collect, compared to gathering information from available sources
• Data collection is a time consuming process
• It requires trained interviewers and investigators

Secondary Sources of Data

These are sources containing data, which has been collected and compiled for another
purpose. Secondary sources may be internal sources, such as annual reports, financial
statements, sales reports, inventory records, minutes of meetings and other information
that is available within the firm, in the form of a marketing information system. They may
also be external sources, such as government agencies (e.g. census reports, reports of
government departments), published sources (annual reports of currency and finance
published by the Reserve Bank of India, publications of international organizations such
as the UN, World Bank and International Monetary Fund, trade and financial journals,
etc.), trade associations (e.g. Chambers of Commerce) and commercial services
(outside suppliers of information).

Methods of Data Collection:

The researcher directly collects primary data from its original sources. In this case, the
researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs and
he can collect them when he wants and in the form that he needs it. But the collection of
primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science
research, required data is not available from secondary sources and it has to be directly
gathered from the primary sources.

Primary data has to be gathered in cases where the available data is inappropriate,
inadequate or obsolete. It includes: socio economic surveys, social anthropological
studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social
problems and social institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls,
attitudinal surveys, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness
practice (KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management studies etc.
There are various methods of primary data collection, including surveys, audits and
panels, observation and experiments.
1 Survey Research
A survey is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data
directly from a population or a sample at a particular time. A survey has certain
characteristics:

• It is always conducted in a natural setting. It is a field study.

• It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
• It can cover a very large population.
• It may include an extensive study or an intensive study
• It covers a definite geographical area.

A survey involves the following steps –

• Selection of a problem and its formulation

• Preparation of the research design
• Operation concepts and construction of measuring indexes and scales
• Sampling
• Construction of tools for data collection
• Field work and collection of data
• Processing of data and tabulation
• Analysis of data
• Reporting

There are four basic survey methods, which include:

1. Personal interview
2. Telephone interview
3. Mail survey and
4. Fax survey

Personal Interview
Personal interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be
defined as a two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and an
informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves not
only conversation, but also learning from the respondent’s gestures, facial expressions
and pauses, and his environment.

Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in studies

of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from
illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data,
from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a
person’s opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, experiences and future intentions.
Interviewing is appropriate when qualitative information is required, or probing is
necessary to draw out the respondent fully. Where the area covered for the survey is
compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal
interview is feasible.

Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more
willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential information
may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to
questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp the
behavioral context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator
to seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, which for some reason
or the other the respondents do not want to answer. Interviewing as a method of data
collection has certain characteristics. They are:

• The participants – the interviewer and the respondent – are strangers; hence, the
investigator has to get himself/herself introduced to the respondent in an
appropriate manner.

• The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. It has a fixed

beginning and termination points. The interview proper is a fleeting, momentary
experience for them.

• The interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a conversation

with a specific purpose, viz., obtaining information relevant to a study.

• The interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally.

• The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily
be on a face-to-face basis, because the interview can also be conducted over the
telephone.
• Although the interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it need not
be limited to a single respondent. It can also be conducted with a group of
persons, such as family members, or a group of children, or a group of
customers, depending on the requirements of the study.

• The interview is an interactive process. The interaction between the interviewer

and the respondent depends upon how they perceive each other.

• The respondent reacts to the interviewer’s appearance, behavior, gestures, facial

expression and intonation, his perception of the thrust of the questions and his
own personal needs. As far as possible, the interviewer should try to be closer to
the social-economic level of the respondents.

• The investigator records information furnished by the respondent in the interview.

This poses a problem of seeing that recording does not interfere with the tempo
of conversation.

• Interviewing is not a standardized process like that of a chemical technician; it is

rather a flexible, psychological process.

Telephone Interviewing

Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection. It may be used as a

major method or as a supplementary method. It will be useful in the following situations:

• When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are listed in
telephone directories, e.g. business houses, business executives, doctors and
other professionals.
 • When the study requires responses to five or six simple questions, e.g. a radio or
television program survey.

• When the survey must be conducted in a very short period of time, provided the
units of study are listed in the telephone directory.

• When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g. a survey relating

to trade conducted by a trade association or a chamber of commerce, a survey
relating to a profession conducted by the concerned professional association.

• When the respondents are widely scattered and when there are many call backs
to make.

Group Interviews

A group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary data in which a

number of individuals with a common interest interact with each other. In a personal
interview, the flow of information is multi dimensional. The group may consist of about
six to eight individuals with a common interest. The interviewer acts as the discussion
leader. Free discussion is encouraged on some aspect of the subject under study. The
discussion leader stimulates the group members to interact with each other. The
desired information may be obtained through self-administered questionnaire or
interview, with the discussion serving as a guide to ensure consideration of the areas of
concern. In particular, the interviewers look for evidence of common elements of
attitudes, beliefs, intentions and opinions among individuals in the group. At the same
time, he must be aware that a single comment by a member can provide important
insight. Samples for group interviews can be obtained through schools, clubs and other
organized groups.

Mail Survey

The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method involves
sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return
them by post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only. The mail
questionnaires should be simple so that the respondents can easily understand the
questions and answer them. It should preferably contain mostly closed-ended and
multiple choice questions, so that it could be completed within a few minutes. The
distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered by the
respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them and not by the
investigator, as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-
face conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is
carried out only in writing and this requires more cooperation from the respondents than
verbal communication. The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected
respondents, by collecting the addresses from the telephone directory of the association
or organization to which they belong. The following procedures should be followed –
 • a covering letter should accompany a copy of the questionnaire. It must explain
to the respondent the purpose of the study and the importance of his cooperation
to the success of the project.

• Anonymity must be assured.

• The sponsor’s identity may be revealed. However, when such information may
bias the result, it is not desirable to reveal it. In this case, a disguised
organization name may be used.

• After a few days from the date of mailing the questionnaires to the respondents,
the researcher can expect the return of completed ones from them. The progress
in return may be watched and at the appropriate stage, follow-up efforts can be
made.

The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low in developing countries like
India. Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They are:

11. Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed on quality light
colored paper, so as to attract the attention of the respondent.
2
32. Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style, so
as to attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate objections
and answer them briefly. It is desirable to address the respondent by name.
4
53. Advance information: Advance information can be provided to potential
respondents by a telephone call, or advance notice in the newsletter of the
concerned organization, or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with potential
respondents is more successful than follow-up efforts.
6
74. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used to
induce respondents to complete and return the mail questionnaire.
8
95. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an organization,
they may be approached through someone in that organization known as the
researcher.
10
116. Larger sample size: A larger sample may be drawn than the estimated sample
size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may be
drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective sample size closer to
the required size.
Q 6. a. Explain the role of Graphs and Diagrams?

Ans. In presenting the data of frequency distributions and statistical computations, it is

often desirable to use appropriate forms of graphic presentations. In additions to tabular
forms, graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices
such as diagrams. These forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a
form that can be quickly understood at the glance. The meaning of figures in tabular
form may be difficult for the mind to grasp or retain. “Properly constructed graphs and
charts relieve the mind of burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically
and simply.” They, by emphasizing new and significant relationship, are also useful in
discovering new facts and in developing hypothesis.

The device of graphic presentation is particularly useful when the prospective readers
are non-technical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for
dramatizing certain points about data; for important points can be more effectively
captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutes for
tables, but are additional tools for the researcher to emphasize the research findings.

Graphic presentation must be planned with utmost care and diligence. Graphic forms
used should be simple, clear and accurate and also be appropriate to the data.

Roles of Graphs

Graph is a diagram, as a curve, broken line, or series of bars, representing various

kinds of quantitative information and relationships, such as the successive changes in a
variable quantity or quantities.

