ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The Heart

The heart lies in the mediastinum, behind the body of the sternum. The shape of the heart tends to resemble the chest. The heart has

chambers divided into four cavities with the right and leftc hambers (atria and the ventricles) separated by the septum.

The Blood Vessels

There are 3 types of blood vessels: the arteries, the veins and the capillaries. An artery is a vessel that carries blood away from the heart. It carries
oxygenated blood. Small arteries are called arterioles. Veins, on the other hand are vessels that carries blood toward the heart. It contains the
deoxygenated blood. Small veins are called venules. Often, very large venous spaces are called sinuses. Lastly, capillaries are microscopic
vessels that carry blood from small arteries to small veins (arterioles to venules) and back to the heart. The walls of the blood vessels, the arteries
and veins have three main layers:
Tunica adventitia, tunica media and tunica intima. Tunica adventitia which is a fibrous type of vessel is a connective tissue that helps hold vessels
open and prevents tearing of the vessel wall during body movement. Tunica media is a smooth muscle, sandwiched together with a layer of elastic
connective tissue. It permits changes of the blood vessel diameter. It allows the constriction and dilation of the vessels. Last but not the least is the
tunica intima. Tunica intima, which in Latin means inner coat, is made up of endothelium that is continuous with the endothelium that ines the
heart. In arteries, it provides a smooth lining. However in veins it maintains the one-way flow of the blood. The endothelium, which makes up the
thin coat of the capillary, is important because the thinness of the capillary wall allows the exchange of materials between the blood plasma and
the interstitial fluid of the surrounding tissues.

Circulation of the blood in blood vessels

There are two circulatory routes of blood as it flows through the blood vessels: the systemic and the pulmonary circulation. In systemic circulation,
blood flows from the left ventricle of the heart through blood vessels to all parts of the body (except gas exchange tissues of lungs) and back to the
atrium. In pulmonary circulation on the other hand, venous blood moves from the right atrium to right ventricle to pulmonary artery to lung
arterioles and capillaries where gases exchanged; oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via pulmonary veins; from left atrium, blood enters
the left ventricle.

Vasomotor Control Mechanism

Blood distribution patterns, as well as BP can be influenced by factors that control changes in the diameter of arterioles. Such

factor might be said to constitute the vasomotor control mechanism. Like most physiological control mechanisms, it consists of many parts. An

area in the medulla called vasomotor center/ vasoconstrictor center will, when stimulated initiate an impulse outflow via sympathetic fibers that

ends in smooth muscle surrounding resistance vessels, arterioles, and veins of “the blood reservoir” causing their constriction thus the vasomotor

control mechanism plays an important role both in the maintenance of the general BP and in the distribution of blood to areas of special need.

Venous return of the Blood

Venous return refers to the amount of blood that is returned to the heart by the way of veins. Various factors influence venous

return, including the operation of venous pumps that maintains the pressure gradients necessary to keep blood moving into the central veins and

from there the atria of the heart. Changes in the total volume of blood vessels can also alter the venous return.

The return of venous blood to the heart can be influenced by the factors that change the total volume of blood in the circulatory pathway. Stated

simply, the more the total volume of blood, the greater the volume of blood returned to the heart. The mechanism that change the total blood

volume most quickly, making them most useful in maintaining constancy of blood flow, are those that cause water to quickly move into the plasma

or out of the plasma. Most of the mechanisms that accomplish such changes in plasma volume operate by altering the body’s retention of the

water.
 The primary mechanisms for altering the water retention in the body- they are the endocrine reflexes in the body. One is the ADH

mechanism is released in the neurohypophysis and acts on the kidneys

in a way that reduces the amount of water lost by the body. ADH does this by increasing the amount of water that kidneys reabsorb from urine

before the urine is excreted from the body. The more ADH is secreted, the more water will be reabsorbed into the blood, and the greater the blood

plasma volume will become.