The graphs which are most commonly used in visual aids are Bar graphs, Pie Charts,
Line graphs and Scatter diagrams. Graphs play a very important role during
presentations because they make the data easier to understand and interpretations and
comparisons can be made quickly. They are useful in presentations also because they
can summarize large amounts of data and can convey the basic idea of the research.

Graphs really help the audience in absorbing the data as they are simple to interpret
and are appealing. By using graphs, variations and trends in data can be showed
clearly and they show how the values of particular variables change over time. Graphs
also help in determining the relationship between variables.

A graph is an abstract data structure that is meant to implement the graph and
hypergraph concepts from mathematics.

A graph data structure consists of a finite (and possibly mutable) set of ordered pairs,
called edges or arcs, of certain entities called nodes or vertices. As in mathematics,
an edge (x,y) is said to point or go from x to y. The nodes may be part of the graph
structure, or may be external entities represented by integer indices or references.

A graph data structure may also associate to each edge some edge value, such as a
symbolic label or a numeric attribute (cost, capacity, length, etc.).
Roles of Diagrams

Diagram is a graphic representation of an algebraic or geometric relationship. Role

Activity Diagrams (RADs) are a useful way of describing processes. They are valuable
in documenting processes as they are now, and as they might be in the future. The
main part of the SPRINT BPR Methodology describes the ways in which Role Activity
Diagrams can be used within a broader change project. This guide tells you how to
draw Role Activity Diagrams.

The guide will show you that Role Activity Diagrams are a reasonably simple
diagramming technique. It is not difficult to learn how to draw them and it is not difficult
for most people to interpret them.

The guide progresses by introducing each of the main constructs of the Role Activity
Diagram. It describes these in turn, giving advice about the drawing conventions. This is
syntactic guidance. In addition to these syntactic skills, the creation of Role Activity
Diagrams relies upon an ability to scope a study, to decide on the level of interest and to
determine the boundaries of each role in a diagram. This is where the real skill of using
Role Activity Diagrams comes in but such issues are addressed only partially in this
report. In reality the reader will rely upon experience gained through using Role Activity
Diagrams in projects. This experience will teach how Role Activity Diagrams can best
be used, and what they are most useful for.

b. What are the Types and General rules for graphical representation of data?

REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Besides the tabular form, the data may also be presented in some graphic or
diagrammatic form.

“The transformation of data through visual methods like graphs, diagrams, maps and
charts is called representation of data.”

The need of representing data graphically:

Graphics, such as maps, graphs and diagrams, are used to represent large volume of
data.

They are necessary:

• If the information is presented in tabular form or in a descriptive record, it

becomes difficult to draw results.

• Graphical form makes it possible to easily draw visual impressions of data.

• The graphic method of the representation of data enhances our understanding.

• It makes the comparisons easy.

 • Besides, such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer time.

• It is a time consuming task to draw inferences about whatever is being presented

in non–graphical form.

• It presents characteristics in a simplified way.

• These makes it easy to understand the patterns of population growth, distribution

and the density, sex ratio, age–sex composition, occupational structure, etc.

The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories :

• Line Graphs or Charts

• Bar Charts
• Segmental presentations
• Scatter plots
• Bubble charts
• Stock plots
• Pictographs
• Chesnokov Faces

The general rules to be followed in graphic representations are :

1. The chart should have a title placed directly above the chart.

2. The title should be clear, concise and simple and should describe the nature of
the data presented.

3. Numerical data upon which the chart is based should be presented in an

accompanying table.

4. The horizontal line measures time or independent variable and the vertical line
the measured variable.

5. Measurements proceed from left to right on the horizontal line and from bottom to
top on the vertical.

6. Each curve or bar on the chart should be labeled.

7. If there are more than one curves or bar, they should be clearly differentiated
from one another by distinct patterns or colours.

8. The zero point should always be represented and the scale intervals should be
equal.

9. Graphic forms should be used sparingly. Too many forms detract rather than
illuminating the presentation.

10. Graphic forms should follow and not precede the related textual discussion.