Another mechanism that changes the blood plasma volume is the renninangiotensin mechanism of aldosterone secretion. Renin is

an enzyme that is released when the blood pressure in the kidney is low. Renin triggers a series of events that leads to the secretion of

aldosterone. Aldosterone promotes sodium retention by the kidney, which in turn stimulates the osmotic flow of water to the kidney tubules back

into the blood plasma- but only when ADH is present to permit the movement of water. Thus, low blood pressure increases the secretion of

aldosterone, which in turn stimulates the retention of water and thus an increase in blood volume. Another effect of rennin angiotensin is the

vasoconstriction of blood vessels caused by an intermediate compound called angiotensin II. This complements the volume-increasing effects of

themechanism and thus also promotes an increase in overall blood flow. Precision of blood volume control contributes to the precision in

controlling venous return, which in return yields to the precise overall control of blood circulation
EXOCRINE SYSTEM

The exocrine system’s main function is to regulate the volume and composition of body fluids and excrete unwanted materials, but it

is not the only system in the body that is able to excrete unnecessary substances.

Kidneys

The kidneys resemble the lima beans in shape. The average-sized kidney measures around 11cm by 7cm by 3cm. The left kidney is often larger

than the right. The kidneys are highly vascular organs. Approximately, one-fifth of

the blood pumped fromthe heart goes to the kidneys. The kidneys process blood plasma and form urine from waste to be excreted andemoved
from the body. These functions are vital because they maintain the homeostatic balance of the body. The kidneys maintain the fluid-electrolyte and

acid-base balance. In addition, they also influence the rate of secretion of the hormones ADH and aldosterone.

Microscopic functional units called nephrons make up the bulk of the kidney. The nephron is uniquely suited to its function of blood plasma

processing and urine function. A nephron contains certain structures in which fluid flows through them and they are as follows: renal corpuscle,

Bowman’s capsule, proximal convulted tubule, Loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and the collecting tube. The Bowman’s capsule is a cup-

shaped mouth of a nephron. It is usually formed by two layers of epithelial cells. Fluids, electrolytes and waste products that pass through the

porous glomerular capillaries and enter the space that constitute the glomerular filtrate, which will be processed in the nephron to form urine.

The Glomerulus is the body’s well-known capillary network and is surely one of the most important ones for survival. Glomerulus

and Bowman’s capsule together are called renal corpuscle. The permeability of the glomerular endothelium increases sufficiently to allow plasma

proteins to filter out into the capsule.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system performs their regulatory functions by means of chemical messenger sent to specific cells. The endocrine

system, secreting cells send hormones by way of the bloodstream to signal specific target cells throughout the body. Hormones diffuse into the

blood to be carried to nearly every point in the body. The endocrine glands secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood. There are two

classifications of hormones: steroid hormones and non-steroid hormones. The steroid hormones which are manufactured by the endocrine cells

from cholesterol, is an important lipid in the human body. Non-steroid hormones are synthesized primarily from amino acids rather from the

cholesterol. Non-steroid hormones are further subdivided into two: protein hormones and glycoprotein hormones. AldosteroneIts primary function

is the maintenance of the sodium homeostasis in the blood byincreasing the sodium reabsorption in the kidneys. It is secreted from the adrenal

cortex; it triggers the release of ADH which results to the conservation of water by the kidney. Aldosterone secretion is controlled by the rennin-

angiotensin mechanism.
ESTROGEN

It is secreted by the cells of the ovarian cells that promote and maintain the female sexual characteristics.

Progesterone

It is secreted by the corpus luteum. It is also known as a pregnancy- promoting steroid and it prevents the expulsion of the fetus

in the uterus.
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

It is secreted in the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary); it literally opposes the formation and production of a large urine

volume. It helps the body to retain and conserve water from the tubules of the kidney and returned to theblood.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system produces gametes may unite with a male gamete to form the first cell of the offspring. The

female reproductive system also provides protection and nutrition to the developing offspring. The most essential organ is the ovary which carries

the ova. The uterus, the fallopian tubes and the vulva are accessory organs.

Ovaries

It is an almond-shape organ. It contains the ova and is responsible in expelling the ova. It also produces estrogen and progesterone.

Fallopian Tubes

It usually measures approximately 10- 12 cm. It has two parts: the ampullae and the fimbriae. The ampullae which is the largest part is

where the fertilization takes place. The fimbriae on the other hand, are responsible for the transportation of the ovum from ovary to uterus. It holds

the ovary. UterusThe uterus is a pear shaped organ and has three parts: the fundus (upper), corpus (body), and the isthmus (lower). It is known as

the organ for menstruation. When pregnant, it gives nourishment to the growing fetus.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY